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CHAPTER 20
FOOD REMAINS
Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky1
Many carbonized archaeobotanical finds were discovered during excavations in Area X at Tel Aphek.
These f inds were retrieved by M. E. Kislev during the 5th, 6th and 7th excavation seasons. All were
recovered from Strata X12-X8, dated to the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. In most instances botanical
finds were retrieved by f lotation and then taken for processing and identification to the archaeobotanical
laboratory of the Faculty of Life Sciences at Bar-Ilan University. In a few instances soil samples from
the excavation, were taken as is, and were floated under controlled conditions in the laboratory. The
ar chaeobot anical find s were plentif ul and diverse, and their prese r vat io n was good. They include mainly
carbonized seeds of several cultivated species, and plants that accompany them.
AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL OF THE HABITAT OF TEL APHEK
Tel Aphek, located in the central coastal plain of Israel (Chapter 1), lies adjacent to copious peren nial
springs that are the source of the Yarkon river, the largest waterway in the entire coastal plain. Tel
Aphek lies on the border of two g roups of soil types. The first brown group includes alluvial soils
(vertisols) that drain slowly, contain little organic material and have a large potential for crop-raising;
These lie to the north, west and south of the mound. The second group includes alluvial soils with good
drainage and medium content of organic materials which are found to its east in the region of modern
Rosh Ha->Ayin. Soils in the area are mostly heavy, rich in nutrients and, near the river, are also soaked
with water. These soils have a large potential for crop-raising (Ravikovitch 1981:153-194, XII-XIII, with
1:250,000 soil map).
CULTIVATED PLANTS
Many different cultivated plants can be grown in the region of the Yarkon river. Up to the recent past there
were field crops and garden plants as well as fr uit trees and vines in the region of the Yarkon springs and
in the marshy area south of the river (Avitsur 1957:86,183). Tel Aphek was, therefore, a superb set tlement
site from an agricult ural point of view. Its inhabitants could produce needed plant commodities, wheat,
pulses, fr uits, etc. in their immediate vicinity and indeed, finds from Area X testify to this.
They include two different species of wheat, naked wheat (Triticum parvicoccum) and hulled emmer
wheat (Triticum dicoccum), species which cannot always be easily distinguished in carbonized grains.
Other cultivated species were: barley (Hordeum vulgare), pu lses such a s le nti ls (Lens culinaris), faba beans
(Vicia faba), bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) used as fodder for animals, fruits such as grapes (Vitis vinifera)
used for producing white wine in Locus 2731, figs (Ficus carica), olives (Olea europaea), pomegranates
(Punica granatum), other useful plants such as flax (Linum usitatissimum) for weaving into cloth or
production of edible seeds or oil, and cumin (Cuminum cyminum), a spice for flavouring food.
1. The authors wish to thank Dr. Y. Langsam for his technical assistance in production of the SEM photographs. Thanks also are
due Dr. Y. Melamed and M. Marmorstein for help with botanical identifications and to Y. Swed for technical assistance.
Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University
500
Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
It should be noted that evidence for fr uit trees in the archaeological record of Area X is limited to
the above mentioned species. Notably absent a re such spe cies as date palms (Phoenix dactylifera), which
grows in warmer regions of the southern Levant (e.g., the Negev and the Jordan and Arava Valleys),
almonds (Amygdalus communis), carob (Ceratonia siliqua) and spiny hawthorn (Crataegus aronia),
which grow in the central mountain range. Lack of evidence for these slightly more exotic fruits raises
a question as to the existence of trade relations between the inhabitants of Tel Aphek and denizens of
these other regions, since, according to the finds, it seems that local products were sufficient for the diet
of the site’s inhabitants.
THE NATURE OF ARCHAEBOTANICAL FINDS
When a collection of grains is found in an excavation, it is certainly the result of humans separating grains
from the remainder of the plants f rom which they were harvested. However, apart from a concentration
of grape pips from Strat um X12 and barley grains from Stratum X8, botanical finds retrieved from
Area X at Tel Aphek do not represent quantities of grains collected for eventual consumption, but rather
they are remnants (i.e., waste) from activities such as threshing. Accordingly, they included seeds of
accompanying plants such as pulses and remains left after sieving and separation of prime grains from
waste products.
These observations are based on research indicating that after threshing, sieving and cleaning of
grains of wheat and barley to obtain prime grains, what remains is waste that often includes small
grains (tail grain), different parts of their spikes (Figs. 20.16-20.18) and small seeds of various species of
weeds. Holes of sieves are sized in a way that allows most seeds of weeds to fall through, but possibly a
few cereal grains might also join them. Hillman (1984), in a study of traditional methods for processing
grains in Turkey, discussed the various stages of the process and their products, up to the final stage of
clean grain collection. Waste from grain manufacture was used in the past as animal fodder, fuel for
fire, or even as food for the poor. W hen used for this last purpose, waste included tail grain and ‘fine
cleaning’ products passed through a small-holed sieve. When waste was processed for animal needs or
for burning, it was added to coarser cleaning products.
The existence of such vegetal waste at Tel Aphek indicates the site was a primar y producer of
gr ains a nd did not obtain ‘clean grains’ from elsewhere. Recovery of grain waste products, not just clean
grain at Tel Aphek, is highly interesting, since it enables us to make conclusions that could not have
been achieved from finds of only clean grain, because the percentage of weeds in clean grain is small,
and demands much work in order to isolate and identif y weed seeds. There was no need for such work
in this research because it was performed by the inhabitants of Aphek, especially of Stratum X9. Those
people actually isolated weeds from large amounts of cultivated grains and left them in separate places,
from which they were retrieved during the excavation. Since weeds naturally grow dispersed in fields,
such a concentration is impossible without human involvement. The finds discussed below suggest the
possibility that the inhabitants of Strata X10 and X9 (Chapter 6) left waste from more than one field or
one type of crop in designated areas; perhaps this waste was even from very separate f ields that show
different ecological conditions.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIES
Identification of plant species was done by comparison of seeds and other plant organs to the specimens
in the comparative collection in the authors’ laboratory. Most of the botanical finds were identified to
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
the level of species, while some were defined to levels of genus or family. The cause of this limited
identification, was the state of preservation that make the parameters that provide distinction between
the genera or species, insignificant.
In some cases such as some genera of Papilionaceae, the seeds are very small and look very much
alike so it is very hard to distinguish between different ones. Also, the species rigid rye-grass (Lolium
rigidum), grows in fields and mainly adjacent to fields and its frequency is smaller than that of its
related species, darnel (L. temulentum). Its carbonized grains are similar in size and shape to that of L.
temulentum, thus, all Lolium grains were identified as L. temulentum.
Species that are not cultivated plants were divided into two groups, weeds and wild plants. Lists of
weeds was made following Feinbrun-Dothan (1978; 1986); and Zohary (1966; 1972). When the definition
was possible at the level of family or genus, plants were ascribed to the list of wild plants (though some
could have been weeds that grow in fields as well). All species that belong to the genus Phalaris grow
in fields and so were listed with weeds, although in some cases species could not be identif ied. Many
of the wild and weed grass species were identified using a computerized key of grass grains. The key
simplifies analysis of plant remains as it enables more species to be identified with greater accuracy
(Kislev et al. 1997).
HABITAT DETERMINATION ACCORDING TO ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS
The presence or absence of specific kinds of seeds or plants can sometimes inform researchers of the
habitats of ancient sites. Usually when a sample of cereals (e.g., wheat and barley) is found, it also
includes weeds that are present in the fields where the grains were grown. Such plants are, for example,
darnel (Lolium temulenum) (Fig. 20.1), canary grass (Phalaris paradoxa) (Fig. 20.12 -20.14) and two-
flowered caterpillar (Scorpiurus muricatus) (Fig. 20.2).
Weeds such as nar row thorow-wax (Bupleurum subovatum), scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis)
and others are generally found in small quantities. These last species are widely distributed and can be
found in several habitats and thus cannot serve to identify habitat. The only infor mation they provide
concerns the degree of cleaning of a cereal sample.
Defining a habitat or the location of a crop field requires species that grow only in a specific
habitat. Only when a combination of such species is present may a reliable identif ication of the habitat be
deduced. Waste found at Tel Aphek that included many seeds of weeds provided just such information.
In addition to the widely distributed weeds noted above, some weeds and wild plants that grow only in
specific habitats were found in several loci. Examples of such plants found at Tel Aphek include: a) the
lilac chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus; Fig. 20.3) that grows along banks of streams and dry water courses
(Feinbrun-Dothan, 1978:94-95); b) Ranunculus marginatus var. scandicinus, that grows in wet fields
and along ditches (Zohary, 1966: 205-206), c) coast clubrush (Scripus litoralis; Fig. 20.4) that grows in
brackish swamps and along banks of rivers and d) sea club-rush (Scirpus {=Bolboschoenus} maritimus) that
grows in marshes and along river banks, mostly on somewhat saline soil (Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986:350-351).
Species that grow in humid habitats can be used as indicators of such habitats on heavy soils, if plants that
grow in light soils are absent from samples. Thus, from the above noted examples, it can be concluded
that crops were grown in fields adjacent to the site, near the Yarkon springs and along the banks of the
Yarkon river. Moreover, in loci where the finds contained a mixture of plant from different habitats, it can
be concluded that crops came from several fields in different locales.
