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A naturalistic investigation of former Olympic cyclist's cognitive strategies for coping with exertion pain during performance
... EIP management is a prominent psychological demand in endurance sports. For instance, former Olympic cyclists reported that pain imposed the greatest psychological demand on them (Kress & Statler, 2007). Similarly, endurance athletes indicated that pain was particularly salient when competing and training at high intensity (McCormick et al., 2018). ...
... There is a scarcity of studies examining the psychological strategies used by endurance athletes to manage EIP. To the authors' knowledge, Kress and Statler (2007) conducted the only study investigating this phenomenon. Nine former American male Olympic cyclists with a mean age of 37.8 were recruited and participated in a semistructured interview. ...
... To the authors' knowledge, this was the first study to integrate a self-regulation framework and a multisport sample composed of female and male athletes who were still competing at the elite level to provide more insight into this topic. Before this study, only Kress and Statler (2007) investigated this phenomenon using a sample of former male Olympic cyclists. ...
There is a paucity of research examining exercise-induced pain (EIP) management in elite endurance sports. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate how elite endurance athletes experience and manage EIP to help inform the work of Mental Performance Consultants. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 female and three male athletes (Mage = 23.73, SD = 2.31) competing in track and field (i.e., 600–1,500 m; n = 5), swimming (i.e., 200–400 m; n = 5), and canoe kayak (i.e., 500–1,000 m; n = 5). Given the centrality of self-regulation in elite sports and in the management of internal states (e.g., EIP), the social cognitive model of self-regulation was used to guide this study and to derive practical implications. The template analysis generated (a) two themes (i.e., sensations, beliefs) and six subthemes (e.g., tightness, progressive) related to the experience of EIP as well as (b) three themes (i.e., preparation, execution, evaluation) and 17 subthemes (e.g., accept and commit to EIP, direct attention away from EIP, reflect using a training journal) related to the management of EIP. Findings suggest that the experience of EIP is highly cognitive and generally perceived as detrimental to performance if not effectively managed. Athletes used several psychological strategies to prepare to experience EIP, reduce the aversive effects of EIP while performing, and learn from their EIP management strategies to improve their coping capacity. Importantly, combining self-regulation and mindfulness strategies appears to be valuable to successfully manage EIP.
Lay summary: This study examined how elite track and field, swimming, and canoe kayak athletes experience and manage exercise-induced pain when training at a high intensity and competing. Beliefs and sensations influenced the experience of EIP and athletes used 17 psychological strategies to manage this prominent psychological demand.
• IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
• Mental Performance Consultants are encouraged to:
• Emphasize the development of preparation strategies to manage EIP as this phase seems to be a priority. Specifically, accepting and committing to experiencing EIP appears to be essential.
• Help endurance athletes focus on performance-relevant cues (e.g., cadence, technique, relaxing, race plan) and the present moment (e.g., one repetition/segment at a time) when experiencing EIP.
• Develop a brief guided self-reflection tool that endurance athletes can use to assess the experience and management of EIP.
... Taking control over those feelings is the only helpful method of coping with them. Basically, cycle races require both physical and mental effort [29]. One of the elements of a runner's training involves increasing the individual tolerance of suffering, that is, increasing the threshold of pain tolerance. ...
... Another effective technique is visualization during which competitors imagine not only the approaching beginning of the race, but also the times of crises that may occur during the race. Knowing when to expect the difficulties makes it easier for the competitor to prepare and overcome them [29]. The method based on goal setting involves planning and then implementation of the plans [45]. ...
... A positive attitude and internal dialogue are very significant in increasing pain tolerance [48]. For-mer Olympic cyclists used positive and reassuring sentences in their internal dialogue -they reminded themselves that they had appropriately prepared for the competition, their pain is only short-term and that they will certainly cope with it as every moment brings them closer to the desired finish line [29 ]. It is worth noting that negative thoughts, such as "I cannot stand it," result in a lower tolerance of pain, while an internal dialogue based on such statements as "I can do it" alleviates pain sensations and increases pain tolerance [45]. ...
... Several decades of research in the sport domain has generated a wealth of evidence demonstrating the positive effect of psychological skills usage in relation to performance (Hanton, Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004;Kress & Statler, 2007;Patrick & Hrycaiko, 1998;Sheard & Golby, 2006;Thelwell et al., 2001). However, only in the past decade have there been attempts in sport to enhance mental toughness via PST interventions in sport (Bell et al., 2013;Gucciardi et al., 2009); therefore, it would seem prudent to adopt a PST perspective within a military context. ...
... The current study used a quasi-experimental trial with experimental (PST) and control conditions to examine the impact of a psychological skills intervention on observer-rated mental toughness and performance on an arduous mil-itary selection course. The psychological skills intervention targeted the four basic psychological skills of goal-setting, relaxation and arousal regulation, self-talk strategies, and imagery/ mental rehearsal, based on their previously demonstrated efficacy with respect to performance enhancement in competitive sport and military contexts (Arthur et al., 2015;Kress & Statler, 2007;Patrick & Hrycaiko, 1998;Sheard & Golby, 2006;Thelwell et al., 2001). P-Company provided all participants with the same opportunity to demonstrate mentally tough behavior under pressure, with prior individual fitness and the recruits' leadership climate being isolated as covariates. ...
... Although it is unclear how each of these skills directly impacted on the recruits' performance during P-Company, as a consequence of the PST, the recruits' ability to recognize and regulate arousal levels and reduce the debilitating effects of anxiety is likely to have been a key factor in achieving optimal performance (Hardy et al., 1996;Krane & Williams, 2010). It is also likely that the recruits in the experimental group were able to use relaxation techniques to reduce preperformance anxiety prior to each event and regulate arousal levels in order to cope with the extreme physical effort experienced on P-Company (Kress & Statler, 2007;Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001). We did not measure anxiety or arousal levels in recruits, so we cannot be sure of this; however, future research may be warranted to explore this intriguing possibility. ...
Mental toughness has been shown to have relevance in a wide range of performance-related fields where distractions, anxiety, and fear are common challenges; however, there remains a dearth of research in the military where the construct has obvious utility. A quasi-experimental trial with treatment (n = 83) and control (n = 90) conditions examined the impact of a psychological skills intervention on observer-rated mental toughness and performance in an elite military context. The results revealed significant differences in the treatment group between pre- and postintervention in the use of psychological skills and observer-rated mental toughness. Furthermore, during the selection course, significant differences were evidenced between the treatment and control groups in the use of relaxation and imagery and individual performance. (PsycINFO Database Record
... Pain can be a major detriment to athletic performance. Kress and Statler (2007) explained that pain during performance can be a product of factors such as an uncomfortable heart rate level, lactate build-up, depletion of glycogen and dehydration. It has been suggested that effective mental strategies, which aid the athlete in tolerating higher levels of pain during their performance, predict better performance from the athlete (Kress and Statler, 2007). ...
... Kress and Statler (2007) explained that pain during performance can be a product of factors such as an uncomfortable heart rate level, lactate build-up, depletion of glycogen and dehydration. It has been suggested that effective mental strategies, which aid the athlete in tolerating higher levels of pain during their performance, predict better performance from the athlete (Kress and Statler, 2007). One such strategy is imagery, which has been shown to expedite the process of injury rehabilitation, increase pain tolerance, improve performance and even lessen a participant's perception of pain (Alden et al., 2001;De Pascalis and Cacace, 2005;Driediger et al., 2006;Kress and Statler, 2007). ...
... It has been suggested that effective mental strategies, which aid the athlete in tolerating higher levels of pain during their performance, predict better performance from the athlete (Kress and Statler, 2007). One such strategy is imagery, which has been shown to expedite the process of injury rehabilitation, increase pain tolerance, improve performance and even lessen a participant's perception of pain (Alden et al., 2001;De Pascalis and Cacace, 2005;Driediger et al., 2006;Kress and Statler, 2007). While the research investigating the effects of imagery on pain is promising, significant questions remain. ...
... Less attention has been paid to the self-talk used by athletes during tasks of longer duration, such as long distance swimming, cycling, and marathon running. Because long duration tasks occur over greater periods of time and often rely on repetitive movements, it is possible that the athletes involved in such tasks have more time for self-talk and both experience and use self-talk differently than those completing shorter tasks (Kress & Statler, 2007;LaForge-MacKenziea & Sullivan, 2014). Kress and Statler (2007) examined the pain-related coping strategies of Olympic cyclists in road racing, an event of long duration, and found that positive selftalk was widely used. ...
... Because long duration tasks occur over greater periods of time and often rely on repetitive movements, it is possible that the athletes involved in such tasks have more time for self-talk and both experience and use self-talk differently than those completing shorter tasks (Kress & Statler, 2007;LaForge-MacKenziea & Sullivan, 2014). Kress and Statler (2007) examined the pain-related coping strategies of Olympic cyclists in road racing, an event of long duration, and found that positive selftalk was widely used. Such positive self-talk included: "Hey, I'm trained for this. ...
