Harry Potter and the battle for the soul: The revival of the psychomachia in secular fiction

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HARRY POTTER AND THE BATTLE FOR THE SOUL: THE REVIVAL OF THE PSYCHOMACHIA IN
SECULAR FICTION
Rita Singer
A considerable number of the critical approaches to the Harry Potter series have, so far, been
informed by a more or less explicitly Christian perspective, yet there is a curious shortage of
objective and balanced evaluations of the novels from a theological point of view. Much of the
existing religious criticism has been inspired by fundamentalist Evangelical movements that seek to
condemn the books as the work of the devil rather than to acknowledge their inherent Christian
morals. For example, in the polemical account of the influence of the occult on children, Harry
Potter and the Bible: The Menace behind the Magick (2001), Richard Abanes misquotes entire
passages, which leads to misleading interpretations, such as the series being thinly veiled
propaganda for Wicca and Satanism.
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Other vehement critics of Harry Potter, who admit to not
having read any of the novels, demand their ban from libraries on the grounds that they introduce
children to occultism.
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Theological critics in support of the series have emphasized the significance
of Christian morals; however, they have failed to recognize the Christian origin of the underlying
systematic structure upon which the entire narrative arc has been built.
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Prior to the publication of
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, N.C. Baumgart claimed that ‘[t]he Harry Potter-novels
contain no theology nor do they tread theological paths. This is the consensus in the according
secondary literature’
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(Baumgart, 2006, p.96). In deliberate opposition to these interpretations,
however, I would like to argue that there is clear evidence of Christian morality throughout the
seven volumes, which is easy to identify because each instalment is crafted after the principle of the
psychomachia.
The term psychomachia translates directly as ‘battle of the soul’. It originates from the Latin
ballad ’Psychomachia,’ which was written by Prudentius, a monk who lived in fourth-century
Spain. The poem describes formidable female warriors – who are the allegorical representations of
the remedial virtues
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– and their fight against the embodiments of the vices in order to liberate the

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human soul (‘Prudentius’, 1999, p.522-3). Resulting from its great popularity, the ballad gave its
name to a new literary genre. The psychomachia became widely popular during the Middle Ages
and influenced various morality plays, such as The Castle of Perseverance (ca. 1440) and the Early
Modern English play Masque of Virtues, thus contributing to the continued success of this dramatic
genre (see Jones, 1983, p.249; Cutts, 1985, p.161). The key ingredient in these plays, as in the
original ‘Psychomachia’, is the fight between the allegorical warriors of virtues and vices.
Additionally, a commoner, usually by the name of Everyman, becomes the concrete vessel through
which the warriors conduct their battle for human salvation or destruction. Eventually, the vices
destroy themselves in their grapple for his soul
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because, unlike the virtues, they can neither support
each other nor do they work together as one body. By the twentieth century, the psychomachia has
dropped out of general popularity, but literary texts such as C.S. Lewis’s The Screwtape Letters
(1942) and The Chronicles of Narnia (1950-56) still depend on this genre for their narrative
structures.
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Although intertextual references to the psychomachia in Harry Potter have been acknowledged
in previous criticism, scholars have so far neglected to discuss their importance for the narrative
structures of Rowling’s novels. Suman Gupta, for example, regards the regularity of sequence as a
mere means of both deferring information and illustrating character developments (see Gupta, 2003,
p.94). In like manner, the Austrian theologian Gottfried Bachl identifies individual virtues and vices
in the Potter series, but he fails to relate their appearance to the premeditated framework of the
psychomachia (2002, p.110, 112, 117). The idea that Harry Potter is actually modelled on the
psychomachia was first proposed by a contributor to the MUGGLENET internet editorials, writing
under the pseudonym ‘Lady Alchymia,’ in advance of the publication of Harry Potter and the Half-
Blood Prince in 2005.
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In ‘The Battle for the Soul’, she analyses the first five novels according to
their structure and the basic moral themes of each volume in an effort to predict the stories of the
then two remaining unpublished instalments. Lady Alchymia’s editorial does not form the basis of
my further analysis, since her focus lies solely on the prediction of themes in the still unpublished