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
ACCOMPANYING CROPS
In many instances pulses were found together with remains of cereals and weeds. However, when pulse
weeds such as rough-fr uited bedstraw (Galium tricornutum) are found with pulse seeds, one can assume
that plant remains came from a different field, i.e., fields of cereals adjacent to f ields of pulses. It should
be noted that G. tricornutum mericarps are similar in shape and size to the mericarps of other Galium
species that belong to section Kolgyda. Thus, Galium mericarp is defined only to the level of section,
although it can be assumed that it is G. tricornutum.
To preserve the nutritional quality of soil, it is routine today, to sow pulses in a field after several years
of growing cereals. Remains of pulses, may also grow in fields of cereals as accompanying crops. After
harvesting, when cereal grains are winnowed, there may be some pulse seeds left with the cereal grains and
thus, in the following season they are also sown with the cereal grains and in due course grow together with
cereals in the same fields. Thus, weeds that accompany pulses often grow in cereal fields. The phenomenon
of accompanying crops in fields where main crops grow is well known in fields cultivated by traditional
methods. It is also evident from small amounts of barley in wheat fields or small amounts of wheat and
naked barley in barley fields. Such was the case in several loci at Tel Aphek (Table 20.1).
It should be noted that the quantity of pulse seeds found at Tel Aphek, was much smaller than that
of cereal grains. That ratio may be explained by the fact that carbonized seeds of pulses do not always
float the way other carbonized seeds do and so may have been lost during the floating process practiced
at the site. Any differences in incidences of seeds between samples taken in the field and others obtained
in the laboratory are due to obvious, high concentrations of seeds noted in the former instance, while
laboratory work was performed on samples of much lesser concentration.
Following are descriptions of several special species, or species that grow in unique habitats
recovered in the excavations at Tel Aphek. The order of the species is alphabetical.
TABLE 20.1: DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED SPECIES
Cichorium endivia
subsp. divaricatum (= C.
pumilum; Compositae)
This common annual is found at road sides, waste places and as a weed at edges of fields.
The wild species in Israel is closely related to subsp. Endivia, a plant widely cultivated for
its leaves (for salads) in Europe. The ripe fr uits are hidden throughout the summer within
the br acts of inf lorescense. Dispersal occurs after opening the bracts during the winter (Sell
1976). This is the only species of this genus found in Israel (Fig. 20.5).
Coronilla scorpioides
(Papilionaceae =
Fabaceae)
The species is an annual weed in f ields as well as in Phrygana. Pods are 3-7 x 0.2 cm., with
2-11 articulations, spreading or deflexed, tetragonous, linear, arcuate to coiled-circular,
slightly constricted between seeds. Seeds sausage-shaped, slightly curved, about 4 mm long,
1.2 mm wide, smooth (Meikle 1977:516-517; Zohary 1972:102). This species is different
from others that grow in Israel. Seeds of C. repanda are shorter and bowed, unlike the more
straight seeds of C. scorpioides. C. cretica has narrower seeds, while those of C. rostrata
are squat and usually larger.
Euphorbia helioscopia
(Euphorbiaceae)
This is a very common annual herb, found along roadsides and in fields. Its seeds are
1.5-2 mm long, ovoid, brown, foveolate-reticulate, with sessile ovoid caruncles (Zohary
1972:278-279). In Euphorbia, seeds are often essential for identification. However, the
caruncle is not preserved after charring. Seeds of E. helioscopia, E. oxyodonta and E.
berythea are almost identical to each other as are th ree closely related species that grow in
similar habitats and belong to subgen., Esula, sect., Helioscopia and subsect. Helioscopiae
(Radcliffe-Smith 1982). In carbonized seeds of the species E. helioscopia, reticulation in
the pattern of the seed is whole and protruding. By contrast, in E. oxyodonta reticulation
is not whole and in E. berythea it does not protrude. According to these criteria, the seeds
recovered from Tel Aphek are defined as E. helioscopia.
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
Fig. 20.1: Darnel (Lolium temulentum). Dispersal unit
which imitates cereal grain in shape and
dimensions. It includes hulled grain with the
rachilla of the upper floret. Ventral view. Locus
1700B, 11th century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.2: Two-flowered caterpillar (Scorpiurus
muricatus). Seed in side view. The
testa fragment (on the top) includes
the hilum (left) and the chalaza (right).
Locus 3456, 11th century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.3: Vitex agnus-castus. Empty
broken fruit in inner view.
Locus 4015, 10th century
BCE (SEM). Fig. 20.4: Scirpus (=Schoenoplectus) litoralis. Narrow
nutlet in dorsal view. Locus 3456.
Fig. 20.5: Cichorium endivia. Capitullum with 3
fruits in side view (a broken one on the
right side). Locus 1700b.
Fig. 20.6: Beta vulgaris. Fruit in upper view. The
bases of the 5 flower lobes surround the
trigonous fruit. Locus 2959.
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Fig. 20.9: Grapes with pips in their natural position. The pips shape is influenced by their number in a grape. Locus 2731,
13th century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.8: Crushed grape with two pips, side view.
Consequently, they are not exactly in
their natural position. Locus 2731, 13th
century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.10: Grape pip, ventral view. The prominent
ridge along its length implies that the
grape had 3 pips. Locus 2731, 13th
century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.7: Small crushed grape. The pip can be
recognized through the folded skin. Locus
2731, 13th century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.11: Vine pip (from Kislev 1988).
505
Fig. 20.17: Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare. Small
fragment of a rachis in side view. The two
internodes (a, b) as well as the fertile side
spikelets (c) are broken. Locus 1700a.
Fig. 20.15: Hordeum vulgare. Grain without its hulls. Ventral
view. The ventral furrow widens towards the
grain’s top. Locus 1700A, 11th century BCE
(SEM).
Fig. 20.16: Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichum. Rachis fragment
with 2 internodes in side view. The lower internode
(a) and the upper one (b) are broken, the sterile side
spikelets (c) are almost parallel; fragments of the
glume (d) and the hulls (e) are also seen. Locus
1700b.
Fig. 20.12: Phalaris paradoxa. Dispersal unit, ventral
view. Several sterile spikelets surround
the fertile one. The single hulled grain is
clearly seen. Locus 1700a.
Fig. 20.13: Phalaris paradoxa. Dispersal unit with 3 sterile
spikelets (clearly seen on the left), after shedding
the grain. They are reduced to peculiar thick club-
like structures due to deformation of the glumes as
well as the lemma and plalea apex. Ventral view.
Locus 1700B, 11th century BCE (SEM).
Fig. 20.14: Phalaris paradoxa. Inflorescence
fragment. Peduncle with 3 pedicels
of 3 dispersal units. Locus 1700A,
11th century BCE (SEM).
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Fig. 20.18: Triticum parvicoccum. Rachis fragment of a dense ear
with 2 short internodes (a,b). On the top of the upper
internode, the attachment region to the next one is seen
(c). The lower internode ends with a basal fragment of
a glume (d). Locus 1700a.
Fig. 20.19: Schoenus nigricans. Nutlet in
side view. Locus 3456.
Fig. 20.20: Onosma gigantea. Smooth ovoid-triquetrus
nutlet with flat base in side view. Locus
3456.
Fig. 20.21: cf. Apium nodiorum. Mericarp
in side view. The ribs are rather
prominent. Locus 3456.
Fig. 20.22: Gynandriris sisyrinchium. Seed in
side view. Locus 3456.
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
Gynandriris sisyrinchium
(Iridaceae)
This perennial herb is found in cultivated and fallow fields and along roadsides. Its seeds are
subglobose, about 2.0 mm long, 1.8 mm wide, at most slightly compressed, often with a distinct
lateral ridge or narrow wing; testa asperulous-rugulose (Meikle 1985:1562-1563; Fig. 20.22). A
second species in Israel, G. monophylla, is rare, grows only in the Negev, and has smaller seeds
(Feinbrun-Dothan 1986:114).
Ranunculus marginatus
var. scandicinus
(Ranunculaceae)
This common annual herb is found in wet fields and along ditches. There are 10-20 flat, ovate
to orbicular seeds in a fruit, 3.0 to 5.0 mm in length. The disk (round part of the seed) is 2.0 to
3.0 mm in diameter and densely tuberculate, with a very narrow keeled margin and a narrow
furrow on either side. Its beak is 1.0 mm long and is triangular in shape. This variety differs
from the more typical one by its habitat as well as the shape of its beak. The species differs
from the closely related R. cornutus, which has a 2.0 to 3.0 mm long, recurved beak with almost
wing-like margin. The small seeds found probably belong to a hunger form, previously named
R. trachycarpus var. minor (Zohary 1966:205-206). In the flora of Turkey, R. marginatus and R.
scandicinus are considered as two closely related species (Davis and Cook 1965).
