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Association between Social Media Use and Depression among U.S. Young Adults

January 2016
Depression and Anxiety 33(4)

DOI:10.1002/da.22466

Authors:

Jaime E Sidani

University of Pittsburgh

Ariel Shensa

University of Pittsburgh

Ana Radovic

University of Pittsburgh

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Background: Social media (SM) use is increasing among U.S. young adults, and its association with mental well-being remains unclear. This study assessed the association between SM use and depression in a nationally representative sample of young adults. Methods: We surveyed 1,787 adults ages 19 to 32 about SM use and depression. Participants were recruited via random digit dialing and address-based sampling. SM use was assessed by self-reported total time per day spent on SM, visits per week, and a global frequency score based on the Pew Internet Research Questionnaire. Depression was assessed using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Depression Scale Short Form. Chi-squared tests and ordered logistic regressions were performed with sample weights. Results: The weighted sample was 50.3% female and 57.5% White. Compared to those in the lowest quartile of total time per day spent on SM, participants in the highest quartile had significantly increased odds of depression (AOR = 1.66, 95% CI = 1.14-2.42) after controlling for all covariates. Compared with those in the lowest quartile, individuals in the highest quartile of SM site visits per week and those with a higher global frequency score had significantly increased odds of depression (AOR = 2.74, 95% CI = 1.86-4.04; AOR = 3.05, 95% CI = 2.03-4.59, respectively). All associations between independent variables and depression had strong, linear, dose-response trends. Results were robust to all sensitivity analyses. Conclusions: SM use was significantly associated with increased depression. Given the proliferation of SM, identifying the mechanisms and direction of this association is critical for informing interventions that address SM use and depression.

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!$$$88@AF8%  

# I((J968<<"$P!"!

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& I(-(/J

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9#"#$*?28"2#8#&

"#!$#$*?-)

! B#&*?28"2#8#&

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8*A?A.=@F0 98#&

"*=#R*=8

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 9#&"!&%&8!#$

4#""$G8G&

8Q4#8:

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Depression. B#$/2!&

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34Q4#8:"

!D##$

S#8&

 I(=J934"#$

&$

!# I(+JG&34!

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8$#.20

4&.42440:E#.:E2@0

I(A(?J9/234"8D#&

A&&'#$8$

" I(@J9"

?



=2$$8*=$8

TQUT&UTUT38UT"& U9#

!""!"/() #2

!#8""8T"U

T#UT$U8&& 9"!#

8G834$&

88&$##2V8

 BG"&

T"U$#."H/0"// =F8

# BGT$U$#!!!#

8#2V8!&

&&.0 I-)J9#2V"8@

.#8()0$#(+ -F8# 

9""!"=?"GT#U

(@ (F8#

Social Media Use. BW#

&"& C"total time

per day 8# 9G&#

#&8" 

#G8##

$& "#8

8**"&#8#$C!9"

@



6$N#9#!44$9#!O

 I*/*=J$8T4#

8UT4#8=& MB!

##!&"4 I*/J%$"$

$!8D#&"#

visits per week C&"#8!

"#"$$#88D#& #"A

8"")+#$

global frequency score $8)++ 4

!&8#"!

D#8&& 9#!#8#"

#&"!##

Covariates. C&"$$#.*@2(-,

(/2(+,(A2-(05&G##&'#$#.B

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"8228 I-+-AJ

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#!D#& ##

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5#8# I-@/)JD#&

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&#!#8&#$#

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$88!"#

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 C'&!#!8

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8$"&#$#$

!!##$$#!#

$8!# B$#!

G$#$$&#!#

8$#$

$$ #$#"$$

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#""$8# B!$

9#!8$8#MM

M#MMM8#$"

!$"M&$&\M# I/AJ

&&()*=C!8#!&"#;8

#&&#&" I/?J#8

!2#$'

$#$$"8

" #$!#!C!

8#8 #

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8""G

##"$

4&V&8

###&&

8D#&8 98"!

88##D#D#

&'#

# C'&!&

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8#&V"

 4&!"#8

$$88

 I*@/@J:"&!#

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 #&&T$U

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 &I4J ()*/#I()*/

-J,(+.(01=*-S(A !81

155""" !   $5#!5(/=/?*/@

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823##48&

.3402!#& &

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155""" !   $5#!5(/@-*?/?

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823##

48&.34P01'&$ 

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!81155""" #!  $5 8$\

H-*=-+-=]H]&H!

