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Traditional medicines and species extinction: another side to forensic wildlife investigation
... This trend reflects a growing reliance on traditional remedies and underscores the urgency of addressing the resultant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem stability, thereby underscoring the pressing need for comprehensive research and conservation strategies in this area (Cheung et al., 2021;Moorhouse et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2022). However, TCM popularity threatens biodiversity (Byard, 2016), urging the identification of substitute herbs with equivalent effects. Global wildlife trade affects approximately 24% of the world's diverse vertebrate species, numbering in the tens of thousands (Scheffers et al., 2019). ...
... Identifying substitute herbs with equivalent pharmacological effects has been an challenge task for researchers (Byard, 2016). Researchers have investigated existing formulations (Chen et al., 2019), considering multi-omics networks and computational models . ...
Objective: Our study provides an innovative approach to exploring herbal formulas that contribute to the promotion of sustainability and biodiversity conservation. We employ data mining, integrating keyword extraction, association rules, and LSTM-based generative models to analyze classical Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) texts. We systematically decode classical Chinese medical literature, conduct statistical analyses, and link these historical texts with modern pharmacogenomic references to explore potential alternatives.
Methods: We present a novel iterative keyword extraction approach for discerning diverse herbs in historical TCM texts from the Pu-Ji Fang copies. Utilizing association rules, we uncover previously unexplored herb pairs. To bridge classical TCM herbal pairs with modern genetic relationships, we conduct gene-herb searches in PubMed and statistically validate this genetic literature as supporting evidence. We have expanded on the present work by developing a generative language model for suggesting innovative TCM formulations based on textual herb combinations.
Results: We collected associations with 7,664 PubMed cross-search entries for gene-herb and 934 for Shenqifuzheng Injection as a positive control. We analyzed 16,384 keyword combinations from Pu-Ji Fang’s 426 volumes, employing statistical methods to probe gene-herb associations, focusing on examining differences among the target genes and Pu-Ji Fang herbs.
Conclusion: Analyzing Pu-Ji Fang reveals a historical focus on flavor over medicinal aspects in TCM. We extend our work on developing a generative model from classical textual keywords to rapidly produces novel herbal compositions or TCM formulations. This integrated approach enhances our comprehension of TCM by merging ancient text analysis, modern genetic research, and generative modeling.
... The scope and range of wildlife crime is wide and encompasses a variety of criminal activities such as poaching and illegal hunting of mammals [31,32], birds [20,33] and reptiles [21,34,35], and the use of animal derivatives in traditional medicines [36,37]. ...
... The first example of this work on seized traditional medicines identified a number of protected species along with large numbers of other plant and animal species not listed on the packaging but with poor health outcomes [37]. A more recent study found protected species in traditional medicine products that could be bought in Australia [36], yet no prosecutions were undertaken even though there is clear evidence of breaching federal law. ...
Animal forensic genetics, where the focus is on non-human species, is broadly divided in two: domestic species and wildlife. When traces of a domestic species are relevant to a forensic investigation the question of species identification is less important, as the material comes from either a dog or a cat for instance, but more relevant may be the identification of the actual pet. Identification of a specific animal draws on similar methods to those used in human identification by using microsatellite markers. The use of cat short tandem repeats to link a cat hair to a particular cat paved the way for similar identification of dogs. Wildlife forensic science is becoming accepted as a recognised discipline. There is growing acceptance that the illegal trade in wildlife is having devasting effects on the numbers of iconic species. Loci on the mitochondrial genome are used to identify the most likely species present. Sequencing the whole locus may not be needed if specific bases can be targeted. There can be benefits of increased sensitivity using mitochondrial loci for species testing, but occasionally there is an issue if hybrids are present. The use of massively parallel DNA sequencing has a role in the identification of the ingredients of traditional medicines where studies found protected species to be present, and a potential role in future species assignments. Non-human animal forensic testing can play a key role in investigations provided that it is performed to the same standards as all other DNA profiling processes.
... In addition, these products may be adulterated with heavy metals, standard pharmaceutical agents or parts of endangered plant and animal species [3,4]. It is recognized that the use of the latter materials has contributed to the decline in numbers of a range of endangered species [5]. ...
... Lack of formal training of practitioners may also be an issue that requires addressing as it has been suggested that inexperienced practitioners may incorrectly use the skin secretion of other species of amphibians such as the cane toad Rhinella marina [10]. Finally it has also been suggested that the increasing use of kambô rituals may also have a negative impact upon the population numbers of Phyllomedusa bicolor in their native habitats in the forests of Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, the Guianas, Colombia and Venezuela [5,10]. ...
... Crooked-stem species are sidelined" (Rankoana, 2016 Some traditional medical practices have been gaining popularity, expanding to new locations and users, highly increasing product demand (Lee et al., 2014). Some widely known examples of animal parts used in medicine include tiger bones, rhino horns, antlers of various deer species, bear bile, salamanders, parts of reptiles such as geckos and turtles, among others (Byard, 2016;Feng et al., 2009;Still, 2003). ...
This chapter reviews the range of policy options available
for the sustainable use of wild species. Four broad and
overlapping categories of instruments are considered:
i) legal and regulatory, ii) economic and financial, iii) social
and information based, and iv) customary and rights based.
Evidence for their effectiveness in supporting the governance
of socio-ecologically sustainable use is evaluated, and key
enabling and constraining conditions determined. This
information is intended to support decision-makers and
society in steering towards a desirable future.
... Besides human nutrition, there is a need to evaluate the effect of trawling and other maritime activities on benthic habitats that are particularly rich in species with bioactive compounds from which new marine drugs may be obtained, with a view to protecting these habitats. Also, robust investigation is required into the overexploitation of vulnerable species by the biotechnology industry (e. g. the case of the American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) [96] or by the so-called "traditional medicine" business in certain Asian countries [97]. ...
Human health and well-being, and how they are affected by terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems have been the subject of numerous studies. In contrast, there are very few such studies relating to marine ecosystems. Here, in the context of the Mediterranean Sea, we assess evidence of the broad interplay of relationships between marine habitats and human health. Our review shows that the major Mediterranean marine habitats provide various provisioning, cultural and regulating services that improve physical and mental health in a number of different ways. These include: (i) the provision of seafood rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which help to reduce the risk of developing certain types of illnesses; and also, species that produce bioactive compounds that are potential sources of new drugs; (ii) the provision of blue spaces – areas of water suitable for leisure and recreational activities able to inspire, educate, and appeal to the aesthetic senses – that not only increase physical and psychological health, but also foster an individual and collective sense of place and identity and contribute to improving social relations; and (iii) the regulation of climate change, and of water quality and pollution, for example, via sequestration of carbon and heavy metals, thus reducing the associated health risks. Our results show that Mediterranean marine habitats are valuable for health and well-being, thus highlighting the need to conserve as much of this habitat as possible (particularly through marine protected areas) and to carry out new studies to determine the specific causal pathways by which certain characteristics of marine habitats – including biotic (e.g., marine biodiversity) and abiotic (e.g., water quality) factors – affect human health and well-being.