Scirpus (=
Schoenoplectus) litoralis
(Cyperaceae)
These perennial herbs grow in brackish swamps and along banks of rivers. Its nutlets are 2.0
to 3.0 mm long, 1.25 to 1.5 mm wide, broadly obovate in outline, lenticular to plano-convex,
distinctly beaked and almost smooth (Feinbrun-Dothan 1986:350-351; Meikle 1985:1694-1695;
Fig. 20.4). Its nutlets are somewhat similar to S. lacustris ssp. tabernaemontani and S. maritimus,
but in the former plant the nutlets are a bit wider and bluntly trigonous, while in S. maritimus
they are trigonous below and plano-convex above (Meikle 1985:1694-1696). In addition, the
latter is a polymorphic species, and there appears to be considerable variation in this group of
plants that remains to be properly categorized (Feinbrun-Dothan 1986:350).
Vitex agnus-castus
(Verbenaceae)
This is a common, deciduous shrub that grows in abundance along banks of streams such as
the Yarqon River. The fruit is a dry drupe, globose, about 3.0 mm in diameter that separates
into 4 nutlets, each with 1 seed. This is the more common of only 2 species found in Israel.
The second one, V. pseudo-negundo, is rare and is found today only near the Sea of Galilee
(Feinbrun-Dothan 1978:94-95; Fig. 20.3).
DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT MATERIALS FROM SELECTED LOCI
Archaeobotanical finds from most loci were in the nature of plant waste derived from cultivated species.
Below are details of the major archaeobotanical finds according to stratum and locus. The stratigraphy and
archaeological definition of the various loci are based primarily on Gadot’s analysis (Chapters 3, 6, 25).
STRATUM X12, LB IIB
The archaeobotanical material f rom Palace VI is given in Table 20.2.
TABLE 20.2: PLANT LIST, STRATUM X12
Locus Locus Locus Locus Locus
Plant name Plant organ 1721 1731 2731$2959 3827 Total No.
Cereals Hordeum vulgare Grain 59 19 193 5 276
Triticum dicoccum Grain 3 11 2 16
Triticum parvicoccum Grain 339 84 195 25 643
Rachis frag. 1 1
Spikelet fork 5 5
Cereals Total 402 103 404 32 941
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 44 9 2 55
Vicia ervilia Seed 13 2 1 16
Vicia faba Seed 2 3 3 8
Pulses Total 59 14 6 79
Fruits Ficus carica Nutlet 69 2 36 107
Olea europaea Stone 1 1 10 1 13
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Locus Locus Locus Locus Locus
Plant name Plant organ 1721 1731 2731$2959 3827 Total No.
Vitis vinifera
Crushed
grape 460 460
Pip 36 7 16260 6 3 16312
Undeveloped
pip 15 3010 1 3026
Pedicel 3050 3050
Bunch frag. 2810 2810
Fruits Total 121 10 25600 44 3 25778
Other
cultivated
plants
Linum usitatissimum Seed 36 2 38
Other cultivated plants Total 36 2 38
Weeds Anagallis arvensis Seed 1 1
Avena sterilis Grain 3 3
Beta vulgaris*/** Fruit 3 3
Brachypodium
distachyon Grain 3 2 5
Bupleurum subovatum Achene 6 10 16
Chrysanthemum
coronarium Achene 1 1
C. cf. coronarium Achene 1 1
Coronilla scorpioides Seed 1 1
Euphorbia peplus Seed 1 1
Galium sect. Kolgyda mericarp 6 1 7
Hymenocarpos
circinnatus Seed 1 1
Lolium temulentum Grain 712 168 246 26 1152
Phalaris sp. Grain 68 15 89 2 174
Ranunculus arvensis* Seed 1 1
Ranunculus
marginatus var.
scandicinus*/** Seed 3 1 4
Small seed 29 29
Rapistrum rugosum Siliqua joint 1 1
Scorpiurus muricatus Seed 138 54 66 23 281
Spergula arvensis Seed 10 10
Weeds Total 939 241 10 447 55 1692
Wild plants Adonis sp. Nutlet 1 24 25
Astragalus asterias Seed 5 5
Astragalus sp.Seed 13 24 37
Avena barbata Grain 1 1
A. barbata/sterilis Grain 8 3 11
Bellevalia cf. exuosa Seed 10 10
Bellevalia/Muscari Seed 19 7 26
Bromus alopecuros* Grain 1 1
Bromus sp.Grain 1 1
Chenopodium murale Seed 8 8
Conium maculatum Achene 4 4
Cyperaceae Seed 2 2
Cyperaceae/
Polygonaceae Seed 8 8
Dactylis glomerata Grain 1 1
Fumaria sect. Fumaria Seed 1 1
Heliotropium sp.Seed 1 1
Hordeum bulbosum Grain 1 1
H. glaucum Grain 1 1
Lens sp.Seed 2 2
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
Locus Locus Locus Locus Locus
Plant name Plant organ 1721 1731 2731$2959 3827 Total No.
Liliaceae Seed 2 2
Linum sp.Seed 1 1
Malva sp.Seed 15 11 46 2 74
Medicago sp. Seed 22 4 36 1 63
Mercurialis annua Seed 3 3
Ochthodium
aegyptiacum Seed 5 5
Siliqua joint 2 1 3
Ononis sp.Seed 1 1
Papilionaceae Small seed 155 16 56 11 238
Plantago sp.Seed 1 1
Reseda sp.Seed 1 1
Rumex pulcher* Nutlet 11 2 1 14
Seed 5 5 1 11
Scirpus litoralis* Nutlet 7 7
S. maritimus* Nutlet 1 1
S. maritimus/lacustris* Nutlet 1 1
Scirpus sp.* Nutlet 1 1
Seed 1 1
Solanaceae Seed 1 1
Solanum cf. villosum Seed 1 1
Thymelaea hirsuta Nutlet 1 1
Trigonella sp. Seed 1 1
Vicia type Seed 7 3 2 12
Vitex agnus-castus* Fruit 1 1
Wild plants Total 281 41 242 27 591
Grand Total 1838 411 25610 1143 117 29119
*Species growing in humid habitat
** Species growing in heavy soils
$ An estimation of the entire sample was made by counting 10% of the volume
halls (loCi 1721 and 1731)
Waste of grains, mostly grains of wheat (Triticum parvicoccum), but also of cultivated barley (Hordeum
vulgare) were discovered in two Halls (Loci 1721 and 1731 of Palace VI). Since the number of barley
grains is much lower than that of the number of wheat grains, it seems the barley was, in this instance,
an accompanying crop in a wheat field. Notably, the number of weed seeds found in these contexts
exceeded the number of wheat grains. The major weeds encountered were darnel (L. temulentum), two-
flowered caterpillar (Scorpiurus muricatus) and Phalaris sp. Pulses from these two loci include lentils
(Lens culinaris), faba beans (Vicia faba) and bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia).
The identification in these loci of rough-fruited bedstraw (Galium tricornutum, which often grows
as a weed in fields of pulses) suggests the possibility that these pulses originated in fields specifically
devoted to their culture. A second explanation for the presence of that weed suggests pulses may have
been grown as a crop accompanying cereals. Also encountered was a mixture of fruit remains such
as grapes (Vitis vinifera), figs (Ficus carica) and f lax (Linum usitatissimum), all in small quantities.
Evidence for these species was relatively rare in relation to the quantity of weeds encountered.
There is evidence to suggest that some of the fields worked by the inhabitants of ancient Aphek
were probably located in heavy soils near the Yarkon springs. That is indicated by the presence of species
that grow in humid habitats or in heavy soils, such as the lilac chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) and
other plants including sea club-rush (Scirpus maritimus), coast club-rush (Scirpus litoralis), Ranunculus
marginatus and fiddle dock (Rumex pulcher).
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
According to these finds from Loci 1731 and 1721, there is a suggestion that those large rooms or
halls functioned as temporary storage facilities for grain processed partially by threshing and winnowing
and where manual work of sorting grains was performed. Apparently, the clean grains were consumed
or sentaway, which explains the presence of waste products and a lack of ‘clean grains’. A less likely
possibility is that these were remains from grain fields badly infiltrated by weeds.
One Hall (Locus 1721) is also the find place of a letter from Ugarit (Kochavi 1989:70-74; Chapter
15) that discusses a shipment of grains from Canaan to Ugarit. The botanical remains of wheat and
waste from cereal fields from the two halls, so near the letter, stresses the special relationship between
it and the function of the hall where it was recovered. It emphasizes a reality that shows the relationship
between ancient agricultural activity and commerce at Tel Aphek. Obviously, wheat grown in nearby
fields and along the banks of the Yarkon River was threshed and winnowed nearby and the collected
grains of wheat were stored, and sorted in that hall before their shipment abroad. This information
sheds important light on the economic role of Tel Aphek within the political and economic system of the
Levant during the 13th century BCE.
loCus 2959
This paved path north of the Governor’s Residency, leading to a trough for feeding or watering animals
(Chapter 4), yielded botanical remains of grains with a large quantity of weeds, including darnel (L.
temulentum), two-flowered caterpillar (Scorpiurus muricatus), and Phalaris sp., as well as some pulses
and fr uits. These remains may represent remnants of animal fodder. Species that can indicate the location
of some related cereal fields were in heavy soils near the site. They are: white beet (Beta vulgaris, Fig.