... marathon runners indicated the use of motivational self-talk with a negative valence (i.e., "Don't be a wimp, this isn't that hard"). They also described the use of short-term goal setting and incentive self-talk, both of which may serve to motivate and inspire continued exertion even in the face of the pain and fatigue of endurance performance (Kress & Statler, 2007). It seems possible that goal setting and incentive self-talk have been overlooked in laboratory research because these types of self-talk are more relevant for athletes competing in tasks of long duration. ...
Much of the research on self-talk in sport has focused on the effects of assigned self-talk (e.g., instructional self-talk, motivational self-talk) on the performance of laboratory tasks and/or tasks of short duration (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011; Tod, Hardy, & Oliver, 2011). The purpose of this study was to explore more fully the self-talk of athletes involved in competition over an extended period of time. Marathon runners (N = 483) were surveyed. The majority (88%) of runners, those who indicated that they use self-talk during marathons, completed open-ended items describing their self-talk while competing. Runners reported using a rich variety of motivational self-talk as well as spiritual self-talk and mantras, types of self-talk less widely studied in the literature. Given the findings of this research, future studies exploring self-talk use during competition in sporting events of long duration seems warranted.
... In relation to cycling, Spindler and colleagues (2018) noted there were few studies related to stress and coping. Existing qualitative work examining stress and coping in cyclists from Olympic to recreational levels are insightful (e.g., Kress & Statler, 2007;McCormick et al., 2016); nonetheless, future investigations could better represent the dynamic, reciprocal and temporal nature of the experience. Current literature allows us to piece together snapshots of stress and coping in cycling, but the situated, experiential factors within women's racing, in particular, remain a blind spot in our understanding. ...
... Previous literature has identified stressors including pre and in-race anxiety and pain during cycling competition (Baghurst, 2012;Kress & Statler, 2007), and in each scene competition and organisational stressors can be identified. Significant competition stressors mirror previous findings such as preparation, injury, expectation and rivalry (Mellalieu et al., 2009), as well as self-induced pressure (McGreary et al., 2021). ...
Objective
The purpose of this study was to use narrative inquiry to explore professional women cyclist's stories of stress and coping from their race experiences.
Method
Semi-structured interviews with 6 professional cyclists provided powerful accounts of their racing experiences. Pragmatist narrative inquiry emphasises the key characteristics of these experiences, which coupled with a reflexive creative analytic practice led to individualised first-person stories being constructed which were combined into an ethnodrama to tell the stories of a fictional women's bicycle race.
Results
Tension Lines: The Invisible Weight of the Ride is an ethnodrama portraying riders' situated racing experiences. It shows how appraisal moves beyond a focus on cognition and isolated experiences of stress and coping by providing insights into relationships between the different contexts that interplay within professional women's cycling.
Conclusion
This study provides novel insight into the stress and coping experience through the application of narrative inquiry and pragmatism. It details situated, nuanced interpretations, of stressors experienced by professional women cyclists to show the complex process of coping whilst racing. As non-participant elite women cyclists suggested that they found the ethnodrama to authentically represent their experiences, the findings could serve to emotionally connect and generate awareness with athlete support personnel of the complex relationships between stressors and coping.
Open Access here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102876
... Previous research indicated that the vibration treatments can be used in sports practice, for example, as an alternative method supporting the process of mental regeneration after intense physical exercise. This type of physical effort is a big stressor not only modifying the functional state of the human body (Laing et al., 2008) but it also influences emotional state (Uher, 2018) and subjective muscle pain sensations (Kress and Statler, 2007). How quickly an athlete returns to an optimal mental and physical state after a sports performance (e.g., after a tennis match) may determine its outcome during the next performance (e.g., the next day). ...
... Prioritizing sleep, rest, nutrition, hydration, and joint range of motion during the recovery phase is fundamental, and then consideration should be given to restorative interventions that alleviate the specific physiological stress arising at any point in the recovery continuum (Jäger et al., 2008;Kellmann et al., 2018). To support mental regeneration, athletes introduce psychological techniques into their training routine, such as: progressive muscle relaxation (Battaglini et al., 2022), mindfulness (Coimbra et al., 2021) imagery (Di Corrado et al., 2020), awareness, positive self-talk and acceptance of pain as part of the sport (Kress and Statler, 2007), but they also use other methods, such as massage, which is considered the most effective alternative to psychological methods (Dupuy et al., 2018). However, the athlete does not always have the time or specialist help to undergo all the suggested psychological and rehabilitation procedures. ...
Good mental preparation of an athlete plays an important role in achieving optimal sports results. An athlete who enters a competition should not feel fatigue resulting from intense physical exercise. Therefore, new and effective methods are being sought that could help accelerate the process of both physical and mental regeneration. Vibrotherapy is one of them. The aim of the study was to determine the optimal frequency of vibration, its duration and the position in which the subjects were placed during the treatments, in relation to the reduction of subjectively perceived exertion muscle pain, mental discomfort, emotional states and the level of cognitive processes that were disturbed by intense physical activity. Sixteen healthy male volunteers were involved in this study. The participants were assessed for their aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Each of the subjects performed a set of intensive physical exercises and then underwent vibrotherapy treatment. In random order, each of the men tested the effectiveness of eight combinations of frequency, duration, and body position. Psychological tests were conducted for each combination: frequency, duration of treatment, and position during treatment, in four stages: (1) before the start of the experiment (baseline POMS measurements), (2) immediately after the exercise (VAS scale, scale examining psychological discomfort and STROOP test), (3) immediately after the vibration treatment (POMS measurements, VAS scale, scale examining psychological discomfort and STROOP test), (4) 24 h after the vibration treatment (VAS scale examining subjective assessment of perceived pain and psychological discomfort). Based on the results, it was concluded that all the studied variables improved significantly over time (after the vibration treatment and 24 h after training). In addition, a statistically significant interaction measurement × frequency was noted for vigor scale (52HZ favored greater improvement in this state), and a statistically significant interaction was found for measurement × time for the VAS scale (p < 0.05) – the lower pain value was indicated 24 h after the 10-min vibration treatment. The type of frequency used, position, and duration of the treatment did not play a statistically significant role in changing STROOP test results and severity of psychological discomfort (p > 0.05).
... Given the high dropout rate in ultra-endurance sports, a related issue worthy of exploration is how athletes persevere and cope with discomfort and pain. Previous studies have reported that high-level athletes use effective, specific cognitive strategies such as social support and active thoughts [27,58,59,60]. Baker and Sedgwick [61] showed that expert triathletes had dif- ferent cognitive characteristics from their less experienced counterparts. ...
... Furthermore, in line with previous studies [27,58,59,60], our results show that runners who finish the race use specific coping strategies, notably seeking support. Interestingly, our findings also indicate that avoidance coping strategies increase the risk of dropout and can thus be considered as risk factors. ...
Objective
Although research on the physiological and psychological factors of endurance performance has been extensive, the factors related to dropping out of ultra-trail races have not been well documented. The aim of this study was to examine psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trail runners.
Methods
Two hundred and twenty-one volunteer athletes completed a survey that included measures of: (a) motivational variables (self-determined motivation, basic needs satisfaction, achievement goals), (b) theory of planned behavior constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy and intention to finish the race), and (c) coping strategies in sport.
Results
The results showed that finishers had higher scores for self-efficacy and intention to finish the race than withdrawers, whereas withdrawers had higher scores for avoidance coping. Multiple logistic regression showed that the number of started and finished ultra-trail races (OR, 0.44; 95% CI 0.22–0.88; p<0.02), self-efficacy (OR, 2.03; 95% CI 1.06–3.89; p<0.04), intention to finish the race (OR, 0.34; 95% CI 0.16–0.71; p<0.004), mastery-approach goals (OR, 0.56; 95% CI 0.31–1.00; p<0.05), and coping strategies of seeking social support (OR, 0.43; 95% CI 0.26–0.71; p<0.001) were associated with a lower risk of race dropout, whereas avoidance coping strategies (OR, 2.26; 95% CI 1.46–3.52; p<0.001) were associated with an increased dropout rate.
Conclusion
Interventions promoting self-efficacy constructs and specific coping strategies might contribute to preventing dropout in ultra-trailers.
... Participation in endurance events is characterised by some common demands (McCormick, Meijen, & Marcora, 2016). First, endurance athletes experience various exerciserelated sensations during training and events, such as muscle pain (aching and burning muscles), injury-related pain, heavy breathing, and cramping discomfort, that make it difficult for the athlete to continue (Christensen, Brewer, & Hutchinson, 2015;Hollander & Acevedo, 2000;Holt, Lee, Kim, & Klein, 2014;Kress & Statler, 2007;McCormick et al., 2016;McCormick, Meijen, & Marcora, 2018;Samson, Simpson, Kamphoff, & Langlier, 2017;Schumacher, Becker, & Wiersma, 2016;Simpson, Post, Young, & Jensen, 2014). Second, endurance athletes need to make difficult pacing decisions to achieve their performance and outcome goals, such as to finish, to achieve a specified time, or to achieve a position in the standings. ...
... This argument is consistent with selfreports by endurance athletes (e.g. Kress & Statler, 2007), although endurance athletes' use of pain-related words are often broad and partly reflect other exercise-related sensations such as effort (e.g. Simpson et al., 2014). Although perceptions of effort and pain during endurance exercise are correlated and increase alongside one another (e.g. ...
