Factors Affecting Walkability of Neighborhoods

Abstract

Planning and designing for walking is crucial for promoting a healthy public life, creating sustainable neighborhoods, enhancing social life and economy. This research paper identifies the factors that contribute to increased urban walkability in order to improve neighborhood sustainability and public life. For the research to gauge the perception of walkability, a case study was conducted in a neighborhood that provided an opportunity to analyze the walking behavior of pedestrians in a variety of urban built environment. Mehrauli, one of the most traditional settlements in New Delhi, India, was taken up for primary case study as it functioned like an urban laboratory with both traditional and modern settlements in the same vicinity. Streets selected based on varying levels of usage by pedestrians were studied through activity mapping and public surveys to understand the underlying factors that led to certain streets being rendered more walkable than the others. The results showed that the most important factors affecting pedestrians’ perception of walkbility were related to the built envelop on either side of the streets. Factors relating to urban morphology like enclosure, block length and edge conditions were found crucial in creating the perception of a walkable neighborhood.

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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
1877-0428 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange
doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.12.048
Urban Planning and Architecture Design for Sustainable Development, UPADSD 14- 16 October
2015
Factors affecting walkability of neighborhoods
Richa Singh
a
a
B.Arch, Sushant School of Art and Architecture,Gurgaon, Haryana, India
Architect, Urban Architecture Works, New Delhi-110065, India
Abstract
Planning and designing for walking is crucial for promoting a healthy public life, creating sustainable
neighborhoods, enhancing social life and economy. This research pap
er identifies the factors that contribute to
increased urban walkability in order to improve neighborhood sustainability
and public life. For the research to
gauge the perception of walkability, a case study was conducted in a neighborhood that provided an opportunity to
analyze the walking behavior of pedestrians in a variety of urban built environment. Mehrauli, one of the most
traditional settlements in New Delhi, India, was taken up for primary case study as it functioned like an urban
laboratory with both traditional and modern settlements in the same vicinity. Streets selected based on varying levels
of
usage by pedestrians were studied through activity mapping and public surveys to understand the underlying
factors that led to certain streets being rendered more w
alkable than the others. The results showed that the most
important factors affecting pedestrians' perception of walkbility were related to the built envelop on either side of
the streets. Factors relating to urban morphology like enclosure, block length and edge conditions were found crucial
in creating the perception of a walkable neighborhood.
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange.
Keywords: walkability; sustainable neighborhoods; urban morphology; social life; public health
1. Introduction
Walking is the oldest form of urban transport, and u
ntil the advent of major transformations in transport technology
in the nineteenth century, most cities were structured in ways that supported walkability (Newman and Kenworthy
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange

644 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
1999). As individual private car transport became widespread during the twentieth century, public transport and
urban walkability became less apparent as major priorities of transport planning and urban design. As concern for
future urban sustainability increases, walking is again being recognised as an important mode of urban transport.
Much of the renewed attention on urban walkability is associated with concerns that car dependent cities will not be
sustainable in the future, due to energy costs, fuel availability, congestion, pollution and other environmental
impacts. The reported benefits of walking are not new; it’s common knowledge that we benefit physically when we
are active. It’s a free activity that can increase personal well-being and longevity of good health.
According to the American Journal of Public Health, ped
estrian oriented neighbourhoods also increase individual
and collective social capital. Social capital is an umbrella term that measures things like involvement in local
government and community trust. Greater social capital has been linked with better community health, decreased
crime rates and even increased economic activity. In pedestrian oriented communities that are highly walkable,
residents are likely to walk to places such as corner markets, restaurants, schools, places of worship, public parks
and oth
er establishments necessary for life. While walking about their neighbourhood, residents can interact with
their surroundings more regularly and thus feel more connected to and responsible for their physical community.
Fu
rthermore, residents will also interact more frequently with their neighbours, creating a denser community
n
etwork which can increase individual peace of mind, community trust and may decrease crime rates. In the
trad
itional settlements buildings opened out directly on the streets as there were no huge setbacks. People took the
ownership of the whole street on which they lived. All the windows and balconies looked on to the street making it
even safer. As Jane Jacobs said it put Eyes
on the Street. This morphology acted like a catalyst in promoting street
activity. Through literature review and also through an empirical study, this pap
er tries to investigate the concept of
walkability by trying to understand the different ways the built environment influences walking. The knowledge that
th
is paper tries to produce is not only whether or not, but more
on how and why the built environment influences
walking behaviour.
2. Walkability and built environment
Face
-to-face human interactions in a neighborhood are extremely relevant for supporting livability, safety and
con
trol, economic development, participation, and identity (Jacobs, 1961;Goffman, 1963, 1967; Lemert and
Branaman, 1997). Many researchers like Oscar Newman, William Whyte and Jan Gehl focus their research on the
observ
ation of people in real-life situations to determine how the built en
vironment impacts social wellness
(Newman, 1973; Gehl, 1987, c. 1980; Whyte, 1988). The results of
their studies helped guide designers to rethink
the impact of their plans upon real life.
Whyte (1980) pointed out that people-watching is one of the primary activities shared by different classes of people
in
public spaces. Simple amusements, such as walking, talking, eating, and sports, also give a street diverse life.
W
hyte describes that, in democratic streets, a social connection links ground floor building uses to the adjacent
street space. A truly walkable street has a healthy relationship between the private or semi-public life inside
bu
ildings and the public world outside. Whyte argues that “dead” uses, such as businesses without display windows,
banks, offices, parking garages, and storage areas with blank walls, should not be placed along the public street. On
the other hand, uses, such as news-stands or restaurants can enhance walkability. In residential neighborhoods, the
place
ment of kitchen windows, as well as other building elements, such as ledges encourage sitting and can enhance
th
e social life of the street and thus make it more walkable. Whyte’s recommendations for providing “sittable space”
(1980) have also been considered useful to the design and management of the streets. Jan Gehl’s works (Gehl, 1980;
Gehl, 2010) are also one of the most cited works of literature con
cerning designing the city for pedestrians. Gehl