20.6), fiddle dock (Rumex pulcher) and Ranunculus marginatus.
loCus 3827
Only some few botanical finds were retr ieved from this locus. They seem to be remnants representing
yields of wheat fields, since the number of weed seeds (darnel and two-flowered cater pillar) equals that
of grains of wheat.
loCus 2731
A large concentration of charred grape remains, mainly pips, was found on a plastered floor behind the
posterior southern, outer wall of Palace VI where perhaps it was dried and kept as fodder or as fertilizer
for fields. It included ca. 800 cm3 of carbonized botanical material. The entire quantity was inspected
and 10% of it counted for statistical analysis. It indicated that the concentration as a whole included some
16,000 pips and 450 cr ushed grapes (Fig. 20.7).
The crushed grapes (Fig. 20.8) included pieces of skin with pips adhering to them. Some pips
were found in their natural positions within grapes (Fig. 20.9), while others were stuck to grape skins
in a manner that indicated they were likely to have been previously separated from their skins and
then juxtaposed together with other pips, with no evidence of any nat ural association or order. These
grapes had one, two or three pips, which is deter mined by the shapes of pips, a function of the number
found within a grape. Single pips in a grape are slightly convex and have a protruding middle section
between two grooves. Pips from grapes found in pairs are slightly f lat tened, while pips found in a trio
are triangular shaped (Fig. 20.10).
A large number of skin fragments, small bunch fragments, grape pedicels and undeveloped pips was
also found. A lump of such remains (including pips) as found in the excavation was encased in plaster
and removed to the laboratory where part of it was examined. It proved to be similar to the remainder of
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
the botanical finds from this locus. That sample has been retained in its original condition for possible
further laboratory analysis.
In order to determine whether the grapes were of one variety, several parameters were measured
on a sample of 100 pips (Table 20.3). The features of the pips are illustrated in Fig. 20.11. Measurements
recorded indicate the grapes were not of one variety. This lack of uniformit y in the morphology of the
pips is expressed in pip beaks, which show differences of more than double the length between the
shortest and the longest beaks. Lengths of scuta (scutum - a shield-shaped organ of the grape pip) also
show differences of more than twice the length between the shor test and the longest examples. The pip
length or length of the left fossete, is a measure that shows the degree of asymmetry of a pip; the left
fossettes of pips were always measured for a degree of uniformity or lack of thereof.
TABLE 20. 3: MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF GRAPE PIPS FROM LOCUS 2731 (N=100)
Pip
Length
Pip
Breadth
Pip
Thickness
Beak
Length
(dorsal
view)
Beak
Length
(side
view)
Beak
Breadth
Scutum
Length
Scutum
Breadth
Left
Fossette
Length
Left
Fossette
Breadth
Pip
Length/
Left
Fossette
Length
Min 3.83 2.40 1.88 0.56 0.56 0.64 1.00 0.72 1.40 0.40 1.72
Average 4.81±.33 2.96±.21 2.21±.17 0.97±.18 1.01±.17 0.90±.11 1.43±.14 0.97±.14 2.18±.22 0.55±.09 2.22±.22
Max 5.83 3.76 3.00 1.52 1.40 1.28 1.76 1.60 2.92 1.00 2.92
The concentration of pips and skins, in good condition, their nature and proximity to winepresses in
Area A, indicate, with a high degree of probability, that the concentration of material represents pomace
(i.e., waste of grapes resulting from wine production), rather than from must (Grape juice produced
from pressing grapes that is not yet fermented into wine). There is a high degree of evidence for this
interpretation.
Unlike wine, which can be stored in jars for long periods, must does not preserve well and so needs
to be dr unk shortly after it is produced. According to Frankel and Gadot (Chapter 4), the presses in
Area A were used to produce wine and the jar bases found there are evidence of wine storage. Possibly
the jars and other storage vessels from Palace VI were also used for storing wine (Kochavi 1989:68).
Wine was an important commodity in Egypt, especially in the New Kingdom period (c. 1550-1070 BCE)
when it was a luxury imbibed by the affluent (Lesko 1995). Hence the likelihood that a winepress from
the time of the Egyptian Governor’s residency was used for producing grape juice and not must that
would eventually become wine, is low. Thus, there is solid evidence in the archaeological record for
the production and storage of wine on the acropolis of Tel Aphek, as well as collateral information that
enhances this interpretation.
Pips, skins and bunch fragments are typical remains of pomace, though today the separation of
grapes from bunches is better achieved, and parts of the latter almost never remain among grapes taken
for pressing (Jackson 2000:283-4). Since the finds included pips stuck to skins in their natural positions
(Fig. 20.9), it was assumed at first that these finds represented remains of raisins. However, comparisons
with raisins from Shiloh (Kislev 1993) negates this assumption. At Shiloh, a collection of mostly whole,
carbonized raisins was found. They were swollen, since they also contained the flesh of the grape, which
becomes crumbly after carbonization. In the case of the raisins from Shiloh, carbonization took place
after raisins become dry enough, and thus their flesh was carbonized and therefore, preserved. This
crumbly state was definitively not observed in the charred botanical remains in this locus, indicating the
grape remains were not of raisins.
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
These finds from Tel Aphek include mainly pips and broken skins, as well as small, crushed grapes,
which shrank so that they included only the pip and skin with no flesh. Although the grape remains in
this locus were exposed to extreme heat and became carbonized, that could not have resulted from fresh
grapes exploding due to pressure of steam inside them. Even those pips found in an original position
within their skins were stuck to those skins, almost without evidence of crumbly flesh. Therefore,
despite the survival of many such pips in natural positions, they could neither be remains of raisins nor
of whole grapes, rather they are remains of pomace.
The explanation for those skins with pips in a natural position in this pomace is found in the likelihood
that they passed treading without being completely crushed. Often it was observed that pips were slightly
shifted from their natural position, presumably as a result of treading (Fig. 20.7). Perhaps this type of grape
preservation was due to placement of a thick layer of grapes on the treading floor, or to the application of
gentle treading in order not to break bitter pips and ruin the taste of the wine (Jackson 2000:284).
The juxtaposition of skins and pips in the pomace remains indicates they were not the result of red
wine production. W hen red wines are produced, skins as well as pips of grapes are kept within must in
vats (Frankel 1999:43) for preliminar y fermentation. Skins are purposefully included in order to give
the wine its strong red colour, since the pigments of grapes are in their skins (Jackson 2000:287). Grape
skins are separated from pips as a result of fermentation and the mixture of skins and pips rises to the
surface and floats on top of the must (Jackson 2000:295). After preliminary fermentation, pips and skins
are removed from new wine and the resultant waste is squeezed and dried, becoming a block of pips and
skins without no evidence of natural juxtaposition. In ancient times, wine that had beg un to fer ment was
transferred to pottery vessels, where fermentation continued. Since the pomace from Locus 2731 was
bur nt, most of the pips were found separated or with only a few adhering to skins. Such finds are typical
of pomace of white wine from white grapes, rather than red wine, in which skins are not introduced into
must. That explains the discovery of pips in their natural positions in relation to skins.
It is even possible to suggest a likely season when this pomace was burned. If the remains were wet
at time of burning, the humidity would have been turned into steam, exploding grape skins, which would
have fragmented into small pieces, which was not the case in the pomace from this locus. Therefore, the
pomace must have been dry when it bur ned. Since grape vintage is in late summer, it seems reasonable
that the pomace was dried until autumn and became carbonized before winter.
White Wine produCtion
In making white wine, pips and skins are removed before a first fermentation so that must ferments
alone (Jackson 2000:290). Incomplete treading allows a small quantity of grapes to remain intact or
nearly intact and for some pips to maintain their natural positions and not break away from their skins.
Thus, the botanical finds from Locus 2731 suggest a new method of def ining types of pomace according
to patterns of physical relationships between pips and skins.
Evidence for white wine is rare in the archaeological record. There is some ancient evidence for
white wine production such as depictions in wall paintings in tombs and some written documents
(Chapter 4). In particular, some Egyptian tomb scenes depict grapes in many sizes, shapes and colours,
ranging from light green to almost black, juices running f rom cr ushing vats, and pressing sacks that
range in colour from light pink to dark red. However, to date there has been no direct archaeobotanical
evidence for white wine until this discover y at Tel Aphek. Lesko (1995) claims that it is unclear which
varieties of grapes were used in New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1070 BCE), and whether white wine was
even manufactured there at all in that period.
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Chapter 20: Food rem ains
Definite evidence for making white wine in Egypt is found only from the classical period and later.
Athenaeus, a Greek writer of the 2nd century CE, described several Egyptian wines of his day in his tasting
notes, indicating the abundant Mareotic wine from an area directly south of Alexandria as excellent: “It is white
and pleasant, fragrant, easily assimilated, thin, does not go to the head, and is diuretic“ (Gulick, 1957: I.33d).