There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until recently, research typically lacked a theoretical underpinning, and contemporary research is particularly informed by the psychobiological model of endurance performance. In this critical review, we propose that psychological theories relating to self-regulation, particularly self-efficacy theory and the process model of emotion regulation, could shed more light on how endurance performance is determined and lead to additional understanding of how psychological interventions can be used. We argue that people encounter fewer stressors in most experimental studies than are encountered before and during real-life events. In addition, we argue that most research conducted to date has focused on the forethought and performance phases of self-regulation, rather than the self-reflection phase, and research has not considered the cyclical nature of self-regulation. We also argue that if research participants are not endurance athletes, then their motivation may not be self-determined, and self-regulatory learning may not take place. Recommendations are given for future research, and evidence-based guidance is offered on enhancing performance and improving the quality of experience for endurance athletes.
... This is important because pain is ultimately a protective function that serves as a warning of actual or impending tissue damage and therefore a stimulus to disengage with the action or behaviour that is causing it [18]. Therefore, the drive to disengage with the exercise task, or reduce intensity to reduce the level of pain, will become increasingly stronger as the exercise continues [14,19]. ...
... It is important to note that pain tolerance (i.e. the maximum level of perceived pain that someone is able to tolerate, or the duration someone is willing to be exposed to a given pain intensity) is very different to pain threshold (the level at which a stimulus is initially perceived as pain), and the distinction between these should be emphasised and assessed with appropriate methods so that the role of pain in exercise performance is better understood. However, even when this distinction is made, the impact of pain on exercise performance can be difficult to empirically test, so that despite the clear reference to its significance by competitors [19,20], the experimental evidence supporting this notion is surprisingly limited and often inconsistent. A meta-analysis examining pain perception differences between athletes and active controls showed that in most well controlled studies, athletes exhibited a higher pain tolerance, despite similar pain thresholds [21]. ...
Models of endurance performance now recognise input from the brain, including an athlete’s ability to cope with various non-pleasurable perceptions during exercise, such as pain and temperature. Exercise training can reduce perceptions of both pain and temperature over time, partly explaining why athletes generally have a higher pain tolerance, despite a similar pain threshold, compared with active controls. Several strategies with varying efficacy may ameliorate the perceptions of pain (e.g. acetaminophen, transcranial direct current stimulation and transcutaneous electrical stimulation) and temperature (e.g. menthol beverages, topical menthol products and other cooling strategies, especially those targeting the head) during exercise to improve athletic performance. This review describes both the theory and practical applications of these interventions in the endurance sport setting, as well as the potentially harmful health consequences of their use.
... In addition, ultramarathon runners reported that muscle cramping and injuries, gastrointestinal problems, and thoughts about quitting were key stressors during a 125-kilometre ultramarathon (Holt et al., 2014). Furthermore, elite-level cyclists reported that exertion pain is the greatest psychological demand (Kress & Statler, 2007), and many recreational marathon runners report "hitting the wall" (Buman et al., 2008). Anecdotally, endurance athletes in various sports and distances also experience some common psychological demands (e.g. Taylor, 1995;Tuffey, 2000). ...
... This broad demand manifests differently in different endurance events. For example, injury-related pain, such as hurting feet and knees, is a prominent exercise sensation for athletes competing over longer distances such as ultramarathons (Holt et al., 2014), and intense exercise-induced muscle pain is a prominent exercise sensation for athletes who train and compete at high intensity (Kress & Statler, 2007). Unpleasant sensations indicate that an athlete is pushing their self, and participants recognised that they need to persevere to achieve physiological adaptation from training or a desired outcome from an event. ...
This study aimed to identify psychological demands that are commonly experienced by endurance athletes so that these demands could inform the design of performance-enhancing psychological interventions for endurance athletes. Focus group interviews were conducted with 30 recreational endurance athletes of various sports (running, cycling, and triathlon), distances, and competitive levels to explore the psychological demands of training, competition preparation, and competition participation. An inductive thematic analysis was used to identify psychological demands that were experienced across sports, distances, and competitive levels. Seven themes captured demands that were commonly experienced away from the competitive environment (time investment and lifestyle sacrifices, commitment to training sessions, concerns about optimising training, and exercise sensations during training), preceding an endurance event (pre-event stressors), or during an event (exercise sensations, optimising pacing, and remaining focused despite adversity). Interventions that could be delivered to recreational athletes, who do not typically have access to a sport psychologist, are suggested. Experimental research examining the efficacy of interventions that help endurance athletes to cope with the reported psychological demands is encouraged.
... It has previously been suggested that the tolerance of EIP is an important prerequisite for endurance performance (Mauger, 2013;2104). While this notion is well-supported through interviews with athletes and coaches (Kress & Statler, 2007), given the emphasis placed on this parameter there is comparatively little empirical evidence to convincingly substantiate these beliefs. While studies have been able to demonstrate that EIP is proportional to exercise intensity (Cook et al., 1997), and that using an intervention to reduce pain (such as caffeine or paracetamol) can improve exercise performance (Hudson et al., 2008;Jenkins et al., 2008;Mauger et al., 2010Mauger et al., , 2014Astorino et al., 2011Astorino et al., , 2012Foster et al., 2014), the design of these studies generally mean that while performance can be improved, differences in pain between conditions are masked (i.e., not different). ...
... However, it is well-known that perceived pain is ultimately a subjective experience, which is not always dependent on the size of the nociceptive signal. Therefore, while the physiological parameters of endurance performance may dictate the peripheral conditions for pain, how this is perceived and acted on by the athlete will depend on a multitude of other psychological and perceptual factors (Kress & Statler, 2007). This suggests that endurance performance is not solely a product of the peripheral factors of the Joyner and Coyle (2008) model (which may dictate the state of the peripheral muscle for a given velocity), and that the pain and discomfort arising from the interpretation of the intramuscular environment (and its effect on decision making) should be recognized. ...
To compare the predictive capacity of experimental pain and exercised-induced pain (EIP) on exercise performance. Thirty-two recreationally active male (n = 23) and female (n = 9) participants were recruited. Participants completed measures of pain tolerance by cold pressor test (CPT), pain pressure threshold via algometry (PPT), and EIP tolerance using an RPE clamp trial. A VO2max test provided traditional predictors of performance [VO2max , gas-exchange threshold (GET), peak power output (PPO)]. Finally, participants completed a 16.1-km cycling time trial (TT). No correlation was found between experimental pain measures (CPT, PPT) and TT performance. However, there was a significant correlation between EIP tolerance and TT performance (R = -0.83, P < 0.01). Regression analysis for pain and physiological predictor variables (mean pain in CPT, PPT, EIP tolerance, VO2max , PPO, GET) revealed that a significant model (P < 0.01) emerged when only PPO (Adjusted R(2) = 0.739) and EIP tolerance (ΔR(2) = 0.075) were used to predict TT performance. These findings suggest that EIP tolerance is an important factor in endurance performance. However, PPT and CPT have limited ability to assess this relationship, and so their use in EIP research should be treated with caution.
... One cognitive factor which emerged from their research was "changing goals." Kress and Statler (2007) reported that Olympic cyclists used goals as a cognitive strategy to deal with exertion pain during performance. These studies support the addition of a task-relevant thoughts category. ...
... Lander reported that all six of the runners utilized positive self-talk while racing. Kress and Statler (2007) cited positive self-talk as a cognitive strategy employed by Olympic cyclists to push through exertion pain. Popular press running magazines regularly run articles on how to use self-talk to improve running, for example, "Choice words" (Douban, 2007) or "Positive self-talk strategies for distance runners" (Reed, 2002). ...
Many different measures have been used to investigate the content of persons' attentional focus during exercise. Attentional focus has typically been divided into two categories: association and dissociation. Subsequent researchers suggested adding an internal/external dimension. We proposed a number of changes regarding how to measure attentional focus, including additional subcategories and a new measure: Measure of Attentional Focus (MAF). Previous research was discussed in order to establish the rationale for the development of the various components of this measure. Cognitive interviews with coaches and athletes were conducted before finalizing the MAF. Finally, results from a field study employing the MAF are reported. Two hundred and twenty-seven participants completed the MAF following a 5k race or routine workout. The validity of the MAF was examined, and comparisons were made between the results based on the MAF and the traditional dichotomized model of attentional focus. Novel descriptive and correlational findings afforded by the new attentional focus measurement approach are discussed. Last, limitations and practical applications are delineated.
... En investigaciones recientes, la diversidad de estrategias de afrontamiento parece anunciar futuras tendencias que sean capaces de explicar la complejidad existente entre los distintos elementos involucrados en este ámbito de estudio. Kress y Statler (2007), en un intento por describir las estrategias cognitivas empleadas por ciclistas olímpicos para afrontar la estimulación aversiva impuesta por la tarea (carrera en ciclismo), concluyeron que estas estrategias eran abundantes en número, y que, en general, estos ciclistas tendían a asociar más que a disociar. Tras un análisis inductivo del contenido obtenido a través de entrevistas, se obtuvieron 222 expresiones de los ciclistas para describir el esfuerzo percibido (recordando experiencias en competición y entrenamientos). ...