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Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
discusses issues in urban design which may contribute to creating urban environments that support and enhance
walking activity. Similar to the other literature that emphasizes the design at the street and ground level, Gehl also
describes how the treatment of the lower floors of buildings, has a decisive influence on life in the city space. In
explaining what he refers to as soft edges, he describes how pedestrians experience ground floors closely and
intensely. Walking in the city leaves ample time to experience everything that ground floors have to offer, and to
savour the wealth of detail and information. An ideal “soft edge” would
be a street with shops lined up, transparent
facades, large windows, many openings and goods on display, where there is much to see and touch. Gehl argues
that the city at eye level is the most important scale for city planning. In his book, Cities for People, Gehl presents
details for how to design good cities for walking. He discusses in specific detail the urban design issues related to
w
alking, such as the acceptable walking distance, providing room to walk freely and unhampered, avoidance of
stairs, pavements, straight sightlines, and interesting things to see at the eye level (Gehl, 2010).
2.1. Measuring the unmeasurable
Urban Design Qualities Related to W
alkability (Ewing & Handy, 2009)
A recent study from the urban design field has attempted to
measure subjective qualities of the urban street
environment, with the purpose of providing researchers with operational definitions which they can use to measure
the street environment and test for significant associations with walking behaviour (Ewing & Handy, 2009). This
s
tudy investigated numerous perceptual qualities that may affect the walking environment to which the urban design
literature points (Ewing, 1996). While the urban design literature has not attempted to objectively measure these
perceptu
al qualities with few exceptions, this study tries to objectively measure seemingly subjective qualities of the
walking environment. The conceptual framework presented below in Figure 1, is an interesting analysis of the
relationship between the perception of the environment, physical features of the built environment and walking
behaviour.
Figu
re 1
The approach is to link specific physical features to urban design quality ratings by a panel of experts for a sample
of commercial streets. Of the 51 perceptual qualities, eight were selected for further study based on the importance
assigned to them in the literature: imageability, enclosure, huma
n scale, transparency, complexity, legibility, linkage
and coherence. Among these, the first five were successfully operationalized. The operational definitions are based
on ratings made by the expert panel of video clips of 48 commercial streets from across the United States (Ewing et
al., 2006). The consensus qualitative definition of the urban design qualities will be briefly described here, followed
by
Table 1 showing the significant physical features of each quality.

646 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
x Imageability is th
e quality of a place that makes it distinct, recognizable and memorable. A place has high
imageability when specific physical elements and their arrangement capture attention, evoke feelings and
create a lasting impression.
x Enclosure refers to the degree to which streets and other p
ublic spaces are visually defined by buildings,
walls, trees and other vertical elements. Spaces where the height of vertical elements is proportionally
related to the width of the space between them have a room-like quality.
x Human scale refers to a size, texture, and articulation o
f physical elements that match the size and
proportions of humans and, equally important, correspond to the speed at which humans walk.
x Transparency refers to the degree to which people can see or perceive what lies beyond the edge of a street
and, the degree to which people can see or perceive human activity beyond the edge of a street.
x Complexity refers to the visual richness of a place. The com
plexity of a place depends on the variety of the
physical environment, specifically the numbers and types of buildings, architectural diversity and
ornamentation, landscape elements, street furniture, signage and human activity. (Ewing & Handy, 2009).
URBAN DESIGN QUALITY
SIGNIFICANT PHYSICAL FEATURES
Imageability
People
Courtyards/ plazas/ parks
Outdoor dining
Major landscape features
Buildings with identifiers
Enclosure
Proportion street wall - same side
Proportion street wall - opposite side
Proportion sky across
Proportion sky ahead
Long sight lines
Human scale
All street furniture and other street items
Proportion first floor with windows
Building height - same side
Transparency
Proportion first floor with windows
Number of active users
Proportion street wall - same side
Complexity
People
Buildings
Dominant building colours
Outdoor dining
Public art
Table 1