There is also some evidence from other regions for white wine production in antiquity. Hittite
documents mention white wi ne several times. It appears that the term “KỪ.BABBAR GEŠTIN” is used in
Hittite texts as a qualitative term for white wine, though literar y distinctions in wine colour in Anatolia
are rare (Gor ny 1995). Red and white wines were also distinguished in early first Millennium BCE
Mesopotamia (Stronach 1995), although red wine is the only variety mentioned for earlier periods there
in which wine is usually referred to with no qualification (Powell 1995) as to its colour. White wine is
mentioned in some Hebrew sources, including several references to it in the Babylonian Talmud : “...if
Cyprus wine is not available, old white wine may be used instead” (Kerithoth 6a in Epstein 1948); “If
one immerses a pail containing white wine or milk, we decide by the excess” (Zebahim 78b in Epstein
1948). For additional references concerning wine production see Frankel (1999:200) and Chapter 4.
This rare, fortuitous find at Tel Aphek, has provided the writers of these lines with possible indications
for production of white wine by Egyptians at Tel Aphek in the Late Bronze Age. It is the first instance of
direct evidence for the manufacture of white wine found in such an early context. Manufacture of white
wine is considered to be more sophisticated than that of red wine, since it demands aging of the liquid in
low temperatures, in full, sealed containers (Jackson 2000:324-326). Perhaps remains of grapes from other
sites, not considered as evidence of pomace in the past, can some day be re-analysed in view of the present
finds. That may yield further evidence for production of white wine in antiquity.
STRATUM X11, LB III/IRON I
The sole vegetal finds from this stratum (Table 20.4) are probably remains of grain crops in Locus 2950,
although its affiliation with Stratum X11 is uncertain. The material possibly derives from fields in
heavy soils near the tell and adjacent to the sources of the Yarkon River, as may be perceived from the
appearance of the species Ranunculus marginatus and sea club-rush (S. maritimus). The finds are few
and similar to those from other strata at Tel Aphek.
TABLE 20.4: PLANT LIST, LOCUS 2950, STRATUM X11
Plant name Plant organ # of Examples
Cereals Hordeum vulgare Grain 20
Triticum parvicoccum Grain 71
Cereals Total 91
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 1
Vicia ervilia Seed 1
Pulses Total 2
Fruits Vitis vinifera Pip 1
Fruits Total 1
Weeds Anagallis arvensis Seed 1
Brachypodium distachyon Grain 2
Bupleurum subovatum Achene 1
Seed 3
Lolium temulentum Grain 24
Phalaris sp. Grain 3
Ranunculus marginatus var. scandicinus*/** Small Seed 1
Scorpiurus muricatus Seed 5
Weeds Total 40
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Wild plants Astragalus asterias Seed 3
Caryophyllaceae Seed 1
Chenopodium murale/vulvaria Seed 2
Malva sp.Seed 2
Ochthodium aegyptiacum Siliqua joint 2
Papilionaceae Small seed 8
Plantago sp. Seed 3
Scirpus maritimus* Nutlet 2
Vicia type Seed 2
Wild plants Total 25
Grand Total 159
* Species growing in humid habitat
** Species growing in heavy soils
$ An estimation of the entire sample was made by counting 10% of the volume
STRATA X10-X9, IRON IB
Strata X10 and X9 are associated with relatively poorly preser ved remains dated to the 11th century
BCE. Finds from Stratum X10 come from pits, while those from Stratum X9 were recovered in layers
of ash. Although Ganot (Chapter 6) claims: “There is no clear stratigraphic connection between the
ash layers and the pits, so the exact temporal relations between the two are not clear.”, this paper will,
nevertheless treat the vegetal assemblages from these strata as if they derive from separate stratigraphic
entities and then compare them.
stratum X10
Material from two pits, Loci 4018 and 1700, was examined. Finds f rom the for mer (Locus 4018) were
very sparse (Table 20.5) and thus, only the finds from Locus 1700 are discussed below.
TABLE 20.5: PLANT LIST – STRATUM X10
Plant name Plant organ
Specimen
1700A
Specimen
1700B
Total Locus
4018
Total
Cereals Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum Rachis frag. 80 80 80
H. vulgare subsp. vulgare Rachis frag. 10 10 10
H. vulgare Grain 164 164 2 166
Rachis node 1 1 1
Rachis frag. 18 13 31 31
Triticum dicoccum Grain 133 19 152 152
T. parvicoccum Grain 101 29 130 10 140
Rachis frag. 38 31 69 69
Spikelet fork 42 17 59 1 60
Cereals Total 587 109 696 13 709
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 13 13 13
Trigonella foenum-graecum/
berythea Seed 5 5 5
Vicia ervilia Seed 74 74 5 79
Vicia faba Seed 2 2 2
Pulses Total 94 94 5 99
Fruits Ficus carica Nutlet 3 3
cf. Punica granatum Fruit 1 1 1
Vitis vinifera Pip 5 5 1 6
Pip imprint 1 1 1
Fruits Total 7 7 4 11
515
Plant name Plant organ
Specimen
1700A
Specimen
1700B
Total Locus
4018
Total
Other
cultivated
plants Cuminum cyminum Achene 1 1 1
Linum usitatissimum Seed 9 4 13 13
Other cultivated plants Total 9 5 14 14
Weeds Anagallis arvensis Seed 1 1 1
Brachypodium distachyon Grain 4 4 8 8
Brassica nigra** Seed 1 6 7 7
Bupleurum subovatum Seed 1 1 1
Cephalaria syriaca
Immature
Achene 2 2 2
Young
capitulum 2 2 2
Chrozophora tinctoria Seed 1 1 1
Chrysanthemum cf. coronarium Achene 1 1 1
Cichorium endivia Achene 3 3 3
Bract 7 7 7
Capitulum 2 2 2
Daucus broteri Achene 1 1 1
D. cf. broteri Seed 1 1 1
Euphorbia sp. Seed 1 1 1
Galium sect. Kolgyda Mericarp 1 1 1
Lolium temulentum Grain 409 48 457 22 479
Phalaris paradoxa Dispersal unit 18 17 35 35
Grain 129 52 181 181
Inflorescence 2 2 2
Phalaris sp. Grain 2 2
Ranunculus arvensis* Seed 1 1 1
Scorpiurus muricatus Seed 1 1 2 4 6
Weeds Total 570 147 717 28 745
Wild plants Ammi cf. majus Achene 1 1 1
Avena barbata Grain 2 2 2
A. barbata/sterilis Grain 6 6 6
Rachis frag. 3 3 3
Brachypodium distachyon Grain 1 1 1
Chenopodium murale Seed 1 1 2 1 3
Compositae Achene 1 1 1
Capitulum 1 1 1
Cruciferae Seed 1 1 1
Cyperaceae Nutlet 1 1 1
Daucus carota ssp. maximus Achene 3 3 3
Fumaria sp.Seed 1 1 1
Lathyrus hierosolymitanus Seed 3 3
Lycium cf. schweinfurthii Seed 1 1 1
Malva sp.Seed 2 2 1 3
Medicago sp. Siliqua frg. 1 1 1
cf. Phleum sp.Grain 1 1 1
Pistacia atlantica Nutlet 1 1 1
Pisum elatius Seed 1 1 1
Rumex pulcher* Nutlet 5 5 5
Seed 1 1 1
Scirpus maritimus* Nutlet 1 1 1
Trifolium sp.Seed 3 3
Vicia type Seed 4 4 3 7
Wild plants Total 31 10 41 11 52
Grand Total 1298 271 1569 61 1630
* Species growing in humid habitat
** Species growing in heavy soils
$ An estimation of the entire sample was made by counting 10% of the volume
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Finds from this locus, a pit, were received in two batches and were marked as ‘specimen’, 1700a
and 1700b. The material of specimen 1700a included more than 100 seeds of pulses and some grape pips;
both these types were absent in specimen 1700b. Pulses from Locus 1700a included either Fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum-graecum) or possibly a closely related species that grows wild in Cisjordan, Beir utian
Fenugre ek (T. berythea), and which has a similar smell and taste. Fenugreek is a minor pulse crop raised
in traditional agricultural communities in the Mediterranean Basin and south-west Asia. The seed is
widely used as a condiment and as an important pulse ingredient for preparation of cur ries and soup
(Zohary and Hopf 2000:122). The seeds are also used as a spice (hilbeh in Arabic) and employed for
their medicinal value. Approximately 4400 carbonised seeds of T. foenum-graecum were discovered in
Stratum X at Tell Qasile, which is roughly contemporary with Strat um X10 at Tel Aphek. Such a large
quantity of seeds indicates, without doubt, that the plant found at Tell Qasile was of a cultivated species,
T. foenum-graecum (Kislev 1990 -1993). It is possible that the inhabitants of Tel Aphek Strat um X10 also
used the same plant for food, but since only a few seeds of it have been identified there, they could as
well be attributed to the wild species T. berythea, since the seeds of both ty pes are very similar.
Locus 1700a also included seeds of Galium (Probably of G. tricornutum), purple wild pea (Pisum
elatius) and Vicia type weeds and other wild plants that typically accompany fields of pulses. Thus, the
assemblage from specimen 1700a probably arrived from two separate fields, one devoted to cultivation
of cereals, the other to pulses. By contrast, the material from specimen 1700b, arrived from a field solely
devoted to the cultivation of cereals.