... Similarmente, el efecto de las variables disposicionales del individuo (deseo de impresionar a los demás, exagerar los logros personales, locus de control, etc.), las condiciones del entorno (físicas y sociales) o las características de la tarea (metabolismo solicitado) en ambos esfuerzo y tolerancia percibida, merecen futuras investigaciones. Evidencias recientes (Kress y Statler, 2007;Buman, Omli, Giacobbi y Brewer, 2008), sugieren que la percepción de esfuerzo es afrontada a través del empleo de un conjunto de estrategias más allá de la clasificación inicial de Morgan y Pollock (1977). Así, dimensiones como la percepción de la activación y el afecto (Ekkekakis y cols. ...
We revise the scientific literature during the last 30 years regarding the use of mediating cognitive strategies and perceived effort in aerobic endurance. It is suggested three stages in the development of this matter: The first stage comprises the classification by Morgan and Pollock (1977) and the Cognitive Training Program by Schomer (1986). The second stage constitutes the Bidimensional Model by Stevinson and Biddle (1999) and the Social-Cognitive Perspective of Perceived Effort developed by Tenenbaum (2001). The third stage focuses on the new research directions towards the multidimensionality of perceived effort. In conclusion, findings imply that perception of effort is a consequence of several physiological and psychological determinants. Future research on the multidimensionality of perceived effort appears warranted.
... En investigaciones recientes, la diversidad de estrategias de afrontamiento parece anunciar futuras tendencias que sean capaces de explicar la complejidad existente entre los distintos elementos involucrados en este ámbito de estudio. Kress y Statler (2007), en un intento por describir las estrategias cognitivas empleadas por ciclistas olímpicos para afrontar la estimulación aversiva impuesta por la tarea (carrera en ciclismo), concluyeron que estas estrategias eran abundantes en número, y que, en general, estos ciclistas tendían a asociar más que a disociar. Tras un análisis inductivo del contenido obtenido a través de entrevistas, se obtuvieron 222 expresiones de los ciclistas para describir el esfuerzo percibido (recordando experiencias en competición y entrenamientos). ...
... Similarmente, el efecto de las variables disposicionales del individuo (deseo de impresionar a los demás, exagerar los logros personales, locus de control, etc.), las condiciones del entorno (físicas y sociales) o las características de la tarea (metabolismo solicitado) en ambos esfuerzo y tolerancia percibida, merecen futuras investigaciones. Evidencias recientes (Kress y Statler, 2007;Buman, Omli, Giacobbi y Brewer, 2008), sugieren que la percepción de esfuerzo es afrontada a través del empleo de un conjunto de estrategias más allá de la clasificación inicial de Morgan y Pollock (1977). Así, dimensiones como la percepción de la activación y el afecto (Ekkekakis y cols. ...
115 We revise the scientific literature during the last 30 years regarding the use of mediating cognitive strategies and perceived effort in aerobic endurance. It is suggested three stages in the development of this matter: The first stage comprises the classification by Morgan and Pollock (1977) and the Cognitive Training Program by Schomer (1986). The second stage constitutes the Bidimensional Model by Stevinson and Biddle (1999) and the Social-Cognitive Perspective of Perceived Effort developed by Tenenbaum (2001). The third stage focuses on the new research directions towards the multidimensionality of perceived effort. In conclusion, findings imply that perception of effort is a consequence of several physiological and psychological determinants. Future research on the multidimensionality of perceived effort appears warranted.
... Thus, when defining suffering in endurance sport it is first important to consider the construct of exertion pain, as it relates to negative emotion and often coincides with the competitive suffering experience (Cherny, Coyle, & Foley, 1994). Exertion pain is a prevalent experience in endurance sport, and is defined as injury-free pain felt as the result of a prolonged energy-expending effort (Kress & Statler, 2007;Masters & Lambert, 1989). There are two aspects of the exertion pain experience. ...
... Other research has identified the coping that is employed by endurance athletes during competition in general. For example, cyclists use a variety of coping efforts to manage exertion pain such as self-talk, accepting the pain, maintaining optimism, trying to maintain control of the pace, breathing control, and focusing on technique (Kress & Statler, 2007). Meanwhile, Buman et al., (2008) indicated marathon runners" strategies for managing "hitting the wall" and categorized the coping efforts into four dimensions: ...
... Road cycling is a team sport that places high mental and physical demands on performers and teams. However, just one empirical sport psychology study has approached this sport (Kress and Statler, 2007), while the sport psychology literature has little reference to team mental toughness. Using Personal Construct Theory (Kelly, 1955) as a general framework, this study aims to conceptualise team mental toughness in the context of road cycling by answering to fundamental questions: a) how can team mental toughness be defined?; and b) what are the essential characteristics of the ideal mentally tough team? ...
... Furthermore, very little empirical research has examined this demanding sport. One exception is Kress and Statler (2007) who explored Olympic cyclists' cognitive strategies for coping with exertion pain during performance. ...
Road cycling is a team sport that places high mental and physical demands on performers and teams. However, just one empirical sport psychology study has approached this sport (Kress and Statler, 2007), while the sport psychology literature has little reference to team mental toughness. Using Personal Construct Theory (Kelly, 1955) as a general framework, this study aims to conceptualise team mental toughness in the context of road cycling by answering to fundamental questions: a) how can team mental toughness be defined?; and b) what are the essential characteristics of the ideal mentally tough team? Five professional road cyclists and three sport directors (a.k.a race coaches) belonging to two professional cycling teams agreed to participate. Selection of participants was by purposive sampling of teams enrolled in the UCI Pro-Tour league or Continental league. The procedure for the study was divided into three main stages: (1) two focus group discussions (team A and team B) to create a definition of team mental toughness and a list of characteristics of the ideal mentally tough team; (2) individual interviews that were generated using initial characteristics identified in stage one; (3) individual rating of definition and ranking of mental toughness characteristics. The data analysis of the interviews transcribed verbatim was conducted using phenomenological analysis. Participants identified twelve characteristics of team mental toughness and a definition was created. The definition which emerged identified team mental toughness as a dynamic and collective psychological edge. Participants determined twelve characteristics that were believed to make up team mental toughness. The characteristics which emerged were placed into two main categories that reflect the setting in which characteristics are meant to be experienced. Those categories are formed by subcategories that represent ‘what’ the participants experienced. The twelve characteristics covered areas including shared belief, structure, motivation, focus, group norms, social support, physical pain, cohesion, competition related pressure, and positive attitude. It was concluded that individual mental toughness has a group dimension which is team mental toughness. The twelve characteristics uncovered in this study reflect the specific detail of how teams achieve their mental toughness. Those characteristics represent important areas that enable cycling teams to become mentally tough. Practical implications of the study and future avenues for research are discussed.
... The EIP is different from delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which occurs approximately 24 -72 h after exercise (Cheung et al., 2003). Runners and cyclists at the recreational to elite level often experience EIP (Kress and Statler, 2007;McCormick et al., 2018). In the scientific literature, EIP has primarily been discussed in the context of resistance exercise or endurance cycling (Dannecker and Koltyn, 2014;Stevens et al., 2018). ...
Sprint interval exercise can cause transient, intense exercise-induced pain (EIP) during and several minutes after the activity. A hypoalgesic strategy for high-intensity exercise, such as sprint interval exercise, against EIP is necessary to maintain exercise habituation and improve training quality/exercise performance. Preexercise caffeine supplementation, a well-known ergogenic strategy, may improve sprint performance and alleviate EIP as the hypoalgesic strategy. However, whether preexercise caffeine supplementation exhibits both the ergogenic effect on sprint interval performance and the hypoalgesic effect on intensive EIP during and several minutes after high intensity sprint interval exercise remains unknown, and thus we investigated to clarify those points. In this double-blind, randomized, crossover trial, sixteen male collegiate athletes performed 3 sets of 30-sec all-out Wingate pedaling exercises at 2-min intervals. Participants ingested 6 mg·kg-1 caffeine or placebo via capsules at 60 min prior to exercise. Quadriceps EIP was measured using a visual analogue scale during and up to 20 min after exercise. The results showed that caffeine did not significantly affect peak or mean power during sprint interval exercise (peak power: P = 0.196, ηp2 = 0.11, mean power: P = 0.157, ηp2 = 0.13; interaction). No significant interactions were also found for quadriceps EIP during (P = 0.686, ηp2 = 0.03) and immediately after exercise (P = 0.112, ηp2 = 0.12), nor for changes in physiological responses (blood lactate and ammonia concentrations) and caffeine-induced side effects (all P > 0.05). In conclusion, caffeine had no ergogenic or hypoalgesic effects on sprint interval exercise with intensive EIP.
... Consequently, physical sensations like pain can heighten an individual's perception of effort during endurance exercise, ultimately impairing performance. Mauger (2014) contends that exerciseinduced muscle discomfort may also impact pacing decisions and overall endurance performance, particularly during high-intensity activities (Kress and Statler, 2007). Performers feels increasingly unpleasant between the lactate and ventilatory thresholds and maximal oxygen uptake in endurance exercise (Ekkekakis et al., 2011), and their unpleasant feeling could influence pacing decisions, particularly in populations that are inexperienced or non-competitive. ...