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Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
Walkability at the urban design level
As mentioned by Du
any, Andres (2000). The ways in which buildings are arranged on a site has an effect on where
a street and its context fall in the continuum of walk-ability. The specific elements of Urban Morphology that
co
ntribute to defining the vitality of an urban space include:
x Building orientation and setback: In places that have less priority for w
alking, buildings typically will be
less related to the street either by large setbacks into private property or oriented toward a parking lot rather
than the street. By contrast, a context with traditional urban character will have buildings oriented toward
and often adjacent to the thoroughfare and therefore a higher priority for pedestrian travel. The directness
of the pedestrian connection to the building entry from the thoroughfare distinguishes a context with
traditional urban character. In these locations, buildings may form a continuous built edge or street wall (a
row of buildings that have no side yards and consistent setback at the thoroughfare edge).
x Block length: Development patterns with traditional urban characteristic
s usually have short block lengths
with a system of highly connected thoroughfares, local streets and alleys. Vehicle-dominated contexts have
larger blocks, less complete street connectivity and usual
ly no alleys; this pattern makes walking distances
longer and, therefore, it is likely that fewer people will walk between destinations.
x Building height an
d street enclosure: Buildings are the primary feature of urban contexts that create a sense
of definition and enclosure on a street—an important urban design element that helps create the experience
of being in a city and in a place that is comfortable for pedestrians. The threshold when pedestrians stop
perceiving enclosure is a 1:4 ratio of building height to street width—typical of low-density environments.
I
n denser urban contexts, height-to-width ratios between 1:3 and 1:2 create an ap
propriate enclosure on a
thoroughfare. Highly walkable streets have a ratio of 1.5 to 2.
x Building scale and variety: This helps define the context and character o
f a street and encourages walking
by providing visual interest to the street. The scale and variety of buildings should help define the scale of
the pedestrian environment. Vehicle-oriented building scale maximizes physical and visual accessibility by
driv
ers and auto passengers, contributing to contexts that discourage walking.
2.2. Research question and methodology
Through literature review and empirical study, the research q
uestion this paper investigates is to understand the
relationship between urban form and walking, by carefully understanding the context and condition of the given
environment, and, based upon that context, to study in detail how the different factors of the built environment
appear to influence walking. The major factors identified in literature review on walkability will be focused on in
order to investigate in greater detail how and why they influence walking.
A qualitative method is used for the collection of data relating to walking behaviour through an observational site
stu
dy. As this study requires the author to deal with both the built environment and the people, the study method for
th
is project combines the observation method often used in studies on urban form with the anthropological approach
in observing human behaviour. Therefore, this paper has combined different approaches and methods in both
co
llecting and analyzing data and deriving knowledge from the results in its empirical study. In the empirical study,
th
e walking behaviours of the individuals were documented in detail by observing:
x the perceived relative level of pedes
trian density and its patterns
x the route choices made for the walking trips by tracking pedestrians
x the presence of different types of morphological factors during the walking activity