... Creating market demand for species without clearly defining rules for their extraction and use can lead to overharvesting rather than conservation. Indeed, overexploitation of plants and animals to meet the demand for ingredients in traditional medicines poses a significant threat to many species (Schippmann, 2001;Byard, 2016;Cunningham et al., 2019;Kumar et al., 2020;Alves et al., 2021;Gusain et al., 2021;CITES, 2021;IUCN, 2021). In response to demands for paclitaxel production, Asian yew species have been harvested rapidly in areas with less well-defined resource use regimes. ...
Plants and other organisms remain an important source of new medicines, either directly or as sources of molecular building blocks or information for drug development. Bioprospecting contracts between pharmaceutical companies and species-rich source countries have been touted as a way for developing countries to capture greater gains from their genetic resources and to increase their incentives to preserve their biodiversity. This case study of the discovery and commercial development of the anticancer drug paclitaxel from the Pacific yew tree highlights neglected issues in debates over bioprospecting and conservation incentives. Paclitaxel’s discovery, commercialization, and resource use illustrate how bioprospecting can substitute one biodiversity threat (habitat conversion, when genetic resources are not valued) for another threat (overharvesting, when they are valued). Whether creation of market demand for genetic resources encourages or discourages biodiversity conservation depends crucially on underlying property rights and management regimes for common property resources.
... While not all wildlife trade is negative, poorly or unregulated trade has the potential for substantial negative impacts on a wide range of plant and animal species (Fukushima et al., 2020;Macdonald et al., 2021). Among the various uses of traded animals and plants, traditional medicine has been increasingly highlighted as a potential threat to biodiversity (Byard, 2016;Cheung et al., 2021;Mills and Mainka, 1995). Donkeys (Equus asinus) are used in precious timber from African countries are associated, as they both share a common demand and may be destined for the same market. ...
... Related literature reveals the difficulty in evidentiary procedure with a wide range of cases such as that concerning the poisoning of an endangered species of vulture (Rendo, Iriondo, Manzano & Estonba, 2011), traditional 'medicines' (Byard, 2016;Jabin, Singh, Ghosh, Basu et al., 2019;Linacre, 2021), or the tracking of sauna wood materials obtained from illegal logging activities (He, Marco, Soares & Yin et al., 2019;Roman, Gangitano, Figueroa & Solano, 2020). ...
The causal relationship between human interference in both climate change and decrease in biodiversity is unquestionable. This fact supports the need to act effectively against those illegal activities affecting wildlife. Hungary is also involved in wildlife crimes, but there is a noticeable deficit in the processes of uncovering these actions, gathering proof and punishing those responsible. In this study the Authors examine what role forensics may play in the fight against wildlife crime. Aim: Present the characteristics of wildlife crimes and outline the main features of wildlife forensics. Methodology: The current national and international legal background and norms and guidelines for professional conduct are surveyed. The Authors also reviewed the most important relevant Hungarian and international scientific literature. Findings: One of the most important and vital tasks of modern civilization is the preservation and protection of the environment-with an emphasis on life on Earth. As part of this process there is a place for law enforcement to detect, punish and prevent further criminal activity connected with illegal activities involving wildlife. In Hungary the major barriers to effective punishment of those responsible for wildlife crimes are primarily: the lack of forensic technicians with sufficient specialized knowledge and practice; missing specialized standard operational protocols; insufficient knowledge of biology within law enforcement; insufficient funding of non-human genetic laboratories and the lack of adequate non-human (genetic) databases. Value: For the first time in Hungary, the Authors outline the basic characteristics of wildlife forensics.
... A vadvilággal kapcsolatos bűnözés meglehetősen változatos illegális cselekményeket foglal magában, ekként a felderítésük, bizonyításuk is különféle nehézségekbe ütközik. A nemzetközi szakirodalom tárgyalja például egy veszélyeztetett keselyű faj mérgezésének (Rendo, Iriondo, Manzano & Estonba, 2011), a tradicionális "gyógyhatású" készítmények (Byard, 2016;Jabin, Singh, Ghosh, Basu et al, 2019;Linacre, 2021), illetve az illegális fakitermelésből származó szaunafaanyagok visszakövetésének (He, Marco, Soares & Yin et al, 2019;Roman, Gangitano, Figueroa & Solano et al, 2020) bizonyítási nehézségeit. A bonyodalmak egy részét az érintett fauna-és flóraelemek diverzitása, nagyságrendje okozza. ...
A klímaváltozás és a biodiverzitás csökkenése, valamint az emberi beavatkozás közötti ok-okozati összefüggés megkérdőjelezhetetlen. Ez a tény indokolja, hogy a vadvilágot sújtó illegális cselekmények ellen hatékonyan kell fellépni. A vadvilági bűnözés Magyarországot is érinti, ugyanakkor a cselekmények felderítése, bizonyítása és az elkövetők felelősségre vonása kívánni valót hagy maga után. A tanulmányban azt vizsgáljuk, hogy a vadvilági bűnözéssel szembeni harcban milyen szerepe lehet a kriminalisztikának.Cél: A vadvilágot érintő bűncselekmények jellemzőinek bemutatása, a vadvilági kriminalisztika jellemzőinek felvázolása.Módszertan: A tanulmány elkészítéséhez a hatályos nemzetközi és nemzeti jogi normákat, szakmai szabályokat tekintettük át. Feldolgoztuk továbbá a téma releváns nemzetközi és hazai szakirodalmát.Megállapítások: A modern civilizáció egyik legfontosabb és legégetőbb feladata a környezetünk – benne elsődleges fontossággal az élővilág – megóvása és védelme. Ebben a folyamatban szerepe van annak is, hogy a vadvilágot ért illegális cselekményeket a büntető hatalom felderítse, megbüntesse, és a további kriminális magatartásokat megelőzze. Hazánkban a vadvilági bűncselekmények elkövetőinek büntetőjogi felelősségre vonását elsősorban a speciális szakismerettel rendelkező bűnügyi technikusok hiánya, a hiányzó speciális szakmai protokollok, a jogalkalmazók hiányos biológiai ismeretei, a forenzikus nem emberi genetikai laboratóriumok nem megfelelő finanszírozása, a forenzikus standardoknak megfelelő nem emberi (genetikai) adatbankok hiánya akadályozza.Érték: A szerzők Magyarországon elsőként vázolják fel a vadvilági bűnözés kriminalisztikájának alapvető jellemzőit.