It should be noticed that among the seeds of bitter vetch, found in specimen 1700a, two were
infested by a weevil (Bruchus sp.). Several species of Bruchus are field pests that prey on pulses and
their infestation may persist for a short time after harvest, but none of these species is able to multiply
in storage and therefore they are never major storage pests (Dobie et al. 1984:34). All Bruchus species,
which are field pests, reproduce by only a single generation per year (Avidov and Harpaz 1969:282).
One of the weeds from specimen 1700b is Syrian scabious (Cephalaria syriaca). Seeds of this plant
are similar in size to wheat grains, and so easily mix with them. If ground together with wheat they ruin
the colour and taste of flour and bread (Kislev 1980). Species such as black mustard (Brassica nigra),
fiddle dock (Rumex pulcher) and sea club-rush (Scirpus maritimus), found in Locus 1700b, may indicate
that at least some of the fields were located in a humid habitat with heavy soils such as those close to
the Yarkon sources. Thus, analyses of the materials in a pit, specimen 1700, arrived from at least two
distinct sources expressed by the two subdivisions within the pit, Specimens 1700a and 1700b.
Finds from this locus are typical of threshing waste that also includes remains after having been
sieved together with tail grain (Hillman 1984). This suggests the likelihood of a close association between
Stratum X10 and Stratum X9 (see below). The largest number of grains from this locus belong to dar nel
(Lolium temulentum) many of which were par tially or f ully hulled (Fig. 20.1) and Canary g rass (Phalaris
paradoxa), including intact dispersal units (Fig 20.12, 20.13) and inflorescence fragments (Fig. 20.14).
In addition to grains of weeds, also found in smaller numbers were grains of wheat (T. parvicoccum)
fairly small and similar to grains of darnel (L. temulentum; Tables 20.6, 20.7; for size comparisons see
Kislev and Melamed 2000). Grains of T. dicoccum and of barley (Hordeum vulgare, Fig. 20.15) were also
present. Since grains of T. dicoccum and of barley are not small (Table 20.6) it seems likely they grew
as accompanying plants in a wheat field, which would explain the presence of their grains as an element
in the botanical waste recovered. It must be noted that it is often difficult to separate small grains of T.
parvicoccum and T. dicoccum, since their shapes and sizes are sometimes similar.
A mixture of two subspecies of barley, two-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum) and
six-rowed barley (H. vulgare subsp. vulgare), was found in Locus 1700. The rachis fragments found
517
Chapter 20: Food rem ains
(Figs. 20.16, 20.17) verify the presence of these subspecies. Grains amounting to a third of a spike of
six-rowed barley are similar to grains of two-rowed barley; the other two-thirds are twisted to a certain
extent and thus, not similar to grains of two-rowed barely. Thus, only detailed analysis and counting
of the two forms of grains found in Locus 1700, and the assumption that the burnt remains from there
represent a reliable sample of material fresh in origin, allow it to be definitively stated the two subspecies
were actually present in this locus. The presence of rachis fragments of barley in Locus 1700 verifies the
presence of two-rowed barley and not only six-rowed barley.
Dispersal units of Canary grass (Phalaris paradoxa) found in Locus 1700 derive from the bottom
of the inflorescence. Those are heavier units than units of the upper part of the inf lorescence and may
have survived as waste products of sifting rather than from the winnowing of grains, since upper, lighter
dispersal units would have been found in material left after winnowing.
Most of the barley grains had been partially or fully hulled after having been separated from the
inflorescence. Also grains of darnel (L. temulentum) remain hulled in their chaff after being separated from
their inflorescence. However, strong fire would cause the chaff to crumble and their remains would not always
be noticeable on the grains. Similarly, grains of P. paradoxa stay in their dispersal units after threshing and
separate from them only in strong fires. This was not the case in Locus 1700, in which the grains were noted
to have been clearly hulled, while some of the P. paradoxa grains were actually still within their dispersal
units. Also present were rachis fragments of wheat (Fig. 20.18) and barley (Figs. 20.16, 20.17), finds common
even today together with tail grain in waste derived from sieving (Hillman 1984).
Recovery of rachis fragments of cereals, dispersal units of P. paradoxa, hulled grains, etc. is
relatively rare in archaeobotanical assemblages because such remains are very delicate. When burned
they tend to be consumed by fire and since this sample was charred, the state of preservation of the
material in Locus 1700, which includes them, is truly exceptional. It also indicates the fire in this pit was
neither strong nor particularly destructive. This is in contrast to botanical finds from other loci at Tel
Aphek, where grains of darnel (L. temulentum) and barley were no longer hulled, and grains of Phalaris
sp. were found without their dispersal units.
The archaeobotanical materials in this pit were clearly accumulated and stored for later utilization.
Based on Hillman (1984), who investigated traditional uses of such material in Turkey, it seems this material
in Locus 1700 was kept as either fuel or food for animals and not as food for the poor. That observation is
infer red by the presence of waste from early stages of grain treatment, such as rachis fragments of wheat
and barley, which are unlikely to be found in material saved as human provender, even for the poor. It is
assumed that all the material from the pit represents a single year of gathering, meaning, it was collected
for annual consumption and was not the result of accumulation year after year.
TABLE 20.6: DIMENSIONS (MM.) AND RATIOS OF GRAINS FROM LOCUS 1700A
Triticum parvicoccum, N=19 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 3.42 2.25 1.75 1.34 0.70
Average 4.27 ±.58 2.68 ±.30 2.25 ±.32 1.60 ±.14 0.84 ±.09
Maximum 5.67 3.33 3.08 1.85 0.97
Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare, N=26 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 4.83 2.33 1.67 1.61 0.65
Average 6.00±.86 3.06±.37 2.30±.30 1.98±.36 0.75±.06
Maximum 8.00 3.83 2.83 3.43 0.86
Hordeum vulgare, N=34 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 5.33 2.58 1.25 1.52 0.48
Average 6.76 ±.76 3.37 ±.34 2.35 ±.35 2.02 ±.27 0.70 ±.08
Maximum 8.08 4.00 3.00 2.74 0.86
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Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Lolium temulentum, N=213 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 2.67 1.33 0.75 1.04 0.29
Average 4.00 ±.42 1.92 ±.26 1.31 ±.18 2.10 ±.22 0.69 ±.08
Maximum 5.17 4.33 1.83 2.90 0.90
cf. Triticum dicoccum, N=70 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 3.75 1.58 1.50 1.72 0.67
Average 5.27 ±.66 2.32 ±.34 2.06 ±.28 2.29 ±.24 0.90 ±.13
Maximum 6.58 3.00 2.75 3.00 1.21
Phalaris paradoxa, N=37 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 1.44 0.64 0.24 1.65 0.33
Average 2.02 ±.30 1.03 ±.17 0.71 ±.17 1.97 ±.21 0.68 ±.11
Maximum 2.64 1.28 1.04 2.69 0.88
Vicia ervilia, N=45 Length Breadth L/B
Minimum 2.52 2.32 1.00
Average 2.94 ±.30 2.67 ±.24 1.10 ±.06
Maximum 4.32 3.48 1.24
TABLE 20.7: DIMENSIONS (MM.) AND RATIOS OF GRAINS FROM LOCUS 1700B
Triticum parvicoccum, N=11 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 3.42 1.83 1.67 1.50 0.77
Average 4.39 ±.58 2.54 ±.37 2.26 ±.34 1.74 ±.17 0.89±.06
Maximum 5.58 3.00 2.83 2.09 0.97
Triticum dicoccum, N=12 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 4.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 0.67
Average 5.01 ±.58 2.13 ±.45 1.85 ±.28 2.41 ±.28 0.89 ±.11
Maximum 5.83 2.75 2.25 2.78 1.00
Lolium temulentum, N=27 Length Breadth Thickness L/B T/B
Minimum 3.12 1.52 1.20 1.73 0.60
Average 3.95 ±.42 1.89 ±.18 1.48 ±.17 2.10 ±.22 0.78 ±.06
Maximum 4.80 2.20 1.80 2.50 0.88
stratum X9
This stratum is described as mostly a series of ash layers spread over ca. 500 m2 (Chapter 6). The
archaeobotanical evidence strongly suggests this area functioned as a threshing area. Only two loci were
analyzed for botanical finds, but since the finds from Locus 3609 were sparse, (Table 20.8) only those
finds from Locus 3456 are discussed here as a sample that may be representative of all the ash layers of
this stratum.