Purpose
The present study aimed to explore the potential mediating role of negative physical sensation and experiential avoidance in the association between endurance exercise and exercise anxiety among university students.
Method
In this study, a questionnaire method was employed to conduct the Adolescent Athlete Non-Intellectual Factors Survey Scale on 1,200 college students. From this sample, 287 individuals with exercise anxiety were identified through an endurance exercise test and the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II) subsequently administered as well as The Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE). Subsequently, statistical analyses including correlation, regression, and mediation were performed using SPSS26 as the analytical tool. Additionally, the bias-corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method was used to test for the mediating effects and estimate the confidence intervals with 5,000 iterations, and the confidence interval (CI) was set at 95%. Finally, in AMOS24, a mediating construct was established by incorporating exercise anxiety as the dependent variable, endurance exercise behavior as the independent variable, and negative physical sensations and experiential avoidance as the mediating variables (R = 0.619, R² = 0.384). A path analytic procedure was employed to test the hypotheses while percentile bootstrap analysis was conducted to examine the indirect effects.
Results
The results show that endurance exercise negatively predicts negative physical sensations (β = −0.48, p < 0.001), negative physical sensation positively predicts experiential avoidance (β = 0.36, p < 0.001) and exercise anxiety (β = 0.40, p < 0.001), and experiential avoidance positively predicts exercise anxiety (β = 0.26, p < 0.001).
Conclusion
There were significant correlations among endurance exercise, negative physical sensation, experiential avoidance and exercise anxiety. Endurance exercise affects exercise anxiety through two ways: (1) endurance exercise → negative physical sensation → exercise anxiety; (2) endurance exercise → negative physical sensation → experiential avoidance → exercise anxiety. Negative physical sensations and experiential avoidance play mediating and chain-mediating roles between endurance exercise and exercise anxiety.
... Exercise-induced pain itself is also an important determinant of endurance performance, as higher pain tolerance is associated with enhanced endurance performance (see [10] for a detailed overview). This is consistent with observations that former Olympic cyclists report successful coping with pain to be the greatest psychological challenge [11], and that being occupied with physical discomfort impaired performance [4]. Corroborating the assumptions made in these theoretical frameworks, a focus group study with recreational endurance exercisers revealed that exercise-related sensations like exertion, pain, fatigue, or discomfort were the most common challenges [1]. ...
Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., “If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!”) improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers’ obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance.
... Road cycling is a team sport that places high mental and physical demands on performers and teams (Kress and Statler, 2007). This is especially important because ‚cycling success involves preserving and apportioning out energy as it is needed during a race‛ (Taylor and Kress, 2006). ...
Cycling sport is one of the sports that require physical and psychological resilience. It is thought that athletes should show physical and psychological resilience to reach specific target, find solution for unexpected, sudden problems, be patient and be determined in this sport that requires physical and psychological resilience that is done under extreme conditions. It is important to examine goal commitment and psychological resilience of cycling athletes for performance improvement, success motivation and contribution to the studies in this field. Purpose: This study aimed to examine goal commitment and psychological resilience of elite cycling athletes. 94 elite bicycle athletes participating in national and international races between the ages of 18 and 27 participated voluntarily. Resilience Scale for Adults, developed by Friborg et al. (2003), was used to determine psychological resilience of athletes. Goal Commitment Scale, developed by Hollenbeck, Williams and Klein (1989) and adapted to Turkish by Şenel and Yıldız (2016), was used to determine goal commitment. Scale reliability coefficient was found to be 0.913. In conclusion, no significant differences were found between sex and psychological resilience and goal commitment. But, significant differences were found between sports ages and subscales of self-perception, perception of future, and structural type of Resilience Scale for Adults. Significant difference was found between sports ages and goal commitment. As sports age increase, so did goal commitment. There was no significant correlation between goal commitment and Bahadır Altay, Gülsüm Baştuğ, İbrahim İhsan Arıkan GOAL COMMITMENT AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE AMONG CYCLING ATHLETES European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science-Volume 3 │ Issue 12 │ 2017 619 psychological resilience. Goal commitment and psychological resilience training is recommended for different sports branches requiring physical and psychological resilience.
... Beyond dealing with these bodily sensations, staying focused and motivated after difficult situations were reported as further challenges. In a sample of former Olympic cyclists, successfully coping with pain was reported as the biggest psychological challenge (Kress & Statler, 2007). In the same vein, Brick et al. (2020) found that being occupied with physical discomfort was perceived as reducing performance, while active distraction at low training intensities was perceived as are included -can be used to determine or adapt the athlete's training intensities (Coen et al., 1991). ...
Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., “If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!”) improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers’ obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance.
... Participant's focus was less on the trial in the 60-versus 10-min trial and rdlPFC O 2 Hb positively correlated with self-reported focus on the task. Although distraction from an exercise task can be detrimental to performance (e.g., Connolly and Janelle, 2003;Kress and Statler, 2007), whether the reduced task focus observed represents active or passive distraction is unclear. First, the authors assume that hypofrontality resulted from a strategic conservation of mental effort resources. ...
Research has outlined how self-regulation is crucial to the decision-making processes and pacing of endurance performance. There is evidence to suggest that executive function is implicated in self-regulatory processes, as the two are conceptually similar and share common brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. This review draws upon various research domains to argue that executive function underlies the top-down self-regulation of endurance tasks. Indeed, executive functioning capacity may explain differences in endurance performances. Although contentious, there is evidence to suggest a hypofrontality effect during endurance exercise. Furthermore, research has highlighted that psychological interventions, the training of executive functions, and transcranial direct stimulation can induce prefrontal cortex changes and “boost” executive functioning, ultimately enhancing the self-regulation of endurance performance. Future directions for research are proposed with the aim of stimulating investigations that will further elucidate the importance of executive functioning and self-regulation to endurance performance.
... During these periods, endurance athletes must maintain high levels of effort and perseverance in order to counteract both physical and cognitive fatigue (Marcora, Bosio, & de Morree, 2009;Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009). Alongside persevering with fatigue, endurance ath- letes must also engage in effective self-regulation strategies relating to pacing (Renfree, Martin, Micklewright, & St Clair Gibson, 2014), at- tention (Brick, MacIntyre, & Campbell, 2014), and coping (Kress & Statler, 2007;Zepp, 2016). A recent review identified several psycho- logical determinants of endurance performance (McCormick, Meijen, & Marcora, 2015). ...
... Due to systematic exposure to short intervals of intensive pain, athletes are forced to develop effective coping strategies. According to Kress and Statler [5], athletes perceive pain as an inherent part of sport competition, which should not be feared but overcome. Athletes who are more effective in coping with pain and pain management are better accustomed to pain than non-athletes. ...
... These correlations suggest that task-relevant thoughts have some potentially beneficial relationships with feeling states during exercise. Indeed, Olympic cyclists have been reported to think about and set task-relevant goals to help cope with physical exertion and pain when racing (Kress and Statler, 2007). ...
Individuals can focus their attention in different ways during exercise and different foci may influence psychological states experienced. The present study examined the distribution of attentional focus strategies in exercisers and their relationships with gender, perceived exertion, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Regular exercisers (176 females, 144 males) completed a measure of attentional focus and rated their perceived exertion, enjoyment, and satisfaction during an exercise session. All participants used more than one type of attentional focus during an exercise session. Males spent more time than females attending to task-relevant thoughts and external cues whereas females spent more time attending to task-irrelevant thoughts and external distractions. In females and males, time spent engaging in task-irrelevant thoughts was negatively correlated with perceived exertion and satisfaction with exercise. For females only, time using external distractions was negatively correlated with satisfaction and positively correlated with enjoyment. For males only, time attending to task-relevant external cues was positively correlated with perceived exertion and enjoyment. The observed gender differences in attentional focus preferences and the relationships with psychological states have implications for advice given to exercisers and approaches that aim to promote adherence to exercise programs.
... People experience local discomfort and exertive pain during intense endurance exercise [1,2]. Previous studies have focused on the impact of exertive pain on effort perception, and time to volitional exhaustion [3,4], and investigated the dynamics of its intensity over extended bouts of exercise [5,6]. ...
This present document includes a doctoral thesis prepared at the University of Barcelona. This thesis
was developed as a compendium of publications resulting from the accomplishments of the 3-year predoctoral
studies. It consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 includes two sections: a general one which delineates
the history and most relevant scientific queries related to pain induced by exercise (sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3) and
a second one which focuses on a nonlinear dynamic approach to pain and attention under the framework of
the psychobiological model of exercise-induced fatigue (section 1.4). The Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 include four
research examples related to the topic. Chapter 6 discusses main research findings. Finally Chapter 7 provides
conclusions and future lines of the research on the development of a Nonlinear psychobiological model of
exercise-induced fatigue from a standpoint of the NDST.