... Illegal hunting and poaching of snow leopards are widespread activities, owing to snow leopard parts being commonly used for Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM; Coghlan et al., 2015;Byard, 2016). The snow leopard is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Checklist of CITES Species, 2022). ...
... The harvesting of bears for use in traditional medicine has been in practice for thousands of years (Feng et al. 2009); however, commercialisation of the traditional medicine industry has become one of the leading threats to bears, particularly in Asia (Kemf et al. 1999;Foley et al. 2011). We note that it is difficult to determine which species of Asian bear is used in the manufacturing of bear bile medicines without further forensic testing of products (Peppin et al. 2008;Byard 2016), although the vast majority of bears kept in bear bile extraction facilities are Asiatic black bears (Foley et al. 2011;Willcox et al. 2016). Bears are not only killed for their gall bladders, but live bears are captured to replenish bear farms. ...
Context
Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is a leading concern for conservation and biosecurity agencies globally, and involves multiple source, transit, and destination countries smuggling species on a transnational scale. The contribution of non-range countries for driving demand in IWT is often overlooked.
Aims
We analysed the dynamics (source, type and quantity) of bear seizures in Australia and New Zealand to gain a deeper understanding of the IWT, and to raise awareness among enforcement agencies for mitigating the international smuggling of bear parts and derivatives, and reducing the global threat to bears from illegal exploitation.
Methods
We collated biosecurity and conservation enforcement agency records of CITES seizures from Australia and New Zealand. All of the seizures were declared for ‘personal use’.
Key results
We report on 781 seizures of bear parts and derivatives in Australia and New Zealand from 33 countries over the past decade. The majority of seizures were medicinal (gall bladder and bile) products, but also included a range of body parts, hunting trophies and meat. China was the source of the greatest number of seizures, however, 32 additional source and transit countries/territories (from Asia, Europe, Americas, Middle East and Africa) were also involved in the seizures of bear parts and their derivatives.
Conclusions
The widespread trade of bears is an example of the far-reaching consequences commercial use can have on threatened species. Australia and New Zealand have no native bear species, and yet are frequently involved in wildlife seizures, and illegal bear trade continues to be an enforcement issue.
Implications
IWT has a detrimental impact on the conservation of bears. Conservation research in non-range countries needs to be conducted to determine the demand and threats from IWT, and to increase collaborative strategies to counter transnational smuggling.
... Additionally, there is a considerable influx and egress of people through rapidly emerging tourism and other business and livelihood opportunities in High Asia (Mavroidi 2008;Mijiddorj et al. 2019). There is also a high dependence on traditional medicinal systems, many of which have a strong tradition of using body parts of wild species (Byard 2016;Negi and Palyal 2017), with markets where wildlife and medicines are traded in some parts of High Asia (Zhang et al. 2008). ...
The cold and arid mountains and plateaus of High Asia, inhabited by a relatively sparse human population, a high density of livestock, and wildlife such as the iconic snow leopard Panthera uncia, are usually considered low risk for disease outbreaks. However, based on current knowledge about drivers of disease emergence, we show that High Asia is rapidly developing conditions that favor increased emergence of infectious diseases and zoonoses. This is because of the existing prevalence of potentially serious pathogens in the system; intensifying environmental degradation; rapid changes in local ecological, socio-ecological, and socio-economic factors; and global risk intensifiers such as climate change and globalization. To better understand and manage the risks posed by diseases to humans, livestock, and wildlife, there is an urgent need for establishing a disease surveillance system and improving human and animal health care. Public health must be integrated with conservation programs, more ecologically sustainable development efforts and long-term disease surveillance.
... Illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade threatens an increasing number of species globally (Byard, 2016;Sinovas et al., 2017;Ribeiro et al., 2019;Marshall et al., 2020;McMillan et al., 2020). Species and their parts and derivatives are coveted for various end uses, the most prominent of which include medicine, food, luxury items or as pets (Lockwood et al., 2019;Svolkinas et al., 2020). ...
Unsustainable wildlife trade threatens an increasing number of species globally. Australia has a particularly rich and endemic herpetofauna, which is coveted on the international pet market. While Australia implements domestic protection of most of its native species, there is little to no regulation of international trade once live animals have been smuggled out of the country. This is a threat for a variety of rare, unique and/or range‐restricted species, subspecies and locality morphs. One of these species is the shingleback lizard (Tiliqua rugosa).
We compiled Australian seizure data and international online trade data pertaining to shinglebacks. We found all four subspecies in trade across Asia, Europe and North America. Here we provide evidence that all four shingleback subspecies are illegally extracted from the wild in Australia and smuggled to international destinations, where they are sold and distributed globally.
While shinglebacks are a protected species in Australia and can only be exported legally under a federal permit, their import into, and trade between, other countries is often not illegal, even in the absence of such a permit. These contradictory legal frameworks apply to the majority of nationally protected native fauna and must be addressed by each importing country on an individual basis; that is, by changing their legislation to cover and protect species that are nationally protected in their native range. Meanwhile, however, we argue that listing T. rugosa in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora is a meaningful way to provide other countries with the legal means to confiscate illegally exported shinglebacks from Australia. Our findings and recommendations are directly relevant for potential future Appendix III consideration of other nationally protected species that are found in international trade.
... Commercial exploitation of wildlife for meat and medicine has become a significant threat to species globally (Byard 2016;Nijman and Bergin 2017;Ripple et al. 2019;Gomez et al. 2020;WAP 2020). The wildlife meat and traditional medicine industries are worth billions of dollars annually and have little to do with subsistence needs -case in point being the continued demand and illegal trade in tigers, rhinos and pangolins (C4ADS 2020;Four Paws 2020;WJC 2020). ...