TABLE 20.8: PLANT LIST STRATUM X9
Plant name Plant organ Locus 3456 Locus 3609 Grand Total
Cereals Hordeum vulgare Grain 115 5 120
Rachis frag. 3 3
Triticum dicoccum Grain 10 10
T. parvicoccum Grain 172 7 179
Rachis frag. 2 2
Cereals Total 302 12 314
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 3 1 4
Vicia ervilia Seed 25 25
Pulses Total 28 1 29
Fruits Ficus carica Nutlet 59 59
Olea europaea Stone 1 1
Vitis vinifera Pip 149 2 151
Undeveloped Pip 17 17
Fruits Total 225 3 228
519
Chapter 20: Food rem ains
Plant name Plant organ Locus 3456 Locus 3609 Grand Total
Weeds Anagallis arvensis Seed 34 34
Astragalus hamosus Seed 8 8
Beta vulgaris*/** Fruit 2 2
Brachypodium distachyon Grain 5 5
Bupleurum subovatum Achene 5 5
Seed 1 1
Chrysanthemum coronarium Achene 1 1
Coronilla scorpioides Seed 3 3
Euphorbia helioscopia Seed 1 1
Galium sect. Kolgyda Mericarp 3 3
Hippocrepis unisiliquosa Seed 1 1
Hymenocarpos circinnatus Seed 1 1
Lolium temulentum Grain 272 10 282
Rachis frag. 1 1
Malva parviora Mericarp 4 4
Seed 40 2 42
Medicago cf. littoralis Seed 1 1
Ononis sicula Seed 7 7
Onosma gigantea** Nutlet 1 1
Phalaris sp. Grain 128 4 132
Rapistrum rugosum siliqua joint 2 2
Scorpiurus muricatus Seed 170 1 171
Securigera securidaca Seed 2 2
Trigonella hierosolymitana Seed 1 1
Weeds Total 694 17 711
Wild plants Adonis sp. Nutlet 2 2
cf. Apium nodiorum* Achene 1 1
Astragalus asterias Seed 2 2
Astragalus sp.Seed 6 6
Bellevalia cf. exuosa Seed 1 1
Bromus tigridis/
pseudobrachystachys*/** Grain 6 6
Bromus cf. diandrus** Grain 1 1
Bromus sp.Grain 6 6
Capparis spinosa Seed 1 1
Centaurea procurrens Achene 1 1
Centaurea cf. procurrens Achene 2 2
Chenopodium murale Seed 84 84
Chenopodium murale/vulvaria Seed 1 1
Compositae Achene 2 2
Convolvulus oleifolius Seed 2 2
Cyperaceae Nutlet 2 2
Seed 2 2
Cyperaceae/Polygonaceae Nutlet 3 3
Seed 40 40
Erodium moschatum Seed 1 1
Fumaria sect. Fumaria Seed 5 5
Gynandriris sisyrinchium Seed 1 1
Heliotropium europaeum Seed 5 5
Lathyrus sect. Cicercula Seed 1 1
Liliaceae Seed 2 2
Linum sp.Seed 1 1
Malva sp.Seed 83 83
Malva/Lavatera Seed 25 25
Medicago polymorpha Seed 3 3
Medicago polymorpha/minima Seed 2 2
Medicago sp. Seed 21 2 23
Mercurialis annua Seed 4 4
Ononis sp.Seed 5 5
520
Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Plant name Plant organ Locus 3456 Locus 3609 Grand Total
Papilionaceae Small seed 266 266
Piptatherum sp.Grain 1 1
Rumex pulcher* Nutlet 2 2
Seed 3 3
Rumex/Polygonum Nutlet 8 8
Seed 8 8
Schoenus nigricans* Seed 1 1
Scirpus lacustris* Nutlet 4 4
S. litoralis* Nutlet 38 38
Seed 2 2
S. maritimus* Nutlet 10 1 11
S. maritimus/lacustris* Nutlet 7 7
Scirpus sp.* Nutlet 3 3
Seed 5 5
Thymelaea hirsuta Nutlet 1 1
Thymelaea passerina Nutlet 4 4
Trifolium cf. spumosum* Seed 1 1
Trifolium clusii Seed 1 1
Trifolium sp.Seed 3 3
Trigonella sp.Seed 2 2
Vicia type Seed 7 7
Vitex agnus-castus* Fruit 1 3 4
Wild plants Total 702 6 708
Grand Total 1951 39 1990
* Species growing in humid habitat
** Species growing in heavy soils
$ An estimation of the entire sample was made by counting 10% of the volume
loCus 3456
The archaeobotanical f inds f rom Locus 3456 are very rich. The material volume was not large but there
were many findings in it, especially a variety of weeds and wild species that were represented here.
About 20 samples were taken from this locus and preliminarily examined in the laboratory. Material
from five representative samples was fully identified and is presented in Table 20.8.
Some of the vegetal finds from Stratum X9 are typical of remains associated with threshing floors.
They include threshing waste such as products derived from sifting of grains that would be likely to be
collected in the area of a threshing f loor. Judging from the ver y large variety of weeds and wild plants
in the assemblage of this stratum, one may conclude that grains were brought directly from the fields to
this area before being further sorted and treated.
These finds indicate that more than one natural habitat was exploited by the inhabitants of Tel
Aphek in this period. Some plants, including coast club-rush (Scirpus litoralis; Fig. 20.4); sea club-
rush (Scirpus maritimus), black bog-rush (Schoenus nigricans; Fig. 20.19), giant golden-drop (Onosma
gigantea; Fig. 20.20) and possibly fool’s watercress (cf. Apium nodiorum; Fig. 20.21), originated in
nearby wet fields (see discussion above). Some few additional seeds belong to species that grow in
light, drier soils such as shaggy spa r row-wor t (Thymelaea hirsuta) and procumbent centaury (Centaurea
procurrens). Possibly, the f inds indicate a mixture of waste f rom wheat fields in heavy soils in a humid
habitat, with waste from barley fields in light soils in a drier region. Grape pips and fig nutlets were also
present. They show the th reshing area was not used solely for its primary function, but was also utilized
for additional agricultural purposes.
The archaeobotanical finds from Strata X10 and X9 may signify that waste from activity around the
threshing area of Stratum X9 was thrown into pits ascribed to Stratum X10 for eventual use as fodder or
521
Chapter 20: Food rem ains
fuel. Since Locus 3456 is not near Locus 1700 (a pit), it must be said that this hypothesis is based on the
assumption that all the area of the ash layers was used for the same purpose and that all the pits of Stratum
X10 were used for storage. However, the botanical finds from Strata X10 and X9 are not identical. There
are many more species and seeds of weeds and wild plants in Stratum X9 than in Stratum X10. There
are many small seeds of many species in Strat um X9 and almost none in Stratum X10. Examples of
these small seeds are coast club-rush (Scirpus litoralis), nettle-leaved goosefoot (Chenopodium murale),
scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis), barbary nut (Gynandriris sisyrinchium; Fig. 20.22) as well as
many species of small seeded Papilionaceae. These diminutive seeds may have fallen during sieving and
thus did not reach the pits. W hat did get placed in the pits were mainly plant parts and seeds that were
larger than the size of the holes of the sieves that were used.
When burning occurred within the pit, it appears the fire was less intense than that in the area of the
threshing floor, because in the deeper recesses of the pit there was less oxygen. Such a situation could
explain the better state of preservation of botanical remains within the pit, including delicate parts of
plants such as rachis fragments of wheat and barley, distribution units of Canary grass (Phalaris paradoxa)
and hulled grains, unlike the botanical finds from Stratum X9 which included very few hulled grains.
STRATUM X8, IRON IIA
Thirty seven pits were ascribed to this stratum. They are assumed to have functioned as silos for grain
storage. Contents of two stone-lined pits (Loci 4807 and 4813) and three unlined pits (Loci 4015, 4026
and 5013) were examined for botanical finds (Table 20.9). Only in two pits (Loci 4015 and 5013) were
there signif icant finds indicating they may have functioned as silos. Several pits, Loci 4807, 4813 and
4026, yielded very few seeds and so the finds from them do not allow for any significant conclusions. If
they were indeed silos, then no archaeological evidence remained to prove it, perhaps, because they did
not suffer conf lagration.
TABLE 20.9: PLANT LIST – AREA X, STRATUM 8
Plant name Plant organ Locus 4015 Total
Locus
4026
Locus
4807
Lo c u s
4813
L o c u s
5013 Total
Jar A Jar C$Jar E Jar F$
Cereals Hordeum vulgare Grain 3295 8830 184 6690 18999 2 19 19020
Rachis node 20 20 20
Triticum dicoccum Grain 1 7 8
T. parvicoccum Grain 1 10 11 4 3 11 135 164
Spikelet fork 1 1
Cereals Total 3295 8850 185 6700 19030 4 4 13 162 19213
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 10 10 1 47 58
Vicia ervilia Seed 2 207 209
Vicia faba Seed 1 20 21
Pulses Total 10 10 4 274 288
Fruits Ficus carica Nutlet 1 1
Olea europaea Stone 10 10 1 11
Vitis vinifera Crushed grape 1 1
Pip 10 10 1 1 78 90
Undeveloped
pip 1 1
Fruits Total 10 10 20 3 2 79 104
Other
cultivated
plants
Linum
usitatissimum Seed 4 20 10 34 1 2 14 51
Other cultivated plants Total 4 20 10 34 1 2 14 51
522
Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
Plant name Plant organ Locus 4015 Total
Locus
4026
Locus
4807
Lo c u s
4813
L o c u s
5013 Total
Jar A Jar C$Jar E Jar F$
Weeds Avena sterilis Grain 10 10 10
Brachypodium
distachyon Grain 1 20 21 1 22
Bupleurum
subovatum Seed 1 1
Cephalaria syriaca Achene 47 47
Chrysanthemum
coronarium Achene 1 1
Coronilla
scorpioides Seed 2 2
Galium sect.