Exercising above certain intensity and duration elicits feelings of discomfort and pain. As pain is related
to exercise tolerance and task disengagement previous studies have focused on pain intensity measurements
but have not payed attention on its locations dynamics. Pain location dynamics provide a possibility to explore
how fatigue spreads throughout the body, to identify pain distribution and its individual patterns as well as
to search the temporal organization of subjective experiences (qualia), which remain largely understudied up
until now. The psychobiological model of exercise induced fatigue has highlighted the presence of nonlinear
features studying the dynamics of thoughts and perceived exertion in the course of constant and incremental
exercises performed until exhaustion. In order to understand better the psychobiological mechanisms of
exercise-induced fatigue and design adequate interventions to increase the exercise tolerance, this thesis
proposes considering the study of pain dynamics and attention in alternative settings with the following
objectives in mind: a) to delineate the pain and discomfort location dynamics during constant cycling and
running performed until exhaustion, b) to detect individual pain patterns during these tasks, c) to examine
the potential presence of nested metastable pain-attention dynamics during incremental cycling performed until exhaustion, d) to compare the effects of indoor and outdoor environments on attention focus and
cycling endurance.
For the purpose of this thesis, all participants were tested while cycling and/or running at constant or
incremental power until exhaustion. Pain and discomfort locations were self-monitored and reported every
15s using a 50-item pain body map. Self-caught measurements and self-selected key words were used together
with an experimenter-classified method to monitor the attention focus in indoor and outdoor conditions.
Present results revealed that: a) the number of body locations with perceived pain increased throughout
the effort expenditure, b) three consistent pain dynamic patterns were identified during constant cycling and
running (i.e., adders, adders/jumpers and jumpers), c) pain-attention dynamics during incremental exercise
was metastable and temporarily nested, d) outdoor environment compared to indoor, improved endurance
and increased the use of external thoughts.
In conclusion, the thesis highlights the metastable dynamics of the body-mind-environment interaction
during constant and incremental exercises performed until exhaustion and reinforces the presence of the
nonlinear features pointed by the psychobiological model of exercise induced fatigue. The pain-attention
temporal nestedness and the proposed taxonomy based on attention-driven mechanisms may be a fruitful
avenue to pursue for future investigation. Moreover, the dynamic approach may help practitioners to design
adequate interventions to increase exercise endurance and tolerance within different settings and can be used
for studying alternative clinical/medical pain presentations.
... Thus despite being more bothered by exertion pain, the participating athletes continued to engage with the sport. Exertion related pain is often viewed positively and is seen as a necessary part of developing as an athlete [41]; therefore participating athletes may have accepted this pain despite its bothersomeness. This could be a result of using coping strategies more effectively [8] or a function of motivational and self-efficacy factors [42]. ...
Background/aims:
Athletes who choose to engage in contact sports do so with the knowledge that participation will bring pain in the form of contact with others, injury, and from exertion. Whilst athletes who play contact sports have been shown to have higher pain tolerance than those who do not, it is unclear whether this is a result of habituation over time, or as a result of individual differences at the outset. The aim was to compare pain responses over an athletic season in athletes who participated in contact sport and those who disengaged from it.
Methods:
One hundred and two new contact athletes completed measures of cold and ischaemic pain tolerance, perceived pain intensity, pain bothersomeness, pain coping styles and attendance at the start, middle (4 months) and end (8 months) of their season. The athletes were drawn from martial arts, rugby and American football. Cluster analysis placed 47 athletes into a participating category and 55 into a non-participating cluster.
Results:
Participating athletes had higher ischaemic pain tolerance at the start (r=0.27, p=0.05), middle (r=0.41, p<0.0001) and end of the season (r=0.57, p<0.0001) compared to non-participating athletes. In addition participating athletes were more tolerant to cold pain at the end of the season (r=0.39, p<0.0001), compared to non-participating athletes. Participating athletes also exhibited higher direct coping, catastrophized less about injury pain and also found contact pain to be less bothersome physically and psychologically compared to non-participating athletes. Participating athletes were more tolerant of ischaemic pain at the end of the season compared to the start (r=0.28, p=0.04). Conversely non-participating athletes became significantly less tolerant to both pain stimuli by the end of the season (cold pressor; r=0.54, p<0.0001; ischaemia; r=0.43, p=0.006). Pain intensity as measured by a visual analogue scale did not change over the season for both groups.
Conclusions:
Those who cease participation in contact sports become less pain tolerant of experimental pain, possibly a result of catastrophizing. The results suggest that athletes who commit to contact sports find pain less bothersome over time, possibly as a result of experience and learning to cope with pain. Athletes who continue to participate in contact sports have a higher pain tolerance, report less bothersomeness and have higher direct coping than those who drop out. In addition, tolerance to ischaemic pain increased over the season for participating athletes.
Implications:
Having a low pain tolerance should not prevent athletes from taking part in contact sports, as pain becomes less bothersome in athletes who adhere to such activities. Participating in contact sports may result in maintained cold pain tolerance, increased ischaemic pain tolerance, reduced catastrophizing and better coping skills. Coaches can therefore work with athletes to develop pain coping strategies to aid adherence to contact sports.
... The results of the current study suggest that 'normal' EIP experienced during exhaustive exercise does affect performance and that it can be moderated independently of perception of effort. These findings support other studies which demonstrate that an analgesic intervention is able to improve exercise performance in a variety of exercise models (Mauger et al. 2010;Foster et al. 2014) and strengthens the notion (Kress and Statler 2007) that tolerance of EIP is an important prerequisite for endurance performance (Mauger 2013(Mauger , 2014. ...
PurposeMuscle pain is a natural consequence of intense and prolonged exercise and has been suggested to be a limiter of performance. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and interferential current (IFC) have been shown to reduce both chronic and acute pain in a variety of conditions. This study sought to ascertain whether TENS and IFC could reduce exercise-induced pain (EIP) and whether this would affect exercise performance. It was hypothesised that TENS and IFC would reduce EIP and result in an improved exercise performance. Methods
In two parts, 18 (Part I) and 22 (Part II) healthy male and female participants completed an isometric contraction of the dominant bicep until exhaustion (Part I) and a 16.1 km cycling time trial as quickly as they could (Part II) whilst receiving TENS, IFC, and a SHAM placebo in a repeated measures, randomised cross-over, and placebo-controlled design. Perceived EIP was recorded in both tasks using a validated subjective scale. ResultsIn Part I, TENS significantly reduced perceived EIP (mean reduction of 12%) during the isometric contraction (P = 0.006) and significantly improved participants’ time to exhaustion by a mean of 38% (P = 0.02). In Part II, TENS significantly improved (P = 0.003) participants’ time trial completion time (~2% improvement) through an increased mean power output. Conclusion
These findings demonstrate that TENS can attenuate perceived EIP in a healthy population and that doing so significantly improves endurance performance in both submaximal isometric single limb exercise and whole-body dynamic exercise.
... selftalk (Berk, 1986), humorous self-talk, self-talk related to enjoyment/appreciation of the moment (e.g., "it is exciting to be in the championship match"), and self-talk related to others, such as "this referee is terrible," "my teammates are playing well," and "my coach will be angry if this continues." Associative self-talk that focuses on bodily sensations experienced during endurance performance (e.g., "my shoulders are tight" and "this is what I am supposed to be feeling right now") tends to be more prevalent during high intensity sport performances (Aitchison et al., 2013;Kress & Statler, 2007;St. Clair Gibson & Foster, 2007). ...
Self-talk is a key component of the sport psychology canon. Although self-talk has been widely endorsed by athletes and coaches as a performance enhancement strategy, a comprehensive model of self-talk in sport that might be used to guide systematic research has yet to be developed. This purpose of this paper is to: (a) review theory and research related to self-talk in sport; and (b) present a sport-specific model that builds upon existing theory and research, and addresses key questions related to self-talk. The paper begins with a definition of self-talk, developed with consideration of the discursive nature of inner speech and dual process theories. Extant self-talk models related to self-talk in sport are reviewed and serve as a foundation for a sport-specific model of self-talk. Components of the model (i.e., self-talk, System 1, System 2, behaviour, contextual factors, personal factors) are presented, the reciprocal relationships among model components are explored, and implications of the sport-specific model of self-talk are discussed.
... People experience local discomfort and exertive pain during intense endurance exercise [1,2]. Previous studies have focused on the impact of exertive pain on effort perception, and time to volitional exhaustion [3,4], and investigated the dynamics of its intensity over extended bouts of exercise [5,6]. ...
The purpose of this study was to delineate the topological dynamics of pain and discomfort during constant exercise performed until volitional exhaustion. Eleven physical education students were tested while cycling and running at a "hard" intensity level (e.g., corresponding to Borg's RPE (6-20) = 15). During the tests, participants reported their discomfort and pain on a body map every 15s. "Time on task" for each participant was divided into five equal non-overlapping temporal windows within which their ratings were considered for analysis. The analyses revealed that the number of body locations with perceived pain and discomfort increased throughout the five temporal windows until reaching the mean (± SE) values of 4.2 ± 0.7 and 4.1 ± 0.6 in cycling and running, respectively. The dominant locations included the quadriceps and hamstrings during cycling and quadriceps and chest during running. In conclusion, pain seemed to spread throughout the body during constant cycling and running performed up to volitional exhaustion with differences between cycling and running in the upper body but not in the lower body dynamics.