Indonesia is home to five species of porcupines, three of which are island endemics. While all five species are currently assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, impacts of harvest and trade have not been factored in. To gain a fuller understanding of the porcupine trade in Indonesia, this study examines seizure data of porcupines, their parts and derivatives from January 2013 to June 2020. A total of 39 incidents were obtained amounting to an estimated 452 porcupines. Various confiscated commodities revealed porcupines are traded for consumption, traditional medicine, trophies/charms as well as for privately run wildlife/recreational parks. Targeted hunting of porcupines for commercial international trade was also evident. Porcupines are also persecuted as agricultural pests and wildlife traffickers take advantage of such situations to procure animals for trade. What clearly emerges from this study is that porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited throughout their range in Indonesia facilitated by poor enforcement and legislative weakness. Porcupines are in decline due to habitat loss, retaliatory killings and uncontrolled poaching. It is therefore crucial that effective conservation measures are taken sooner rather than later to prevent further depletion of these species. Including all porcupines as protected species under Indonesian wildlife laws and listing them in Appendix II of CITES to improve regulation, enforcement and monitoring of domestic and international trade trends involving porcupines in Indonesia would contribute significantly towards this end.
... More recently a different type of 'wildlife crime' was reported based on the presence of protected species as ingredients within East Asian medicines that can be bought in Australia [14,15]. An example of the type of medicine that is encountered is shown in Figure 1. ...
Wildlife crime is on a massive scale by whatever metric is used. The illegal trade in wildlife and related products is leading to the decline and extinction of many iconic species from rhino to tigers. Almost all countries are signatures to CITES and therefore should enforce national legislation if alleged infringements of trade of wildlife occur. No country is immune from this illegal trade although countries like Australia have their own specific wildlife crimes. Australia is home to many reptilian, amphibian and avian species that are highly prized, predominantly as pets. Collection of protected species from the wild is illegal in all jurisdictions yet policing remote areas of the outback, where so much of the native endemic fauna and flora lives, is nearly impossible. The illegal international trade in these species is highlighted by two case studies provided in this review. A further case highlights the issues of each of the six states of Australia having separate legislation, which is compounded when wildlife crime can be inter-state crime. Australia is one of the few countries having an institute, based at the Australian Museum, with an accredited wildlife forensic science laboratory and therefore the capability to undertake forensic testing of seized samples. One way to reduce wildlife crime may be by educating those who buy illegally seized products that there is a direct connection between the dead animal from which it came and the devasting effect this purchase has on the environment.
... Sales of traditional Asian medicine products, such as herbal medicines, are growing: sales in Belt and Road countries grew by 54% in 2016 and 2017, reaching US$295 million annually [34]. The growth of traditional Asian medicine will increase demand for ingredients that include some plant and animal species already endangered by harvest for international trade [35]. Increased connectivity across the Belt and Road route may increase access to formerly inaccessible wildlife populations and increase trafficking of wildlife for use in medicine [36]. ...
In this horizon scan, we highlight 15 emerging issues of potential relevance to global conservation in 2020. Seven relate to potentially extensive changes in vegetation or ecological systems. These changes are either relatively new, for example, conversion of kelp forests to simpler macroalgal systems, or may occur in the future, for example, as a result of the derivation of nanocelluose from wood or the rapid expansion of small hydropower schemes. Other topics highlight potential changes in national legislation that may have global effect on international agreements. Our panel of 23 scientists and practitioners selected these issues using a modified version of the Delphi technique from a long-list of 89 potential topics.
... The second benefit will flow from a more thorough investigation of the possible 'false pharmacopeia', referring particularly to animal parts, but also some plants and fungi, that have zero, marginal or even adverse health benefits, yet are harvested from the wild (especially for consumption by large urban markets) and have significant harmful ecological effects despite their cultural importance. Numerous wildlife species, some inhabiting forests, have been pursued to (near) extinction for their alleged pharmaceutical benefits, including charismatic mammals such as the rhinoceros, snow leopard and tiger, as well as the humble pangolin (Byard 2016). Evidence of therapeutic benefits for many traditional remedies involving animal parts is extremely limited. ...
SDG3, Health and Wellbeing for All, depends on many other SDGs but there are also potential conflicts and trade-offs. In this chapter, ee stress the importance of forests to global health and well-being as well as for Indigenous and local populations. In contrast, short-term economic and human health gains from further forest conversion (e.g. deforestation for food production) will create direct and indirect health risks for humans, as well as for other biota. Controlling indiscriminate burning and clearing of forests can reduce significant harm to health and well-being, via improved quality of water, soil and air, by reducing exposure to some infectious diseases, through preservation of traditional (and future) medicines, and by supporting other forest resources and services, including climate regulation. Many infectious diseases are associated with forest disturbance and intrusions and some may be prevented or modified through forest management. Universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including family planning, is a critical SDG3 target to decrease demographic pressures on forests at local, regional and global scales, and to enhance well-being. Greater exposure to green space, including the ‘urban forest’, is likely to have many benefits for mental, social and physical health for the increasingly urban global population.
... However, it is also a cultural solution based on etic facts; and, because it is based on such facts, it actually works. Compare this to facts that have informed recent human medical culture: in the late 1800s, cigarette smoking was touted in Europe as a treatment for asthma, on the basis that inhaling smoke dried up the excessive mucus thought to cause asthma (Jackson 2010); mercury remained the main treatment for syphilis throughout the 1800s, until it was replaced by arsenic in 1910, and, finally, penicillin in 1943 (Frith 2012); and, even today, the biggest threat to tigers across the world is the trade in animal parts for 'medicine' (Byard 2016). All of these are emic medical facts, based on local cultural beliefs that have no basis in etic facts, or which rely on coincidences of success as evidence. ...
The Origins of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society, and each human individual in that society. It considers the genetic and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialisation and language, and the types of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through adulthood. Edwardes argues that other awareness is a relatively early evolutionary development, present throughout the primate clade and perhaps beyond, but self-awareness is a product of the sharing of social models, something only humans appear to do. The self of which we are aware is not something innate within us, it is a model of our self produced as a response to the models of us offered to us by other people. Edwardes proposes that human construction of selfhood involves seven different types of self. All but one of them are internally generated models, and the only non-model, the actual self, is completely hidden from conscious awareness. We rely on others to tell us about our self, and even to let us know we are a self. Developed in relation to a range of subject areas – linguistics, anthropology, genomics and cognition, as well as socio-cultural theory – The Origins of Self is of particular interest to students and researchers studying the origins of language, human origins in general, and the cognitive differences between human and other animal psychologies.