-)  & O([[#.34

[[C0 ()*- 

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'$ &$& ()*(  A/-S? 

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C!#"&# 

#:# ()*/,-=1-=@S+- 

--   !4#&"2!$1

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# #:# ())(,*?.=01==-SA= 

-/  C9$< 984

#$ 

())),-=.*-?01(-AS/( 

-=   $2!8$4# 

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-+  2# #8

4 #:#I4J ())-QI()*=&

(+

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(AJ,*@.+01+=@SA* !81

155"""  5555)A/A=+-()-)))/)(

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4 &!&$& *@@?,*.*01(=S? 

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!$ :4()*)*)S*=()*)6$%I4J 

()*)  *@)@S*( !81155  $5 8\

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2"2!$ 8

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:9%W88\B88

()*- ()*-,

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I4J ()*=,/-1*-@S/+ !81

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/(   4#82O1 && ())?

,*+=.-01-)+SA 

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Intergenerational differences on resilience, sense of coherence, and self-efficacy coping of family during covid19 crisis: a salutogenic perspective

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023
CURR PSYCHOL

The COVID-19 pandemic has afflicted people from all sectors of life, and families have faced unprecedented challenges. In this study, researchers explore how intergenerational disparities impact the self-efficacy coping and resilience of family members during a crisis. With family members of different ages forced to live together, the pandemic has tested the resilience and self-efficacy coping of each individual. Using a descriptive-correlational research design, the researchers examined the relationships between resilience behavior, sense of coherence, and self-efficacy in family members from different life-stage cohorts. Our findings show that resilience behavior is associated with Sense of Coherence, however, self-efficacy coping shows no variation by generation. Further analysis revealed unique strengths among Generation X and Boomers, who demonstrated greater resilience and a greater sense of coherence compared to other cohorts. In the context of salutogenesis, our work emphasizes the importance of intergenerational differences in fostering family mental health in times of crisis. Our research illuminates family coping mechanisms and attitudes at different life stages, making communities more resilient. This study can help build a more cohesive society where intergenerational support networks thrive and mental health is a priority for all generations. These insights can help future generations overcome challenges together.

The Cost of Convenience: How Excessive Email Use Impacts Our Health

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Email has become a ubiquitous form of communication in the modern workplace. While email enables efficiency and convenience, research suggests that excessive email use can have detrimental impacts on mental and physical health. This paper reviews studies analyzing the effects of high email volume on factors like stress, focus, and work-life balance. A meta-analysis synthesizes findings from 24 studies tracking over 5,000 office workers' email habits. Results indicate that those who received over 100 emails per day had significantly higher stress hormone levels compared to the lowest email volume group. Furthermore, the high email group reported markedly higher rates of neck pain, eye strain, and sleep disturbances. These outcomes were independent of total work hours, suggesting email overuse specifically impairs wellbeing. Proposed mechanisms include constant multitasking and interruptions degrading focus and elevating frustration. The pressure to frequently check and respond to emails also blurs work-life boundaries. However, few organizations have policies around email expectations, and most individuals fail to set healthy email limits. Intervention studies limiting work email to specified times show lowered anxiety and increased engagement during focused work periods. This paper argues that while email enables convenient communication, chronic overload takes a toll on our productivity and health. Organizations should institute "email hygiene" policies that discourage expectations of constant availability. Individuals must also proactively set boundaries and develop mindfulness around email habits. Though more research is needed on long-term physical and mental health impacts, the current evidence suggests a cultural shift toward email mindfulness could substantially improve worker welfare. With email integrated into modern life, we must mitigate its overuse risks through workplace initiatives and personal practices promoting more balanced, focused usage.

Delinquency Among Senior Secondary School Adolescents: Psycho-Personological Factors conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (CC BY-NC-ND) (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Habeeb Omoponle Adewuyi

Modern society today is replete with stories of in-school adolescents demonstrating delinquencies due to depleting psychological factors, poor economic factors, moral degradation, social laxity, and wanton crime of humanity against humanity. Hence, this study investigated some psycho-personological factors affecting delinquency among adolescents. Descriptive survey research was employed, and a random sampling technique was also deployed in selecting 400 participants in-school adolescents from 10 schools randomly selected in the Ibadan North Local Government area of Oyo state. Valid and standardized instruments were utilized for information gathering. The age ranged between 13 years to 19 years. Pearson product-moment correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The result showed that each of the psycho-personological factors jointly influences delinquent behavior among the in-school adolescents (F (3396)=25.458; R=0.647; R`=0.445; Adj.=0.439; P< 0.05) total variation of 58% and the most potent contributors to delinquency were family structure (B=0.625, t=10.483, p<0.05), followed by social media (r=0.588, p <0.05) than peer pressure (r=-0.053; p>0.05). It was concluded that parents and teachers must instill good morals into adolescents and watch keenly the kind of peers they move with. The government should put policies in place to address the problem of delinquencies.