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volumes of the heptalogy; however, she successfully vindicates the much-criticized repetitiveness
of the narrative in Harry Potter by highlighting its parallels to the construction of the
psychomachia. Both structures consist of the following stages: first, virtue and vice are presented as
opponents; second, virtue is challenged by vice in an actual battle; third, virtue is triumphant over
its corresponding vice. This sequence is repeated seven times in order to deal with seven vices and
their seven remedial virtues, respectively. This way, what critics have perceived as the weak point
in the narrative structure of the series can be understood as the decisive structural element that
allows for reading the Potter series as a psychomachia. Due to the lack of critical commentary on
Harry Potter in general and on the psychomachia in particular, I have considered sources from
diverse academic discourses so as to include the work of authors who either are experts on the
subject of the psychomachia as a particular literary genre, or have conducted research in the fields
of ethics, politics, and theology.
Canonically, the virtues and vices in the psychomachia are fixed neither in type nor in number,
and their essential meanings may vary significantly (see Newhauser, 1993, p.58) as well. However,
certain conventions have emerged over the centuries, and they are reflected in the narrative arc in
Rowling’s heptalogy. Not only is the character of Harry Potter reminiscent of the psychomachian
Everyman because of his ‘[n]asty, common name’ as his aunt Petunia Dursley puts it (PS, p.13), but
Harry also performs like an average student during his first years at Hogwarts, struggling through
the same classes like everyone else, wishing not to be a complete failure (PS, p.146-8).
Additionally, the whole novel series is based on the structure of the psychomachia. In The
Philosopher’s Stone, largesse cures greed as Harry resists the monetary temptations of the
Philosopher’s Stone and prevents Voldemort from regaining a body (PS, p.310-18). Harry’s
chivalry
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cures Voldemort’s lust for a pure, virginal body in the second part, Chamber of Secrets
(CoS, p.329-47). Patience cures wrath in Prisoner of Azkaban (PoA, p.369-447), where the virtue of
patience, symbolized in the deer-imagery of Harry’s Patronus,
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conquers the vice of anger, which
is embodied in Sirius’ Animagus form of a dog. Abstinence cures gluttony
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in Goblet of Fire when

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Harry has to resist the lure of fame represented by the Triwizard Cup (GoF, p.212). In a moment of
weakness, however, Harry is unable able to withstand that temptation completely and Voldemort is
ultimately restored to a body (GoF, p.688-725). In the next part, Order of the Phoenix, Harry’s
teenage angst has him descending into the depths of vice. In the end, humility cures pride because
he recognizes that, despite his special status, he is merely a vessel and not the driving mechanism
through which the battle between good and evil is fought, because it was Voldemort who chose
Harry as his opponent, not the other way around (OoP, p.925). In Half-Blood Prince, diligence
cures sloth. At first, Harry claims other people’s work as his own (HBP, p.184) and, deliberately
ignoring Dumbledore’s clear orders, does not focus on the important tasks he has been given, such
as procuring the missing memory from Professor Slughorn (HBP, p.400-2). In time, however, Harry
understands that the most crucial results can only be obtained with effort and sometimes even
involve defeat, as he comes to realize through Dumbledore’s leading example (HBP, p.519-69). In
the final part of the heptalogy, charity cures envy, as will be illustrated in greater detail in the
following discussion (DH, p.559-96).
In his influential treatise Summa Theologica, the theologian Thomas Aquinas enumerates
several Christian virtues, each of which is a compound of a set of actions; these virtues are opposed
by other specific acts that define the vices. Aquinas lists faith, hope and charity as the theological
virtues, as established by Paul the Apostle (I Corinthians 13:13), and completes the list with the
cardinal virtues, which are prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. The portrayal of charity in
the Harry Potter series corresponds to Aquinas’s description of virtue. He defines charity as a set of
acts, such as love, joy, peace and mercy; in regard to friendship, Aquinas recalls Augustine when he
claims that ‘[t]he demands of charity are most perfectly satisfied by men uniting together in the
bonds that the various ties of friendship require, so that they may live together in a useful and
becoming amity’ (Aquinas, 1921, p.154). The set of vices opposing charity encompasses hatred,
envy, discord and war. One of the prominent biblical references for the dichotomy of virtues and
vices can be found in the Song of Solomon: ‘[F]or love is strong as death; jealousy is cruel as the