648 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
3. The empirical study
Mehrauli is situated in the South Delhi Planning Zone F-15. It is located on the spur of the Aravalli range of
m
ountains, which lie on the west of the Qutab complex. Mehrauli is referred to as an ‘urban village’ and is one of
the 111 traditional settlements within the urban area of Delhi, which have been urbanized in the last few decades.
The settlement of Mehrauli has evolved over several centuri
es, each layer leaving an imprint of its own in the
development of the village.
3.1. Why Mehrauli?
Mehrauli is one of the most traditional settlements in Delhi
which has started to be urbanized in the last few
decades. Therefore on one hand we see the presence of a ver
y organic settlement which has developed over the
years and on the other there are private housing developments happening in pockets (mostly on the periphery). Thus
Mehrauli offers an opportunity to analyze the morphological shift from the organic settlements and its varying
impacts on the street activity and walkability in
th
e neighbourhood.
3.2. Activity Mapping
The area under study was walked on foot and a
g
eneral idea of the activity zones was gathered.
The streets with a definite high density of people
were marked on the map that was carried with the
author at all times of the study. This mapping was
done purely from the visible density of people on
the streets and was not influenced by any other
factor. This was done to basically get a larger
picture of the activity distribution in the studied
area. Also, the mapping was crucial in
documenting the highly active streets and the
streets with low or no activity.
Figure 2 illustrates the activity mapping via
densit
y of people. The yellow dots are the
pedestrians observed on the streets. The streets
where the density of yellow dots is more are the
on
es where most activity was observed. The
streets where the density of dots decreases are the
ones which had less activity/ less no. of people.
The mapping shown here is not done by counting
th
e exact number of people but is more relative in
nature thus the results obtained cannot be used to
deter
mine the exact number of people on any
street.
Figure 2 Source: Author

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Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
3.3. Observation study
The documentation of the observations was mainly in the form of field notes and the survey conducted. During the
observ
ation, since tracking the pedestrians constituted a large part of the f
ield work and required care in order to not
offend the pedestrian being observed, photographing was avoided during most of the observation, and photographs
of the site were taken on separate occasions following the main part of the observation. The questions asked in the
survey were prepared beforehand and were asked in a very simple language to obtain natural responses. The
questions were structured in a way that they hinted on obtaining the level to which a persons’ decision to be in a
particular street, at a particular point of time was affected by the built environment/urban morphology. Table 2
belo
w, illustrates the questionnaire that was used for street activity analysis.
Factor
Source/ Respondent
Indicator(Question asked)
Purpose
Street width to building
height ratio
Residents of Mehrauli
On a scale of 1-10, what
degree of enclosure do you
feel while on this street?
Indicates the comfort level of
people while on that street.
Block length
Residents of Mehrauli
Out of these two, on which
street do you feel that you
have to walk less?
Indicates the perceived length
of a particular street/corridor.
Scale and variety
Residents of Mehrauli,
floating population.
Out of these three sketches
showing street elevation,
which one would you pick for
this street?
Indicates the perceived scale
of the street.
Detractors
Residents of Mehrauli
What is the one thing that you
are afraid of on this street?
Indicates the perception of
safety on that particular street
in the minds of the
population.
Softness
The shop owners
The residents and the floating
population
Are you able to monitor the
people who are present on
your street?
Do you, as a customer feel
connected or invited to the
shops present on this street?
Indicates transparency and
transitional space provided
by the buildings on the street.
Entries
Residents of Mehrauli
Why and how often do you
use this street?
Indicates the connectivity of
the street to the buildings of
either side.
Visual complexity
Residents of Mehrauli and
floating population
What number of colours
would you associate this
street with? Mention the
colours.
Out of these three sketches
showing street elevation,
which one would you pick for
this street?
Indicates the amount of
variety in the streetscape.
Thus implying the degree of
interest of people in the
street.
Table 2 Source: Author

650 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
3.4. Results and analysis - Selected observation study and survey
x Enclosure and safety
The data obtained by
the survey, when
analyzed, helps in
establishing a relation
between the degree of
enclosure felt in a street
to the degree of safety
felt by the people when
walking on that street.
A graph was plotted
with Enclosure and
Safety as two variables,
these were studied
across the three
identified streets and
responses by the people
were plotted on the
graph on a range of 1 to
10, 10 being the most
enclosed and the most
safe. It was observed
that as the feeling of
enclosure experienced
by the people increased
the level of safety felt
by them while walking
on the street also
increased. Though as
the feeling of enclosure
was plotted to be above
7, the feeling of safety decreased drastically. This could be related to the fact that the streets having buildings too
close to each other and very less sunlight entering the street, tend to make people uncomfortable and claustrophobic
while walking on these streets.
Thus it was concluded that Enclosure and Safety are directly proportional to each other until a point where if the
enclosure increases any further, the feeling of safety starts to drop. We see that the traditional and old streets of
Mehrauli offer a very comfortable and walkable enclosure due to the building morphology (Street 2). Although the
very old residential streets are considered to be claustrophobic in nature (Street 3) due to the building typology
present on either sides of the street.
Street 1
Street 2
Street 3