Article

Sep 2023

Habeeb Omoponle Adewuyi

USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA FOR DISTANCE LEARNING DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Chapter

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Nesma Omar

The COVID-19 pandemic created unprecedented challenges in the education sector, forcing the adoption of distance learning as one of the primary modes of instruction. The social media platforms emerged as crucial tools for communication, collaboration, and community-building in higher education. This book chapter examines how social media facilitated effective distance learning during the pandemic, including how higher education institutions used it to engage students, enhance teaching and learning, and ensure academic continuity. It also discusses the challenges and limitations of social media usage in higher education, such as privacy breaches and digital equity issues. Finally, the chapter provides recommendations for the effective use of social media in distance learning during COVID-19.

An Investigation of Social Factors Contributing to Unrealistic Self-Assessment

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023

Martin Cao

The phenomenon of self-inflation, characterized by individuals overestimating their abilities and accomplishments, has been observed throughout history and is influenced by various factors. This article explores the underlying reasons for unrealistic self-evaluation, focusing on the impact of socialization, culture, and social media. The formation of self is shaped by feedback and validation received from social relationships, which can lead individuals to overestimate themselves to cope with feelings of inadequacy. Cultural values and norms also play a role, with individualistic cultures promoting self-enhancement while collectivistic cultures value modesty. Furthermore, social media platforms exacerbate the trend of exaggerated self-perception by fostering competition and the need for social validation. However, it is essential to maintain a balanced approach to self-evaluation, striving for a realistic assessment of one's abilities and limitations. This balanced perspective promotes mental health, well-being, and improved decision-making. By understanding the factors contributing to unrealistic self-evaluation, individuals can develop a healthier and more accurate sense of self-worth, facilitating personal growth and better relationships.

Sustainable Smart Cities—Social Media Platforms and Their Role in Community Neighborhood Resilience—A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

The COVID-19 pandemic took most communities off guard and has highlighted gaps in community preparedness and resilience in spite of the numerous technological advancements and the variety of available social media platforms that many relied on during lockdown periods. This served to emphasise the necessity for exploring the roles of social media and smart city technologies in mitigating pandemic impacts. In this systematic literature review, we examined twelve articles on social media usage and smart city technologies and their contributions to community resilience during COVID-19. The analysis focused on the use of social media platforms and smart city technologies during and after lockdown periods, examining their role in fostering community resilience. Results indicate that social media and smart city technologies were instrumental in helping communities adapt and recover from the pandemic. While past studies have examined community resilience, social media, or smart cities separately, there is limited literature collating insights on the three elements combined. We therefore argue that these technologies, employed collaboratively, enhance community resilience during crises. Nevertheless, further research is recommended, particularly on urban resilience and comparative analyses to deepen our understanding of the complex interplay between these variables.

METAVERSE AND VIRTUAL REALITY: IS IT POSSIBLE TO BE SEXUALLY HARASSED IN A NON�PHYSICAL SPACE?

Chapter

Full-text available

May 2023

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a strong digitization of different sectors, from entertainment to education and work. The use of screens has led to the creation of new forms of relationships, mediated through platforms and social media, which simulate the relationships usually established face�to-face. This essay aims to analyze how the negative aspects of face-to-face relationships are present or absent in relationships that develop online. In particular, the reflection starts from the first episode of sexual harassment that took place in the Metaverse. In December 2021, a beta tester was groped in the Metaverse of “Horizon Worlds”, a multiplayer virtual reality platform developed by Meta and available in the United States and Canada to people aged 18 years or older. According to the beta tester's account, the woman was groped against her will by a stranger while other users watched indifferently to what was happening. For the technologies available so far, the Metaverse experience does not provide for a tactile participation in virtual reality perceived through the viewers. The Page | 104 harassment was reported because it was visually noticed by the beta tester. This is not the first time that such an episode has occurred: in 2016, a user of QuiVr, a virtual reality video game, claimed to have been groped by another user during a gaming session. According to a study (Sparrow et al, 2020) that analyzed the story that took place on QuiVr, it emerged that many reactions were "contemptuous of the experience suffered by the user and, at times, offensive and misogynistic". Many people, according to the study, diminished the relevance of the episode given the virtual and playful context in which it occurred. As Sparrow reports, many users wondered if what she suffered could be understood as groping, since her body had not been physically touched. "It's like claiming you're a victim of virtual murder because someone shot you in a virtual reality computer game." Starting from this context, this essay aims to analyze the issue related to the perception of physical harassment in a context such as that of the Metaverse and virtual realities in which physicality is absent

Adicción a las redes sociales, estrés académico y rendimiento académico en jóvenes universitarios de Sinaloa y Nayarit.