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grave; the coals thereof are coals of fire, which hath a most vehement flame’ (Song of Songs 8:6).
Furthermore, their opposition is repeated in an epistle by John the Apostle who writes that ‘charity
envieth not’ (I Corinthians 13:4). The virtue can take both a material and an immaterial form. In the
first part of the Harry Potter series, Harry protects the Philosopher’s Stone from theft and thus
defeats greed, the material representation of envy, through the application of largesse, the material
branch of charity. Dumbledore’s explanation that ‘only one who wanted to find the Stone – find it,
but not use it – would be able to get it’ draws attention to Harry’s truly virtuous conduct (PS,
p.323). The very same idea of obtaining powerful magical objects, but resisting their lure is taken
up again in the final part. In Deathly Hallows, the story focuses on the representation of the
immaterial sides of charity, that is love, kindness and unity. Thus, the heptalogy takes the form of a
cycle. As will be shown in greater detail below, Harry is not tempted by the powerful magic of the
Hallows because he values friendship and love above everything else. In addition to opening and
closing the series with the material and immaterial representations of charity, moral choice is also
symbolized by King’s Cross, a place where the characters have to choose their ways; the close of
the story underlines the cyclical nature of the psychomachia and the eternal battle between good and
evil, virtues and vices.
The virtues and vices that feature in the major storyline of each part of the Harry Potter series
do not seem to reflect any moral hierarchy; still, the stories do present one principal virtue and one
principal vice: charity and pride, which also serve as the most prominent character traits of Harry
and Voldemort. It is significant that charity does not cure pride, but each represents the climax of
moral superiority or decrepitude. The definition of charity as the most important of virtues is also
described in the Summa Theologica, where Aquinas emphasizes that while humility indeed is great,
‘Charity is set above all the virtues […]. Above all ... things have charity’ (Aquinas, 1921, p.225,
emphasis in the original). Pride, however
is opposed to humility. Now humility properly regards the subjection of man to God, as
stated above […]. Hence pride properly regards lack of this subjection, in so far as a

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man raises himself above that which is appointed to him according to the Divine rule or
measure. (Aquinas, 1921, p.244)
Harry successfully battles pride in the course of Order of the Phoenix and acquires humility as a
result of the many poor choices he made during his fifth year at Hogwarts.
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Therefore, it is not
pride which features as the main vice in Deathly Hallows, but envy and its many manifestations,
such as discord and enmity. Envy can be cured by charity, as I will discuss below.
The first chapter of Deathly Hallows introduces a frightening vision of what life under the rule
of Voldemort will be like for the wizarding community. The congregation of Death Eaters at
Malfoy Manor anticipates a bleak, dystopian future which is devoid of any goodness or virtue. The
crowded but silent room of conspirators described here creates an atmosphere filled with dread:
‘The company round the table watched Voldemort apprehensively, each of them, by his or her
expression, afraid that they might be blamed for Harry Potter’s continued existence’ (DH, p.13).
Throughout the chapter, Voldemort literally and figuratively positions himself above all others
because envy does not tolerate equals. The seating arrangements in particular demonstrate either
Voldemort’s appreciation or his contempt for each respective person (DH, p.11), while
‘appreciation’ does not signify affection or respect but usefulness in regard to Voldemort’s goals.
Voldemort demonstrates his absolute power by establishing himself as the master of life and death
(DH, p.17-8) when he kills the Hogwarts Muggle Studies teacher, Charity Burbage (DH, p.17), in a
markedly indifferent manner. Since Burbage teaches her students cultural awareness and
compassion for Muggles and Muggle-borns (DH, p.17), she represents an ideology that stands in
strong opposition to Voldemort’s racist and supremacist beliefs. When he kills the witch who bears
the apt name of Charity, he also symbolically murders the virtue charity with all its implications of
kindness, empathy, friendship and unity. Voldemort commits this murder, which introduces the
final instalment of the series, without showing a single trace of moral conscience or remorse.
The initial display of moral depravity is followed (and somewhat countered) by the second
chapter, in which the reader finds Harry once more at the house of the Dursleys. Harry and his