... The opening quote by Olympic gold medallist Herb Elliot suggests that pain is an unpleasant experience, and it may be best to ignore pain in the context of sport. In sporting contexts, particularly track and field athletics, the pain associated with continued energy-expending effort is a potential limiter of athletic performance (Kress & Statler, 2007). Because of this fact, pain is an integral feature of involvement in sport (Sullivan, Tripp, Rodgers, & Stanish, 2000). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between mindfulness and 800-m personal best (PB) times through pain catastrophising and to see whether the magnitude and direction of the relationship depended on gender. One hundred and nine participants reported their gender, completed measures of mindfulness (MAAS) and pain catastrophising (PCS) and reported PB 800 m times that were standardised based on current world records. Results revealed moderate-sized relationships between the predictor variables and standardised 800 m PB. The size of these relationships reduced after we controlled for gender. The follow-up, conditional process analysis - revealed significant direct and indirect effects that confirmed that pain catastrophising partially mediated the relationship between mindfulness and 800 m PB and that gender moderated the indirect paths. The indirect path between mindfulness and pain catastrophising was consistent with existing literature. However, the path between pain catastrophising and standardised 800 m PB was positive for females and negative for males. The different direction of the relationship could suggest that pain catastrophising could be performance enhancing for females.
... This is surprising because endurance activities have physical, technical, logistical and psychological demands that should be taken into account when an intervention is being designed [103]. Qualitative research has drawn some attention to the demands faced by endurance athletes and the cognitive strategies used by highlevel endurance athletes [104][105][106][107][108]. Future research could shed greater light on the demands facing endurance athletes or test interventions that are designed to help athletes to cope with these demands. ...
No literature reviews have systematically identified and evaluated research on the psychological determinants of endurance performance, and sport psychology performance enhancement guidelines for endurance sports are not founded on a systematic appraisal of endurance-specific research.
A systematic literature review was conducted to identify practical psychological interventions that improve endurance performance and to identify additional psychological factors that affect endurance performance. Additional objectives were to evaluate the research practices of the included studies, to suggest theoretical and applied implications, and to guide future research.
Electronic databases, forward-citation searches and manual searches of reference lists were used to locate relevant studies. Peer-reviewed studies were included when they chose an experimental or quasi-experimental research design; a psychological manipulation; endurance performance as the dependent variable; and athletes or physically active, healthy adults as participants.
Consistent support was found for using imagery, self-talk and goal setting to improve endurance performance, but it is unclear whether learning multiple psychological skills is more beneficial than learning one psychological skill. The results also demonstrated that mental fatigue undermines endurance performance, and verbal encouragement and head-to-head competition can have a beneficial effect. Interventions that influenced perception of effort consistently affected endurance performance.
Psychological skills training could benefit an endurance athlete. Researchers are encouraged to compare different practical psychological interventions, to examine the effects of these interventions for athletes in competition and to include a placebo control condition or an alternative control treatment. Researchers are also encouraged to explore additional psychological factors that could have a negative effect on endurance performance. Future research should include psychological mediating variables and moderating variables. Implications for theoretical explanations for endurance performance and evidence-based practice are described.
... And if you haven't done it, you should do it once in your life! (Melanie) Similar attitudes have been expressed by male and female competitors in other sports such as cycling (Kress & Statler, 2007), where the pain experienced during cycling was conceptualized as a means to an end, and physical activities such as ballet where injuries associated with their participation were normalized by ballerinas (Wainwright & Turner, 2004). A potential health concern of the 'benefits outweigh costs' attitude is the potential for female Figure competitors to decrease their overall well-being in the pursuit of achieving their personal goals. ...
Female bodybuilding is a sport where competitors often make considerable alterations to their diets, physical activities, and social lives to successfully prepare for competition. No study had specifically examined the perceived impact of participating in the Figure class of female bodybuilding, which places less emphasis on muscularity and more on feminine presentation. The purpose of this research was to examine the perceived social and psychological effects of participating in the Figure class. Semistructured interviews, ranging from 45 to 90 minutes, were conducted with 11 female Figure competitors. These women experienced many positive consequences as a result of participating, such as a sense of empowerment. However, results revealed that women in the sport of bodybuilding do not need to be “male like” in appearance to experience negative social reactions. Results demonstrated that women competing in the Figure class, with the greater emphasis on feminine presentation and considerably less emphasis on muscularity, also experienced widespread stigma and social isolation.
... Approach coping strategies in this study included increasing effort, asking questions, or imaging the task. With regard to pain management, Kress and Statler (2007) found former Olympic cyclists engaged more approach coping strategies to decrease pain intensity during training and competition. These cyclists reported using approach coping strategies such as goal setting, imagery, and positive self-talk to help minimize pain impacting their cycling performance. ...
A Helicopter Rescue Swimmer is one of the most physically and mentally demanding jobs in the United States Coast Guard (USCG). In order to become a USCG Helicopter Rescue Swimmer, interested candidates must successfully complete a rigorous 18-week training program, called Aviation Survival Technician (AST) A-School, where the average attrition rate is over 50%. Within military and civilian literature, few researchers have reported on performance in Search and Rescue (SAR) environments. More specifically, to the researcher’s knowledge, there are no empirical reports on the psychological components needed for optimal Helicopter Rescue Swimmer performance. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to build upon pilot research in which AST A-School Instructors identified psychological components of high-level AST performance, as well as stressors that students commonly encounter during AST A-School (Sanchez, 2009). Maintaining emotional control and displaying strong commitment were two of the nine identified psychological components leading to high-level AST performance. A case study research design involving qualitative inquiry was selected as the best method to gain a deeper understanding as to how emotional and commitment influence AST A-School student performance. One AST A-School class (N = 11) was followed on-site throughout the duration of the four-month training program to capture the students’ experiences and build upon the study’s research questions. Due to the lower than average attrition rate and number of dismissed students with training related injuries, it became difficult to examine psychological components of successful and unsuccessful AST A-School students. As the weeks progressed during data collection, new themes emerged and the purpose of the study shifted to examining the variables influencing successful AST A-School performance within a larger than average graduating class.
Several themes emerged from data obtained in this investigation. First, although Go (i.e., passed AST A-School, n = 7) and No-Go (i.e., dismissed from AST A-School, n = 4) students reported high commitment to complete the training program; the Go students reported slightly higher commitment than the No-Go students. Examining the quality of students’ commitment aided in gaining a deeper understanding of the reasons why students remained committed to completing AST A-School. The Investment Model/Sport Commitment Model (Rusbult, 1980; Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, 1993) was utilized as a framework for describing AST A-School Commitment. High perceived rewards, low attractive alternatives, high personal investment, social constraints acting as motivators, and high perceived involvement opportunities contributed to understanding why students remained committed throughout AST A-School.
Second, social supports consisting of a spouse, family members, and fellow classmates emerged as personal resources for AST A-School students that facilitated coping with many of the stressors encountered during the course. Fellow classmates emerged as the most commonly utilized form of social support. The positive class dynamics of the Go Group appeared to be a factor facilitating students’ success in the training program. Interview data with the Go students revealed several key characteristics of the class dynamics that aided in creating a positive learning environment: (a) supportiveness, (b) shared leadership, (c) camaraderie, (d) similar skill level, (e) cohesion, and (f) open communication.
Third, the mental skills of attention control and self-confidence emerged as skills facilitating successful AST A-School performance. Fourth, results were consistent with initial pilot study data (Sanchez, 2009) and served to refine an understanding of AST A-School stressors. Students identified numerous stressors that one must cope with while participating in AST A-School: (a) AST instructors, (b) experiencing a restricted airway, (c) managing personal life responsibilities, (d) skill tests, (e) the uncertainty of training, (f) becoming injured, and (g) time management.
Fifth, Go students and No-Go students appraised stressors as both challenging and threatening. Overall, both sets of students reported experiencing more negative emotions when encountering AST A-School Stressors, as compared to positive emotions or mixed emotions. The coping efforts of Go and No-Go students served specific purposes (i.e., functions), and these purposes varied by the stressor. Sometimes students’ coping efforts for a particular stressor served multiple purposes. Students also utilized a wide assortment of coping strategies to manage each stressor. These coping strategies also varied by the individual. Within each stressor, specific strategies emerged to facilitate specific coping functions. When comparing the coping strategies between the Go and No-Go Groups, the No-Go students typically coped to manage their emotional responses to stressors. On the other hand, the Go students primarily coped to redefine the personal meaning of stressors. The Go students engaged in a variety of coping strategies, however, “keeping things in perspective by accepting and redefining into a positive” was the most frequently reported coping strategy.
The study’s findings contribute new performance psychology knowledge in understanding how emotional control, commitment, and class dynamics influence performance in military settings. Applications for the applied consultant are discussed.
El dolor, ya sea físico o mental, es una experiencia humana que históricamente se asocia con el crecimiento personal. Frases típicas como “lo que no te mata te hace más fuerte” reflejan esta creencia cultural de que el dolor puede transformarse en algo valioso. Sin embargo, ¿es esto siempre cierto? En este ensayo se explora cómo el dolor puede contribuir al desarrollo de la resiliencia, el autoconocimiento, la empatía y la comprensión del dolor desde distintas perspectivas, pero también se busca entender cómo focalizar este sufrimiento en un entorno de negocios.