... They are considered to express the hope of these early humans for the continued survival of their prey species (Das, 1989). Today, however, the exploitation of wildlife for the sake of traditional beliefs and medicines is one of the major causes for the decline and extermination of numerous species worldwide (Byard, 2016). One such example is the western black rhino (Diceros bicornis longipes) from Africa, which was declared extinct by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2011 due to excessive illegal poaching for the demand of Chinese traditional medicines (Biggs et al., 2013). ...
We provide a short overview on the recently emerged illegal trade in the reproductive organs of monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) in India. There, they are intentionally sold as an alleged plant root locally known as Hatha Jodi. Hatha Jodi is the root of tiger's claw (Martynia annua), an herbaceous medicinal plant which has a variety of traditional applications in Ayurveda medicine. The objective of this short report is to increase awareness of this ongoing wildlife crime, in the hopes that this will help restrict and terminate the illegal exploitation of South Asian monitor lizards for their body parts.
... Unlike some other regulatory agencies, the TGA requires that labels on herbal medicines specify whether the components are extracts, and whether they are standardised to the weight of the original plant or to a particular component [34]. This enables determination of whether processing was a likely reason for the lack of DNA detection in these medicines. ...
Introduction
The role of herbal medicine in the treatment of common psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression and insomnia has become more established over the past decade. Some herbal preparations such as St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) have demonstrated clinical evidence but have also been included in recent reports of widespread adulteration and contamination. Herbal medicines sold in Australia are required to be listed on the Therapeutic Goods Administration’s (TGA) Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) and must comply with strict ingredient and manufacturing guidelines to assure quality and safety.
Objective
The aim of this research was to assess whether pharmaceutical adulterants and contaminants were present in psychotropic herbal medicines available in Australia, as a measure of quality, and the effectiveness of regulation.
Methods
A two-pronged approach combining next-generation DNA sequencing and small-molecule analysis techniques was undertaken to audit a subset of herbal medicines for the presence of prescription medications, illicit drugs, pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals and contaminant DNA. Small-molecule analysis included liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (LC-QTOF-MS) detection, liquid chromatography with UV/vis diode array (LC-UV) detection, gas chromatography with nitrogen–phosphorus and mass spectrometer detection (GC-NPD/MS) and heavy metal analysis using inductively coupled plasma with mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) detection.
Results
In total, 49% (29 of 59) of the investigated herbal medicines had one or more materials not listed on their labels or ARTG registration, including Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)-listed material (one medicine), heavy metals (12%) or components that could trigger food sensitivity, such as wheat (12%). In contrast to previous studies, no prescription pharmaceutical adulterants were detected, although 10% had undeclared caffeine. Twenty-four percent of herbal medicines had DNA from animal species, including mice and bats, indicating poor quality control. The surveyed herbal medicines included both traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) and Western herbals. Ninety-four percent of TCMs were contaminated or adulterated, compared with 37% of the Western herbals. Only two of the 59 samples contained the listed active ingredient(s) without additional adulterants and contaminants, or missing ingredients.
Conclusions
The high levels of contamination found in this study suggests that closer surveillance of herbal medicines is needed in order to assure the required level of quality of herbal medicines available in Australia. The results suggest that the TGA’s low-/high-risk system for regulation coupled with post-market auditing is not keeping unapproved and/or unsafe herbal medicines from the market.
... Such rapid loss of biodiversity is closely associated with animal habitat loss and human overexploitation. For instance, despite some parts such as horns and secretions, almost all types of tissues and organs used in TM require animal sacrifice, which inflicts substantial stress to medicinal animal resources [2,13,14]. To solve the species crisis, the trade of threatened animals has been regulated under international legislation including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and the therapeutic application of such species has been forbidden in many countries. ...
Animal-based traditional medicine not only plays a significant role in therapeutic practices worldwide but also provides a potential compound library for drug discovery. However, persistent hunting and illegal trade markedly threaten numerous medicinal animal species, and increasing demand further provokes the emergence of various adulterants. As the conventional methods are difficult and time-consuming to detect processed products or identify animal species with similar morphology, developing novel authentication methods for animal-based traditional medicine represents an urgent need. During the last decade, DNA barcoding offers an accurate and efficient strategy that can identify existing species and discover unknown species via analysis of sequence variation in a standardized region of DNA. Recent studies have shown that DNA barcoding as well as minibarcoding and metabarcoding is capable of identifying animal species and discriminating the authentics from the adulterants in various types of traditional medicines, including raw materials, processed products, and complex preparations. These techniques can also be used to detect the unlabelled and threatened animal species in traditional medicine. Here, we review the recent progress of DNA barcoding for the identification and authentication of animal species used in traditional medicine, which provides a reference for quality control and trade supervision of animal-based traditional medicine.
... Certain types of medicine can become so popular, sometimes spreading outside the region in which they were initially used, that the extraction of the raw material from the wild becomes an impediment to biodiversity conservation. It has been noted that some of the lesser known and smaller species can be negatively affected by the trade for traditional medicine (Sadovy and Cheung, 2003;Nijman et al., 2012a;Humle and Konate, 2015;Byard, 2016;Rowley et al., 2016). Reptiles (including turtles, tuataras, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles) are widely used in folk and traditional medicine (Zhou and Jiang, 2004;Alves et al., 2008Alves et al., , 2009Magnino et al., 2009;Segniagbeto et al., 2013), and there are numerous examples in which their use has led to the decline of species (Gong et al., 2009;Nijman et al., 2012a, b;Caillabet, 2013). ...
Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013-2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US $100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh, Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Med-iterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 specimens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell's Dabb lizard (Uro-mastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive), both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African rock python (Python sebae) skins were identified and may have been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell's Dabb lizard specimens after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 chameleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174). Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and openly traded for medicinal purposes throughout Morocco. However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal status of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers. Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.
Demand for Saiga Antelope Saiga tatarica horn products in Southeast Asia, due to their perceived medicinal value, has drastically impacted the conservation of this species. At the same time, poor understanding of the dynamics of this trade in parts of Southeast Asia continues to impede regulation and conservation efforts. Here we examine the trade of Saiga horn products in Thailand through a rapid physical and online market survey, and via an analysis of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade data. We found an active local trade in Saiga horn products in Thailand, with both physical market surveys and online surveys showing predominantly two forms of Saiga horn products in the market, i.e., cooling water and horn shavings (mostly sold as pre-packaged boiling kits). These products are commercially marketed as staple household medicines. Greater scrutiny, monitoring and research is urgently needed to understand how the use of Saiga horn is being regulated in Thailand including the number of licensed traders, potential stockpiles and management of these. Traditional medicine outlets and online sales of commercial Saiga horn products also requires attention. As a non-native species, the Saiga Antelope is not protected in Thailand which makes it difficult for enforcement authorities to prevent illegal trade of Saiga horn products within the country. Thailand is currently revising its wildlife laws with the intention of addressing the protection of non-native and CITES-listed species. Considering the widespread use of Saiga horn in Thailand, we recommend that Saiga Antelope be included in the revised species protection lists to enable enforcement action against trade in illegally sourced Saiga horn products.