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cousin, Dudley, are usually presented as opposites: whereas Harry embodies virtuous behaviour,
Dudley often acts in a stereotypically vicious manner. However, in this final appearance Dudley has
changed his behaviour towards Harry, thus heralding the eventual resolution of the psychomachia:
kindness defeats envy. When the reader encounters Harry’s cousin one last time, a profound change
in his character is apparent. Although Dudley has functioned as the banal, non-magical embodiment
of vice in the preceding six novels, he now displays genuine interest in Harry’s well-being (see DH,
p.39-40). It is Dudley’s somewhat helpless attempt to act in a kind way which strikingly
demonstrates that reconciliation is possible, and that Harry has to reconsider who is friend, and who
is foe.
So far, Harry has been known to love his parents, friends and mentors. When he begins to show
signs of empathy for the Dursleys and especially Dudley, his newfound sympathy illustrates that the
‘battle for the soul’ is fought in order to secure the victory of virtues such as compassion, because
Harry, unlike Voldemort who does not even care for his followers, is willing to protect even people
he dislikes (DH, p.32). Eventually, when the cousins shake hands before Harry’s final departure
(DH, p.40), they leave the years of their mutual dislike behind. Their gesture implies that it will be
their responsibility to overcome and defeat evil by showing kindness towards each other. Whereas
Dudley attempts to improve his relationship with Harry, his parents appear to be unable to change
their ways (DH, p.39, 41). The younger generation’s greater capacity for reconciliation and
sympathy is recurring motif throughout the final novel, and becomes further enhanced when the
major teenager characters are shown to repair the damage the adults have caused. For example,
Harry’s former schoolmate Lee Jordan successfully broadcasts the guerrilla programme
Potterwatch in order to inform the wizarding society against the workings of Voldemort and the
Death Eaters because all the controlled official wireless channels are under strict observation under
threat of death (DH, p.355); Ravenclaw students supply Harry with the final clue for the retrieval of
the Ravenclaw diadem (DH, p.470); and it is the Weasely twins who welcome their wayward
brother Percy back into the family even before their parents (DH, p.487).

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After the departure of the Dursleys and with the arrival of Harry’s friends in Privet Drive, the
focus on the central motif of charity shifts towards the sinister topic of the soul ripped apart and
stored in different Horcrux vessels. Voldemort’s corrupted and fragmented soul finds its foil in
Harry’s ability to fight against evil since Harry's strength is not derived from murder or moral
depravity. The rescuers volunteering to take on Harry’s shape are a further representation of this
particular purity. Their drinking of Polyjuice Potion, an act of friendship that effectively creates
seven different ‘Harrys’ for a limited period of time in order to protect the original Harry, signifies
an inversion of the creation of the Horcruxes with which Voldemort attempts to achieve
immortality by tearing his soul into seven separate parts (DH, p.42-57). Both of these actions
illustrate the workings of the virtues and vices. The literal splitting of bodies and souls and the
implied evil nature of this act refers to an epistle by Paul the Apostle, stating ‘[t]hat there should be
no schism in the body; but that the members should have the same care for one another’ (I
Corinthians 12:25). Despite their physical separation, the friends take seven identical shapes and,
above all, function as one body, in this instance Harry’s body. The vices, as represented by
Voldemort’s fractions of the soul, cannot remain together and drift apart instead. Consequently, the
‘seven Harrys’ illustrate (with unity and friendship) two components of charity, while Voldemort’s
creation of Horcruxes literally embodies his pride and his crimes. Thus, the magical ‘split’ of
protagonist and antagonist into seven parts invites entirely opposite interpretations. Harry’s charity
is further highlighted by his objections to his friends’ decision. He is deeply worried when they
place themselves in mortal peril for his sake, and tries to convince them to find another way to
secure his departure (DH, p.47-8). In contrast, Voldemort does not feel any sympathy, neither for
his victims nor for his most ardent supporters. He does not care whether his followers die for his
protection. In fact, he expects them to sacrifice themselves for him (see PS, p.320; GoF, p.705,
709).
Another manifestation of charity is revealed when Harry shows sympathy for his enemies and
refuses to fight to kill. On being attacked the moment he leaves Privet Drive, Harry does not strike