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Less than 1% of all sports participants ever reach the top and become successful professional athletes. Defining expert performance is one of the greatest conundrums for sports professionals and it tends to be susceptible to subjective biases. Challenges in defining expertise especially arise with sports which, by nature, lack objective criteria for evaluating performance at an individual level. In general terms, an expert in sports is an athlete who is consistent at producing superior performances over an extended period of time. However, rapid rates at which the human physical performance is improving place immense demands on athletes who need to adapt to ever-increasing task requirements in order to make it to the top. The road to sporting success is a complex multidimensional process that arises from the dynamics between the task demands, an athlete, and their environments. To become a top performer, an athlete needs to possess the right mix of various characteristics (i.e. anthropometric, physiological, tactical, technical, and psychological). Most importantly, however, one’s willingness to be actively involved in their own learning process on metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral levels is what differentiates the top athletes from the rest. This chapter explores the meaning of expertise in sport, which the authors illustrate through examples of competitive cycling. They dissect the cycling expert performance and present the core elements needed to develop superior performing abilities in cycling and other sports.
The purpose of this study was to examine the direction and magnitude of the relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing and to explore whether mindfulness mediated this relationship. The design of the study was cross-sectional using self-report data. We recruited 142 recreational cyclists (female = 32) via online cycling forums. We asked participants to complete measures of mental toughness, dispositional mindfulness, and pain catastrophizing. Following the initial screening of data and the identification of non-normality and outliers, we calculated robust correlations and regressions to examine the size and direction of effects. Results revealed that mindfulness partially mediated a moderate negative relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing. These results are consistent with prior theory regarding positive traits and their negative association with pain catastrophizing. Unique contributions included showing that mental toughness and mindfulness are positively associated and that mindfulness is negatively associated with pain catastrophizing in this sample of cyclists.
Athletes have been found to endure more pain than nonathletes. This may be due to more frequent use of adaptive pain responses by athletes. In this study, we aimed to identify the pain responses, which are most frequently employed by athletes and compare them with a non-athletic control group. Ninety male athletes from different sports categories (contact, limited-contact and non-contact) and thirty healthy male non-athletes were selected for this study. Results showed that athletes used adaptive pain responses (social support, activity) more frequently (0.001, 0.004 respectively) and maladaptive pain responses (avoidance), less frequently (0.001) than non-athletes. Further studies are required to investigate optimal timing and methods for these techniques to better understand the influence of these pain responses on pain control.
Background. In recent years the concept of brand personality has received considerable attention in
marketing and sport management research (Braunstein & Ross, 2010; Carlson et al., 2009; Heere, 2010).
As professional sport becomes more commercialized industry segment, elite athletes are considered as
popular cultural products (Gilchrist, 2005; Summer et. al, 2008) and draw attention from media and
corporate sponsors. Sport personal brand is based on managing the brand image providing it with the
athlete‘s personal values, projected to the future so that it can be used by the athlete even after
professional career. The aim of this paper is to analyse athlete's understanding of personal brand, its
benefits and motivation to create own personal brand.
An intervention was carried out with an aerobic endurance athlete in order to enhance his performance in the fourth segment of the 3000 metre steeplechase race. The three-phase intervention consisted of implementing segmentation and instructional self-talk strategies. Results of the second biomechanics video-analysis showed a substantial increase in the athlete's performance in the 4th segment (t = 1.21 seconds). The manipulation check protocol showed a high usage of self-talk (85.8% in the first 3 segments; 100% in the fourth segment). It is concluded that self-talk can mediate cognitive processes in order to enhance aerobic endurance.
The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the influence of gender and athletic identity on recreational basketball players' attitudes and behaviors with regard to playing through pain and injury. Participants included 130 male and female intramural basketball players who completed the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), the Risk Pain and Injury Questionnaire (RPIQ), and a scale to measure behavioral tendencies toward playing with injury. Results from MANOVA and hierarchical regression analyses revealed that gender was not a factor in regard to either injury-related attitudes or behavioral tendencies. In contrast, athletic identity was a significant factor. Specifically, athletes who were higher in athletic identity exhibited more positive attitudes toward playing with injury as well as higher behavioral tendencies to do so. Study results are discussed in terms of the sport culture and sport ethic surrounding injury.
Changes that occur in technology and the internet have a strong influence upon the provision of teaching, research and practice within the field of sport and exercise psychology (SEP) and other mental health fields. These influences upon SEP are made even more dramatic given the rate of change in these evolving technologies. The purpose of the current research project was to better understand how SEP practitioners (members of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology) utilize the internet in their teaching, research and practice. Participants (N=292) completed an online survey which assessed demographics, time spent using the internet, proficiency, and importance of the internet in one’s professional endeavors. Further questions relate to ethical concerns related to the use of the internet in the practice of SEP. Analyses of the data revealed significant differences between students and professionals, certified/licensed and non-certified/non-licensed practitioners, and psychology and physical education professionals with regard to their use of, perceived competence with, and ethical concern for using the internet in teaching research and service.
Current expertise theory suggests that while variables such as genetics and environmental factors are likely to play a role in the development of an expert, other mediators such as deliberate practice and an adaptation to task constraints lead to expertise. However, empirical research describing the underlying mechanisms responsible for expertise in sport is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the psychological components of elite cycling. Five cyclists (4 male, 1 female) from the British national and junior cycling squads were interviewed to determine expertise from a psychological perspective. Interviews revealed that both deliberate physiological training and overcoming psychological obstacles were of particular importance. Specifically, the interpretation of anxiety and pain as being debilitative or facilitative as well as social support concerns were found to effect performance. Implications for expertise development and future psychological intervention protocols in cycling are discussed.
After more than 35 years of investigation research on attentional focus in endurance activity is still mired by a lack of consensus. Specific challenges relate to the conceptualization of association and dissociation, and discrepancies in methodology, research design, and data collection techniques. This review addresses previously unresolved issues that may limit research findings in this field. Initial concerns include how the endpoint of exercise tasks are defined, how pace is controlled, and the subjects employed within research investigations. An additional objective is to provide direction for future investigations. Traditional views of attentional focus may be limited in their explanatory value. We present a new working model of attentional focus in endurance activity that may more precisely categorise cognitive processes. Finally, research on this topic needs to be grounded in a recognised framework that captures the dynamic nature of human cognition. We propose that existing perspectives are recognised, such as the parallel processing model of pain and the mindfulness approach, and additionally, we propose a metacognitive perspective be explored. Means of integrating these conceptual frameworks are suggested to further enhance the understanding of attentional processes in endurance activity.
Abstract Endurance athletes who realise that they are falling short of important personal goals during competition are expected to experience competitive suffering. As a negative affective state with implications for performance and personal experiences, it is important to understand how endurance athletes cope with competitive suffering. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate differences in athletes' momentary coping function use over time during a competitive suffering episode. Twenty-six runners (mean age: 35.8 years) completed a 5-km running time trial that evoked an experience of competitive suffering using false failure-oriented feedback. Momentary assessments of goal attainment feelings and coping function use were completed immediately following the running time trial using video-mediated recall. Pooled time series analysis was used to predict coping function use across several points in time (i.e. earlier and later stages of a competitive suffering episode) and at different ratings of goal attainment feelings. Analyses revealed that negative feelings about goal attainment moderately predicted problem-focused coping use, and strongly predicted emotion-focused coping use. Although it was not predicted by goal attainment feelings, avoidance coping use was decreased over time throughout suffering episodes. Overall, this study supports propositions that the coping process is continually adapted to competitive demands and identifies the roles of distinct coping functions within the total coping effort.
The aim of the present study was to further the conceptual understanding of exertion-pain anxiety. Specifically, the purposes were to induce exertion-pain anxiety, evaluate the effect of wait times on exertion-pain anxiety, and investigate the mechanisms of exertion-pain anxiety through the lens of Lazarus’ cognitive-motivational-relational (CMR) theory (1991). Eighty-one college students (40 females, 41 males) were recruited to participate in the study. As a catalyst for exertion-pain, participants assigned to the experimental condition were exposed to a modified Wingate Test on two occasions that were separated by either 15 or 30 minutes depending upon condition assignment. Control participants engaged in a moderate cycle ride. MANOVA analyses revealed significant differences among the experimental and control conditions on pain expectations, anxiety, and pain rumination. Significant differences were not revealed between wait time conditions. Results revealed that anxiety scores increased for participants in the experimental condition from time one to time two. These findings support the notion that anxiety can be induced by exposure to a pain-inducing exercise task. In testing the three components of Lazarus’ CMR theory, results indicated that pain expectations and self-efficacy, were predictors of anxiety prior to the first task. Pain expectations were the only significant predictor of anxiety prior to the second task. Coping was not a significant predictor at either time. Overall, it appears that exertion-pain anxiety may not be fully explained using Lazarus’ model. Discussion concerns the utility of implementing socially based models or theories to explain responses that are physically based.
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