The use of wildlife in Traditional Chinese Medicine has repeatedly come under criticism, especially, given the increasing number of species being driven to extinction. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has the mandate to regulate trade in wildlife on an international level; however, on a national level it is the duty of individual governments. The present article provides an overview on recent developments in species conservation in the context of TCM, with regards to the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as on efforts by the Chinese government to further expand the booming TCM market.
Reptiles are one of the most frequently encountered animal species in the trade for traditional medicine. The use of reptiles for medicinal purposes has been documented throughout the world, impacting dozens of species. Despite the broad occurrence of reptiles in medicinal trade, there is a general lack of information concerning the scale or impact of this trade and the species involved. Here we report the sale of Common Sun Skinks Eutropis multifasciata on the island of Java in Indonesia. We surveyed 13 wildlife markets and three reptile pet stores in eight cities across Java, documenting 110 Common Sun Skinks in trade in six markets in five cities. This skink is sold for traditional medicinal purposes with several vendors stating its use to treat skin problems like “itchiness”. This particular use has not been well documented in Indonesia. Further, the Common Sun Skinks were primarily sold by vendors selling Tokay Geckos for a similar purpose. This is of potential conservation concern as Tokay Geckos are harvested en masse for medicinal purposes which has resulted in significant population declines, and this could lead to potential over¬exploitation of the Common Sun Skink in response to this decline.
Forestry cannot be thought of in isolation from its relations with other sectors and other parts of people’s lives – for both the health of the forests and the well-being of forest peoples.
• Forest governance and everyday management are upheld by a superstructure of gendered forest relations – invisible to mainstream forestry – that often disadvantages women as a social group.
• Well-intentioned gender programmes can backfire, causing adverse effects on forests and forest peoples, if the efforts are not cognisant of context and power relations.
• Constant awareness of differences among various social groups – men, women, different classes, ethnicities – and how their interests intersect differently in various forest contexts is needed for everyone’s energy, creativity and motivation to contribute to sustainable forest management.
• Research suggests that greater democratic governance of forests leads to better environmental outcomes.
• The gender-neutral framing of some SDG goals undermines efforts towards achieving the outcomes called for in SDG 5.
Descriptions of the use of natural products in traditional medicine have served as starting points for new therapeutics. The details of the traditional use of these organisms can provide important information for future drug discovery and development efforts. Recent technologic advances provide the framework to leverage ethnopharmacologic data in the drug discovery process. Information on the traditional harvest, preparation, storage, and administration of the organisms, and the natural products they contain, provides valuable details regarding characteristics of the active compounds. Importantly, researchers can now rapidly analyze and identify the multiple, and often synergistic, compounds contained in these natural products. Although we are entering the acme of ethnopharmacology, where information regarding the traditional use of organisms can provide valuable natural product leads and accelerate the identification of new therapeutics, this ethnopharmacologic resource is threatened by the loss of traditional medicine knowledge and extinction of organisms. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Volume 58 is January 6, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The traditional Chinese medicine is very popular even nowadays. It uses many plants and animals’ derivatives, that brings into a question the existence of some species. These species are listed in the CITES or Red Book. The snow leopards are threatened with extinction due to reductions in their prey base and degradation of the habitat by human activity, but the demand for snow leopard products exists at both the national and international levels. Bears, which are also endangered species, are commonly used for their bile despite the possibility synthesize its active ingredient. The tiger population decreased about four times during last century. Its derivatives are prohibited for trade Since 1992. The caterpillar fungus treats many ailments and has good general effect. It is now multimillion-dollar industry, but its collection influences bad on ranges of other species.
The present work provides an overview of the global use of reptiles in traditional folk medicine and the implications for conservation. The results demonstrate that at least 165 reptile species belonging to 104 genera and 30 families are used in traditional folk medicine around the world. Some species are used as sources of drugs for modern medical science. Of the reptiles recorded, 53% are included on lists of endangered species, demonstrating the importance of understanding such medicinal uses in the context of reptile conservation as well as the need for considering socio-cultural factors when establishing management plans directed towards the sustainable use of these reptiles.
Globally, there has been an increase in the use of herbal remedies including traditional Chinese
medicine (TCM). There is a perception that products are natural, safe and effectively regulated,
however, regulatory agencies are hampered by a lack of a toolkit to audit ingredient lists, adulterants
and constituent active compounds. Here, for the first time, a multidisciplinary approach to assessing
the molecular content of 26 TCMs is described. Next generation DNA sequencing is combined with
toxicological and heavy metal screening by separation techniques and mass spectrometry (MS) to
provide a comprehensive audit. Genetic analysis revealed that 50% of samples contained DNA of
undeclared plant or animal taxa, including an endangered species of Panthera (snow leopard). In 50%
of the TCMs, an undeclared pharmaceutical agent was detected including warfarin, dexamethasone,
diclofenac, cyproheptadine and paracetamol. Mass spectrometry revealed heavy metals including
arsenic, lead and cadmium, one with a level of arsenic >10 times the acceptable limit. The study
showed 92% of the TCMs examined were found to have some form of contamination and/or
substitution. This study demonstrates that a combination of molecular methodologies can provide an
effective means by which to audit complementary and alternative medicines.
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been practiced for thousands of years, but only within the last few decades has its use become more widespread outside of Asia. Concerns continue to be raised about the efficacy, legality, and safety of many popular complementary alternative medicines, including TCMs. Ingredients of some TCMs are known to include derivatives of endangered, trade-restricted species of plants and animals, and therefore contravene the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) legislation. Chromatographic studies have detected the presence of heavy metals and plant toxins within some TCMs, and there are numerous cases of adverse reactions. It is in the interests of both biodiversity conservation and public safety that techniques are developed to screen medicinals like TCMs. Targeting both the p-loop region of the plastid trnL gene and the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA gene, over 49,000 amplicon sequence reads were generated from 15 TCM samples presented in the form of powders, tablets, capsules, bile flakes, and herbal teas. Here we show that second-generation, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) of DNA represents an effective means to genetically audit organic ingredients within complex TCMs. Comparison of DNA sequence data to reference databases revealed the presence of 68 different plant families and included genera, such as Ephedra and Asarum, that are potentially toxic. Similarly, animal families were identified that include genera that are classified as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered, including Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). Bovidae, Cervidae, and Bufonidae DNA were also detected in many of the TCM samples and were rarely declared on the product packaging. This study demonstrates that deep sequencing via HTS is an efficient and cost-effective way to audit highly processed TCM products and will assist in monitoring their legality and safety especially when plant reference databases become better established.