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Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
x Block length and perceived walking distance
The data obtained by the survey,
when analyzed, helps in
establishing a relation between
the average block length of
buildings on a street to the
perceived walking distance. A
graph was plotted with Block
length and Perceived walking
distance as two variables, these
were studied across the two
identified streets and responses by
the people were plotted on the
graph. It is crucial here to state
that both the streets selected were
commercial in nature and both
were approx. of 30 meters in
length. The only factor thus
varying was the average block
length of the streets. Street 1 had
an average block length of 8
meters whereas Street 2 had an
average block length of 3 meters.
It was observed that as the
average block length increased,
the walking distance to cover that
street as perceived by people also
increased. All the respondents on
Street 1 (block length-8 meters)
perceived the street to be 50-80
meters long. Whereas the
respondents on street 2 (block length-3 meters) perceived the street to be shorter than it actually was. Most of them
perceived the street to be 15 meters long (half of the actual distance). Thus it was concluded that Block length and
perceived walking distance are directly proportional to each other. Shorter block lengths make the streets more
walkable as people perceive the distances to be shorter and prefer taking such routes, thus increasing the street
activity.
Street 1
Street 2

652 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
x Softness and street vitality
Shopkeepers on certain identified streets with high pedestrian activity were asked whether they were able to monitor
the pedestrians on the street from their shops. The answers obtained were listed street wise and were then analyzed.
On Street 1, most of the shop keepers felt connected to the activities happening on the street. They were able to
monitor pedestrians’ activity on the street and felt connected to the surroundings. On Street 2 also, was packed with
small shops and eateries which were open on the ground floor. The shop keepers felt that many people walking were
attracted to the shops on the street and would automatically come inside the shop to buy daily use things. Pedestrians
were also asked if they could relate to the shops and if they felt invited into the shops. Most of them agreed to the
fact that the shops on the street were very inviting in nature.
Hence, it was concluded that the subjective elements that make a street environment feel safe and welcoming were
important factors in enhancing walkability. The Transparency and Transitional space present on both Streets 1 and
2 helped in contributing to the pedestrian activity on the streets.
Street 1
Street 2

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Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
x Detractors and safety
People on certain identified streets with
low activity and low pedestrian traffic
were asked to name one factor which
made them feel uncomfortable using
these streets. The answers obtained
were listed street wise and were then
analyzed . On Street 1, most of the
people felt uncomfortable due to the
presence of forest area on one side of
the street. They felt that the lack of a
defined boundary on one side of the
street made them feel unsafe. On Street
2, there was almost no activity
observed. When the same question was
asked, most people stated that absence
of light on the street was the major
factor that made them feel unsafe on
that street. No activity was observed on
Street 3 as well. This street was very
narrow, almost 1500 mm in width and
had blank concrete walls on either side.
Most of the recorded answers stated that
the presence of blank walls was the
factor they thought made them feel
unsafe or claustrophobic on the street.
Hence, it was concluded that
negative morphological factors or Detractors were a major factor in deciding the degree of activity on a street. It was
also observed that the comparatively newer developments in Mehrauli (Street 1 and Street 2) had the least amount of
pedestrian traffic as the number of detractors hampering the street vitality were more. These housing developments
have been made just adjacent to the Sanjay van (forest) with blank walls facing the exterior roads. This factor
discourages pedestrians to be on these roads and as decreased the walkability in that area.
4. Conclusion
Walkability increases exponentially when people feel a sense of control over the streets they walk. Conversely,
streets fail when they seem to be controlled by no one, Francis (1987). Walkability and street vitality is one of the
important factors in shaping the urban life on and around the street. It helps in identifying the most active areas in a
locality and people tend to locate themselves near such vital public corridors. Studying urban morphology as a factor
affecting walkability has led to a lot of understanding as to how the buildings present on both sides of a street make
it active or dead. After analyzing the streets for walkability in the neighborhood of Mehrauli it can be concluded
that streets having built fabric pertaining to the traditional settlement had more public life on them. The reason
behind this observation is the fact that these built fabrics and building typologies gave pedestrians a sense of control
over the street. Optimum enclosure provided pedestrians with a sense of safety which made them stay longer on the
street. Smaller block length of the built led to reducing the perceived walking distances thus making these streets
look shorter and more frequently used. Also, the Edge condition on these streets was crucial to their walkability. The
traditional streets having multiple building entrances saw some kind of informal activity happening on the street
throughout the day. Such activity enhanced the walkability on these streets, inviting more and more people to take
Street 1
Street 2
Street 3

654 Richa Singh / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 ( 2016 ) 643 – 654
these routes. On the other hand the streets of the newer development fall short of these aspects thus reducing the
public activity on them. The buildings surrounding them are not able to generate any sense of enclosure that can
make pedestrians stay longer in that corridor. All these observations help conclude that the building envelop on both
ends of
a street is crucial to promoting walkability. The built needs to respond to the street and the pedestrian in a
way that they feel in control of their street and the public space around.
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