Kolgyda Mericarp 1 1
Hordeum glaucum Grain 2 2 2
Leopoldia comosa Seed 23 23
Lolium temulentum Grain 17 170 2 10 199 2 11 717 929
Phalaris sp. Grain 5 10 20 35 3 460 498
Ranunculus
marginatus var.
scandicinus*/** Seed 1 8 9
Scorpiurus
muricatus Seed 1 1 30 31
Weeds Total 26 180 2 60 268 1 2 16 1289 1576
Wild plants
Avena barbata/
sterilis Grain 1 1 1
cf. Apium
nodiorum* Achene 1 1 1
Bellevalia/Muscari Seed 1 1 1
Compositae Achene 2 2
Convolvulus
secundus Seed 1 1
Fumaria sp.Seed 1 1
Lathyrus sect.
Cicercula Seed 3 10 13 13
Linum sp.Seed 14 14
Malva sp.Seed 1 53 54
Medicago sp. Seed 10 10 1 10 21
Papilionaceae Small seed 3 4 7
Rumex pulcher* Nutlet 1 1
Seed 1 1
Vicia type Seed 1 10 1 10 22 1 9 32
Vitex agnus-castus* Fruit 1 10 11 1 1 3 16
Wild plants Total 8 20 1 30 59 5 3 99 166
Grand Total 3333 9083 188 6820 19421 10 10 40 1917 21398
* Species growing in humid habitat
** Species growing in heavy soils
$An estimation of the whole sample was made by counting 10% of the volume
loCus 5013
Tail grains of wheat and barley (small grains) were found in this pit. A few of the wheat grains were
infected by granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius). With the grains was found a large number of typical
grain-fields weeds, darnel (Lolium temulentum) and Phalaris sp. There were also many seeds of Syrian
scabious (Cephalaria syriaca), noted above as a weed, the seeds of which, if mixed with grains and
milled, spoil flour (Kislev 1980). There were also pulses, probably derived from accompanying plants
523
Chapter 20: Food rem ains
rather than fields of pulses, since weeds that typically accompany the last were not found. Seeds of bitter
vetch found in this pit show great variation in size, a typical feature of an accompanying weed. The
presence of Ranunculus marginatus may hint that the origin of this wheat is in fields within a humid
habitat of heavy soils, such as that adjacent to the tell, near the Yarkon River and its sources. Vine pips
were also found in another pit, Locus 5013. However, since the vine is not related to grain fields, its
presence in this pit indicates that the pit functioned as depository for refuse2.
loCus 4015
Several intact jars (Labelled A, C, E and F)3 containing cultivated barley grains were found in this pit.
They were mixed with plaster or burnt clay. All the grains from jars A and E were counted, as well as
a sample of 10 percent of the volume of grains from jars C and F. In addition, one hundred grains each
from jars A, C and F, were measured (Table 20.9). The grains were burnt and somewhat swollen. Paleas
had been separated from the grains or were burned and crumbled, so only grains remained. Some grains
were broken, but could still be clearly identified as barley. Some of them are of six-rowed barley, as is
discerned by their twisted forms (see above: Stratum X10, Locus 1700).
The condition of the grains indicates this collection of barley was cached after sorting and not
as found in the f ield. The low rate of only ca. 1 to 2% of weeds indicates a high level of cleaning
and meticulous sorting of the barley that can only be interpreted as evidence of highly labor-intensive
activity. Notably, all the contents of the jars in this locus showed signs of infestation by the granary
weevil (Sitophilus granarius; Dobie et al. 1984:45-8) that damaged cereal grains. So, despite the very
intense effort invested in sor ting barley seeds for storage in jars, the work of the sorters was subject to
ruin by insects that could, in a short while, destroy entire stores of grain.
Barley, unlike wheat, succeeds in d ry conditions and can therefore be grown in drier regions. In
this case, however, it was probably grown near the mound, in wet and heavy soils. The evidence for
this is found in remains of the Lilac chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus; Fig. 20.3) and also possibly fool’s
watercress (cf. Apium nodiorum), discovered in Jar F, They indicate that barley fields were located near
the Yarkon river and its sources.
TABLE 20.10: DIMENSIONS (MM) AND RATIOS OF HORDEUM VULGARE (BARLEY) GRAINS
FROM LOCUS 4015
Length Breadth Thickness L/B
Jar A, N = 100 T/B
Minimum 4.05 2.33 1.67 1.36 0.63
Average 5.69±.55 3.06±.27 2.40 ±.30 1.87 ±.19 0.78 ±.08
Maximum 7.05 3.75 3.17 2.31 1.09
Jar C, N = 100
Minimum 3.30 2.33 1.75 1.32 0.63
Average 5.68 ±.71 3.12 ±.36 2.54 ±.41 1.84 ±.24 0.81 ±.07
Maximum 8.05 3.92 4.67 2.54 1.00
Jar F, N = 100
Minimum 4.63 2.42 1.92 1.41 0.70
Average 5.74 ±.59 3.15 ±.32 2.59 ±.35 1.84 ±.23 0.82 ±.08
Maximum 7.80 3.75 3.58 2.36 1.14
2. The carbonized vine pips were not preserved in the usual way as black hollow pips. Rather, a black/brown inner imprint of
pips was preserved. This inner imprint can be formed when hollow pips are filled by some material that leaves a positive
impression of the pip, after the peel falls away.
3. These jars were each assigned different excavation unit numbers: Jar A = Basket 39127/90; Jar C = Baskets 39130/90 and
39131/91; Jar E = Basket 39137/90; Jar F = Basket 39169/91.
524
Mordechai E. Kislev and Yael Mahler-Slasky
AREA A, THE WINEPRESSES (CONTEMPORARY WITH STRATUM X12-X13)
Finds from the winepresses in Area A (Table 20.11; Chapter 4) do not include pomace. Rather, the area
yielded a small quantity of waste that includes mainly small quantities of wheat grains and accompanying
weeds lacking any special significance.
TABLE 20.11: PLANT LIST – AREA A
Plant name Plant organ Locus 3216 Locus 3223 Locus 3224 Total
Cereals Hordeum vulgare Grain 2 2
Triticum dicoccum Grain 1 2 3
T. parvicoccum Grain 8 5 13
Cereals Total 11 7 18
Pulses Lens culinaris Seed 1 1
Pulses Total 1 1
Fruits Vitis vinifera Pip 1 1 1 3
Undeveloped pip 1 1
Fruits Total 2 1 1 4
Weeds Avena sterilis Grain 2 2
Centaurea iberica Achene 1 1
Chrysanthemum coronarium Achene 3 3
Emex spinosa Seed 1 1
Lolium temulentum Grain 7 5 12
Malva parviora Mericarp 2 2
Phalaris paradoxa Grain 6 6
Phalaris sp. Grain 1 1
Scorpiurus muricatus Seed 1 1
Weeds Total 19 10 29
Wild plants Malva sp. Seed 2 2
Polygonum arenastrum Nutlet 1 1
Vicia type Seed 3 3 6
Wild plants
Total 6 3 9
Grand Total 39 1 21 61
CONCLUSIONS
Tel Aphek is situated in a fertile plain, surrounded by lands that permit a large variety of crops to be
grown. The finds from the different strata under discussion provide ample evidence of this capability.
Crops that formed a basis for the diet of the inhabitants of Aphek include grains, pulses and fruits. A
collection of grapes from Palace VI indicates production of white wine, probably by the Egyptians who
dwelled at the site, while a collection of barley from later deposits indicates grains were stored in jars
within granary pits in the 10th cent. BCE. Although not all strata furnished significant collections of
crop grains, they did yield evidence of agricultural waste products from which, it may be deduced, that
the inhabitants of Tel Aphek were primary producers of grains in nearby fields.
The archaeobotanical finds from these levels show throughout these periods that dwellers at Tel
Aphek utilized the surrounding heavy soils of the humid habitat near the Yarkon River for various crops.
Wheat grains and waste from wheat fields, found in physical association with the letter from Ugarit in
the debris of Palace VI, show that at the end of the Late Bronze Age Tel Aphek filled an important role
as producer of wheat and may have had trade relations with Ugarit. Lack of fruits such as dates almonds
and carobs show the inhabitants were satisfied with their local crops and had no trade with the Jordan
valley, the central highlands nor the Negev regions. The rich and varied archaeobotanical finds from Tel
Aphek provide abundant evidence for weeds and wild plants that grew around the Yarkon River sources
in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages.
525
Chapter 20: Food rem ains
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APHEK-ANTIPATRIS II
THE REMAINS ON THE ACROPOLIS
The Moshe Kochavi and Pirhiya BecK excavaTions
yuval GadoT and esTher yadin
With contributions by
Gabriella Bachi, David Ben-Shlomo, Elisabetta Boaretto, Eyal Bozaglo, Assaf Yasur-Landau,
Rafael Frankel, Ayelet Gilboa, Yuval Goren, Marta Guzowska, Liora Kolska Horwitz,
Mordechai E. Kislev, Nir Lalkin, Omri Lernau, Nili Liphschitz, Yael Mahler-Slasky, Mario A.S. Martin,
Henk K. Mienis, Nadav Na<aman, Ilan Sharon, Sariel Shalev, Itamar Singer, Na<ama Yahalom-Mack
EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY, TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY
TEL AVIV 2009