Article

Sep 2023

El objetivo fue identificar la relación entre adicción a las redes sociales, estrés académico y rendimiento académico en 2590 estudiantes de dos universidades públicas de Sinaloa y Nayarit. Estudio descriptivo, correlacional de corte transversal, se aplicaron la Escala de Adicción a Redes Sociales y Estrés Académico SISCO en una muestra de 445 estudiantes. El 76,4% fueron mujeres, la media de edad fue 20,75 (DE = 5,31). El 41.1% y el 78,4% presentaron nivel medio en adicción a redes sociales y estrés académico, respectivamente. El excesivo uso de redes sociales se relacionó con el rendimiento académico (rs= -,12, p < 0,05). Las horas de conexión a redes sociales se relacionó con el estrés académico: reacciones psicológicas (rs= .09, p < 0,05). A más excesivo uso a redes sociales menor rendimiento académico, además a más horas de uso de redes sociales más estrés académico: reacciones psicológicas en los jóvenes universitarios.

Making “fast friends” online in middle childhood and early adolescence

Article

Sep 2023

Close peer relationships are critical to children's and adolescents’ healthy development and well‐being, yet youth sometimes struggle to make friends. The present work tested whether an online version of the Fast Friends procedure could engender closeness among 9‐ to 13‐year‐old youth. Participant dyads ( N = 131), matched in age and gender, were randomly assigned to answer personal questions that encourage self‐disclosure and play a collaborative game (Fast Friends condition) or to engage in similar activities without self‐disclosure or collaboration (control condition). Fast Friends dyads reported feeling closer and expressed more interest in future contact than control dyads. The discussion addresses potential future uses and implications of an online Fast Friends procedure.

The Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale: An empirical investigation

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2013
COMPUT HUM BEHAV

Current approaches to measuring people's everyday usage of technology-based media and other computer-related activities have proved to be problematic as they use varied outcome measures, fail to measure behavior in a broad range of technology-related domains and do not take into account recently developed types of technology including smartphones. In the present study, a wide variety of items, covering a range of up-to-date technology and media usage behaviors. Sixty-six items concerning technology and media usage, along with 18 additional items assessing attitudes toward technology, were administered to two independent samples of individuals, comprising 942 participants. Factor analyses were used to create 11 usage subscales representing smartphone usage, general social media usage, Internet searching, e-mailing, media sharing, text messaging, video gaming, online friendships, Facebook friendships, phone calling, and watching television in addition to four attitude-based subscales: positive attitudes, negative attitudes, technological anxiety/dependence, and attitudes toward task-switching. All subscales showed strong reliabilities and relationships between the subscales and pre-existing measures of daily media usage and Internet addiction were as predicted. Given the reliability and validity results, the new Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale was suggested as a method of measuring media and technology involvement across a variety of types of research studies either as a single 60-item scale or any subset of the 15 subscales.

Depression and Internet Use among Older Adolescents: An Experience Sampling Approach

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2012

Background: Depression is common and consequential among adolescents. Previous work has found varied relationships between depression and internet use. The purpose of this study was to examine inter-net use and depression by applying a rigorous assessment tool: experience sampling method (ESM). Methods: Older adolescents between the ages of 18 and 23 years were recruited from a large state uni-versity. Participants received 6 text message surveys randomly each day during a 7-day ESM campaign. Survey questions assessed whether they were currently online and for how long. Participants also com-pleted the PHQ-9 depression survey. Calculation of internet use time included multilevel modeling and probability modeling. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) assessed the association between internet use and depression. Results: Among our 189 participants, the mean age was 18.9 (SD = .9), 58.8% were fe-male and most were Caucasian (90.5%). Total daily internet use time was calculated as 66 minutes by ESM summary, 55 minutes by ESM modeling and 65 minutes by probability modeling. We found a dif-ference in PHQ-9 scores when comparing low daily internet use (<30 minutes), regular use (30 minutes to 3 hours) and high use (>3 hours) (p = .01) with a significant U-shaped association (p = .004). The high use group had a mean PHQ-9 score of 7.3 (SD = 5.1) compared to the regular use group score of 4.9 (SD = 3.9) (p = .02). Conclusions: Results suggest a U shaped association between internet use and depres-sion. These findings may present statistical differences that lack clinical significance.

Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030

Article

Jan 2006

Social Media Update

Article

Jan 2012
Advocate

M.C. Smith

Issues for DSM-V: internet addiction

Article

Apr 2008

Jerald J Block

Prevalence, Severity, and Comorbidity of 12-Month DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication

Article

Jul 2005

Errors in Byline, Author Affiliations, and Acknowledgment. In the Original Article titled “Prevalence, Severity, and Comorbidity of 12-Month DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,” published in the June issue of the ARCHIVES (2005;62:617-627), an author’s name was inadvertently omitted from the byline on page 617. The byline should have appeared as follows: “Ronald C. Kessler, PhD; Wai Tat Chiu, AM; Olga Demler, MA, MS; Kathleen R. Merikangas, PhD; Ellen E. Walters, MS.” Also on that page, the affiliations paragraph should have appeared as follows: Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (Drs Kessler, Chiu, Demler, and Walters); Section on Developmental Genetic Epidemiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Md (Dr Merikangas). On page 626, the acknowledgment paragraph should have appeared as follows: We thank Jerry Garcia, BA, Sara Belopavlovich, BA, Eric Bourke, BA, and Todd Strauss, MAT, for assistance with manuscript preparation and the staff of the WMH Data Collection and Data Analysis Coordination Centres for assistance with instrumentation, fieldwork, and consultation on the data analysis. We appreciate the helpful comments of William Eaton, PhD, Michael Von Korff, ScD, and Hans-Ulrich Wittchen, PhD, on earlier manuscripts. Online versions of this article on the Archives of General Psychiatry Web site were corrected on June 10, 2005.

The relationship between depression and Internet addiction

Article

Mar 1998

Prior research has utilized the Zung Depression Inventory (ZDI) and found that moderate to severe rates of depression coexist with pathological Internet use.1 Although the ZDI was utilized for its expediency with on-line administration, its limitations include poor normative data and less frequent clinical use. Therefore, this study utilized the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), which has more accurate norms and frequent usage among dual diagnostic patient populations. An on-line survey administered on a World Wide Web site utilized the BDI as part of a larger study. A total of 312 surveys was collected with 259 valid profiles from addicted users, which again supported significant levels of depression to be associated with pathological Internet use. This article discusses how a treatment protocol should emphasis the primary psychiatric condition if related to a subsequent impulse control problem such as pathological Internet use. Effective management of psychiatric symptoms may indirectly correct pathological Internet use.

Comparing Age at Onset of Major Depression and Other Psychiatric Disorders by Birth Cohorts in Five US Community Populations

Article

Sep 1991
ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT

Kimberly Christie Burke

• Using data collected in the National Institute of Mental Health (Rockville, Md) Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program, we examined the proposed hypothesis that there has been a shift in major depression to younger ages at onset, or increased prevalence in younger age periods, for recent birth cohorts. Life-table survival methods were used to examine the hazard rates for major depression as well as for other specific mental disorders. The findings are consistent with a gradual shift to increased rates for major depression between the ages of 15 and 19 years for Epidemiologic Catchment Area respondents born more recently. The findings also suggest a similar shift for drug abuse/dependence; similar but less pronounced changes were found for alcohol abuse/dependence and obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, in this study, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and phobias did not exhibit a consistent increase in onset at younger ages. Further research is required to determine if the shifts in major depression, drug abuse/dependence, and possibly alcohol abuse/dependence are linked. It is important to note that these shifts to adolescent onset are occurring when nearly half the 31 million Americans without health insurance are aged 24 years or younger.

Rescuing: Everything will be okay.

Chapter

Jan 2004

P. Clay Rowell

Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students: Is Facebooking depressing?

Article

Feb 2015
COMPUT HUM BEHAV

It is not—unless it triggers feelings of envy. This study uses the framework of social rank theory of depression and conceptualizes Facebook envy as a possible link between Facebook surveillance use and depression among college students. Using a survey of 736 college students, we found that the effect of surveillance use of Facebook on depression is mediated by Facebook envy. However, when Facebook envy is controlled for, Facebook use actually lessens depression.

Association between Social Media Use and Depression among U.S. Young Adults

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