Animals have been used as medicinal resources for the treatment and relieve of a myriad of illnesses and diseases in practically every human culture. Although considered by many as superstition, the pertinence of traditional medicine based on animals cannot be denied since they have been methodically tested by pharmaceutical companies as sources of drugs to the modern medical science. The phenomenon of zootherapy represents a strong evidence of the medicinal use of animal resources. Indeed, drug companies and agribusiness firms have been evaluating animals for decades without paying anything to the countries from where these genetic resources are found. The use of animals' body parts as folk medicines is relevant because it implies additional pressure over critical wild populations. It is argued that many animal species have been overexploited as sources of medicines for the traditional trade. Additionally, animal populations have become depleted or endangered as a result of their use as experimental subjects or animal models. Research on zootherapy should be compatible with the welfare of the medicinal animals, and the use of their by-products should be done in a sustainable way. It is discussed that sustainability is now required as the guiding principle for biological conservation.
Proactive management of trade in endangered wildlife makes more sense than last-minute bans that can themselves increase trading activity, argue Philippe Rivalan and his co-authors.
Animals have been used as medicinal resources for the treatment and relieve of a myriad of illnesses and diseases in practically every human culture. Although considered by many as superstition, the pertinence of traditional medicine based on animals cannot be denied since they have been methodically tested by pharmaceutical companies as sources of drugs to the modem medical science. The phenomenon of zootherapy represents a strong evidence of the medicinal use of animal resources. Indeed. drug companies and agribusiness firms have been evaluating animals for decades without paying anything to the countries from where these genetic resources are found. The use of animals' body parts as folk medicines is relevant because it implies additional pressure over critical wild populations. It is argued that many animal species have been overexploited as sources of medicines for the traditional trade. Additionally, animal populations have become depleted or endangered as a result of their use as experimental subjects or animal models. Research on zootherapy should be compatible with the welfare of the medicinal animals. and the use of their by-products should be done in a sustainable way. It is discussed that sustainability is now required as the guiding principle for biological conservation.
The role and frequency that herbal therapeutic agents play in unexpected deaths remains unclear. Herbal agents may be directly toxic in their own right, or they may act synergistically with other herbal materials, or with prescribed pharmaceutical agents. Herbal therapies are also known to sometimes contain toxic agents such as herbicides or heavy metals, or to have been adulterated with standard drugs to enhance their efficacy [1]. In the medicolegal arena the consumption of drugs that may be contraindicated in certain conditions may not be apparent at the time of autopsy, such as when steroids or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents have been unknowingly taken by an individual with active peptic ulcer disease. Substitution of one plant for another, whether because of financial considerations or from a genuine mistake in plant identification, compounds the complexities associated with attempting to determine whether a herbal preparation has contributed to, or caused, illness or deat ...
A survey of herbal medicines available for internet and over-the-counter purchase in South Australia, Australia, was conducted looking specifically at those used for ‘arthritis’, ‘cold and flu’, ‘gastrointestinal’, ‘stress’ and ‘premenstrual syndrome’. 121 products consisted of 29 in the ‘arthritis’ category, 33 in ‘cold and flu’, 19 in ‘gastrointestinal’’ 30 in ‘stress’ and 10 in ‘premenstrual syndrome’. Twenty two (18%) of 121 products were not registered with the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG), despite this being a legal requirement for their sale. Of the registered products 59 (60%) of 99 had differing ingredient concentrations on the website compared to their ARTG listing. Only three of the 15 purchased products had ingredient concentrations which were consistent between the website, ARTG listing and product packaging. These findings demonstrate that it may not be possible to determine what herbal substance an individual has been exposed to prior to death and in what concentration, based on packaging from medications seized at the scene, or from examination of website data and the ARTG listing. These discrepancies may increase the problems that exist in attempting to determine what role herbal medicines may play in the mechanism of death in certain forensic cases.
The present work provides an overview of the global use of reptiles in traditional folk medicine and the implications for
conservation. The results demonstrate that at least 165 reptile species belonging to 104 genera and 30 families are used in
traditional folk medicine around the world. Some species are used as sources of drugs for modern medical science. Of the reptiles
recorded, 53% are included on lists of endangered species, demonstrating the importance of understanding such medicinal uses
in the context of reptile conservation as well as the need for considering socio-cultural factors when establishing management
plans directed towards the sustainable use of these reptiles.
KeywordsEthnozoology-Reptiles-Traditional medicines-Zootherapy-Wildlife conservation
I studied the distribution pattern, population structure and conservation status of rare and endangered medicinal plant species in Spiti sub-division of Himachal Pradesh in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The entire study area was stratified into six zones based on geomorphological and phytogeographical variations. In each zone different habitat types for rare and endangered species were identified and sampled using quadrats. A total of 23 rare and endangered medicinal plants were found in Spiti, distributed over 10 major habitat types. All the rare and endangered medicinal plants were localised and found in patches. The patch size for different species varied greatly from 1 to 20,000 m2. There were large differences in the number of rare and endangered medicinal plant species within different zones of Spiti. More species of rare and endangered medicinal plants occurred close to the Great Himalayan range in the southern part of the study area. The highest mean density was estimated for Picrorhiza kurrooa followed by Saussurea gnaphaloides. The results are discussed in the light of rare and endangered medicinal plants conservation with the strong recommendation of the establishment of medicinal plants conservation areas in this part of trans-Himalaya.
With an ingredients list that includes rhino horn and tiger bone,
traditional Asian medicine is on a collision course with wildlife
preservation.
Ethnobotany, as a research field of science, has been widely used for the documentation of indigenous knowledge on the use of plants and for providing an inventory of useful plants from local flora in Asian countries. Plants that are used for traditional herbal medicine in different countries are an important part of these studies. However, in some countries in recent years, ethnobotanical studies have been used for the discovery of new drugs and new drug development. In general, experiences gained from ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicinal studies in China and Himalayan countries have helped drug production and new drug development. At the same time, in many cases, over-harvesting, degradation of medical plants, and loss of traditional medical knowledge in local communities are common problems in these resource areas. Issues of indigenous knowledge, intellectual property rights, and uncontrolled transboundary trade in medicinal plants occur frequently in the region. This paper discusses ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicinal studies, in reference to experiences from China and Himalayan countries, with an emphasis on the conservation of traditional medical knowledge and medical plant resources.
In parts of Korea and China, moon bears, black but for the crescent-shaped patch of white on their chests, are captured in the wild and brought to "bear farms" where they are imprisoned in squeeze cages, and a steel catheter is inserted into their gall bladders. The dripping bile is collected as a cure for ailments ranging from an upset stomach to skin burns. The bear may live as long as fifteen years in this state. Rhinos are being illegally poached for their horns, as are tigers for their bones, thought to improve virility. Booming economies and growing wealth in parts of Asia are increasing demand for these precious medicinals. Already endangered species are being sacrificed for temporary treatments for nausea and erectile dysfunction. Richard Ellis, one of the world's foremost experts in wildlife extinction, brings his alarm to the pages of Tiger Bone & Rhino Horn, in the hope that through an exposure of this drug trade, something can be done to save the animals most direly threatened. Trade in animal parts for traditional Chinese medicine is a leading cause of species endangerment in Asia, and poaching is increasing at an alarming rate. Most of traditional Chinese medicine relies on herbs and other plants, and is not a cause for concern. Ellis illuminates those aspects of traditional medicine, but as wildlife habitats are shrinking for the hunted large species, the situation is becoming ever more critical. One hundred years ago, there were probably 100,000 tigers in India, South China, Sumatra, Bali, Java, and the Russian Far East. The South Chinese, Caspian, Balinese, and Javan species are extinct. There are now fewer than 5,000 tigers in all of India, and the numbers are dropping fast. There are five species of rhinoceros--three in Asia and two in Africa--and all have been hunted to near extinction so their horns can be ground into powder, not for aphrodisiacs, as commonly thought, but for ailments ranging from arthritis to depression. In 1930, there were 80,000 black rhinos in Africa. Now there are fewer than 2,500. Tigers, bears, and rhinos are not the only animals pursued for the sake of alleviating human ills--the list includes musk deer, sharks, saiga antelope, seahorses, porcupines, monkeys, beavers, and sea lions--but the dwindling numbers of those rare species call us to attention. Ellis tells us what has been done successfully, and contemplates what can and must be done to save these animals or, sadly, our children will witness the extinction of tigers, rhinos, and moon bears in their lifetime.
Traditional herbal substances may contain highly toxic chemicals and heavy metals, in addition to naturally occurring organic toxins. These substances may cause illness, exacerbate pre-existing ill health or result in death, particularly if taken in excess or in an unusual manner (e.g., injected rather than ingested). Lack of regulation of the content and quality of herbal medicines may result in contamination and adulteration with prescription medications. As there may be no history of the specific use of these products their contribution to death may not be fully appreciated during a standard autopsy. Even when their existence is known or suspected, it may be difficult to identify these substances on standard toxicologic screening. Herbal medicines may also be responsible for a range of symptoms and signs that may confuse the clinical presentation of cases. Given these issues the role of herbal medicines in forensic practice needs to be more clearly defined as deaths may be occurring where herbal medicines have made a significant, but as-yet unrecognized, contribution.
A 24-year-old male died suddenly following the intravenous injection of what was believed to be the ring-derivate amphetamine 'ecstasy' (MDMA). Toxicological analyses of the victim's blood and the injected material, however, failed to reveal MDMA, but showed instead low levels of bufotenine, a tryptamine derivative alkaloid found in the secretions of various toads. In addition, resibufogenin, cinobufagin and bufalin, bufadienolides that are also found in toad venom, were identified in the injected material. While these substances also occur in certain South American plants, the finding of paracetamol, promethazine and diclofenac would be in keeping with ingredients found in the traditional Chinese herbal product Chan Su that derives from the skin glands and secretions of toads and that is often adulterated with standard pharmaceutical drugs. This case demonstrates the problems that users and sellers may encounter from the unknown composition of street drugs and herbal medicines, and the danger that may be incurred from the injection of such materials. It also shows the difficulties that may be associated with attempting to identify low levels of organic toxins in postmortem specimens necessitating a targeted screening approach guided by information obtained at the death scene.
Fresh and desiccated gall bladders of the Ursidae family (bears) obtained as criminal evidence were characterized by analysis of the principal biliary components, mainly ursodeoxycholyl-taurine, cholyl-taurine and chenodeoxycholyl-taurine using TLC and HPLC. This bile acids profile appears to be an Ursidae family characteristic. Results show that of the samples from Asia only 3% were from the Ursidae family and 18% were from "farmed bears." Samples seized in the U.S.A. and Canada showed that 22.6% and 85% respectively, were from Ursids. The remaining samples were consistent with bile from the domestic pig (Suidae).
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been increasingly practised in many countries of the world. Some recent textbooks of TCM still recommend formulas containing various animal tissues such as tiger bones, antelope, buffalo or rhino horns, deer antlers, testicles and os penis of the dog, bear or snake bile. Usually, animal tissues are combined with medical herbs. In most of the cases, the medical use of the preparations is justified in terms of the rules of TCM. So far, little research has been done to prove the claimed clinical efficacy of TCM animal products. This paper discusses some related ecological, ethico-legal and health concerns such as hunting, breeding and trade with endangered species, risks of transmission of zoonoses, quality of the products, and alternatives to preparations from endangered species.
The potential forensic significance of traditional herbal medicines
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Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications
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Alves RRN, Viera WLS, Santana GG. Reptiles used in traditional
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Combined toxicological and genetic auditing of traditional Chinese medicines provides a means of detecting adulterants and improving pharmacovigilance
- M L Coghlan
- G Maker
- E Crighton
- J Haile
- D C Murray
- N E White
- ML Coghlan
Coghlan ML, Maker G, Crighton E, Haile J, Murray DC, White
NE, et al. Combined toxicological and genetic auditing of traditional Chinese medicines provides a means of detecting adulterants and improving pharmacovigilance. Sci Rep. 2015;5:17475.
1 An asiatic black or moon bear (Ursus thibetanus) used for bile harvesting was freed from captivity and is now resident in the
- Fig
Fig. 1 An asiatic black or moon bear (Ursus thibetanus) used for bile
harvesting was freed from captivity and is now resident in the Tat
Kuang Si Bear Rescue Center near Luang Prabang in Northern Laos
Forensic Sci Med Pathol