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back with any dangerous curses, but resorts to ‘safe’ hexes only meant to disarm his attackers (DH,
p.54-5). He has become notorious among his enemies for his unwillingness to cause serious damage
in magical combat. His friends, therefore, do not hail his moral righteousness, for it has endangered
not only him but all of them:
‘Of course not,’ said Lupin, ‘but the Death Eaters! – frankly, most people! - would have
expected you to attack back! Expelliarmus is a useful spell, Harry, but the Death Eaters
seem to think it is your signature move, and I urge you not to let it become so.’ […]
‘I won’t blast people out of my way just because they’re there,’ said Harry. ‘That’s
Voldemort’s job.’ (DH, p.64)
In spite of Lupin’s harsh criticism, Harry sticks to his principles. His superior morality is
represented as upright and heroic here, but the scene also indicates how naive and stubborn Harry’s
insistence on decent behaviour may appear at first. However, Harry does not and will not cause any
harm where it can be avoided. His refusal marks another distinction between Harry and Voldemort,
for while the latter ‘is interested in power for its own sake, Harry wishes to use his power only
when it is right to do so’ (Nel, 2001, p.41). And when he finds himself in such situations, he
chooses to cast only those spells that cause the least damage while rendering his opponents unable
to continue the fight. This motif is repeatedly invoked to show that Harry epitomizes charitable
conduct, and resolves the battle for the soul on the side of the virtues.
In its exploration of charity, Deathly Hallows mainly focuses on unity and friendship as the two
components of this virtue, discussing how they are maintained or disrupted in the course of the
story. The relationship between Harry, Ron and Hermione combines true friendship and a feeling of
unity. While their friendship experiences a considerable development in the final instalment of the
series, their unity, always a source of strength for Harry, is challenged when Ron goes his separate
way for a period of time. Ron and Hermione’s unconditional friendship has always provided Harry
with emotional safety and a moral compass; in fact, he has become quite dependent on their
support. Therefore, it does not come as a surprise that Harry perceives the disruption of their
friendship as a serious threat to his mission. At first, however, Harry shies away from their quarrels
(DH, p.167) and rather leaves Ron and Hermione to themselves. Avoiding the growing discord is

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one of Harry’s poorer choices and serves as indirect reminder of Dumbledore’s appeal that one has
‘to make a choice between what is right, and what is easy,’ in order to confront problems when they
arise and avert catastrophe (GoF, p.784). In an outburst of temperaments and with much emotional
abuse (DH, p.252-4), the friends break up for a considerable length of time. Ron’s departure leads
to the most substantial weakening of the trio ever (DH, p.255-96). Only the break-up of their unity
and their reunification enlightens Harry to the strength of true friendship; he realizes that all three of
them suffer the same emotionally paralysing numbness of separation (DH, p.308). He learns that
‘[c]harity suffereth long’ (I Corinthians 13:4) and that he will have to wait patiently for his friends
to reconcile. Above all, patience
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does not entail ignoring conflict. Instead, the three of them must
work steadily and reasonably for their unity (see Euchner, 1998, p.20) by talking about their fear of
separation and respecting each others’ feelings (DH, p.315-21). In the end, their friendship proves
true because ‘[c]harity never faileth’ (I Corinthians 13:8).
Before the friends can re-establish their bond, Ron has to overcome the vice of envy in order to
re-enter their circle. Upon his reappearance, he is confronted with magic that projects images of the
romantic involvement of Harry and Hermione that he so dreads. He proves his courage when he
first rescues Harry from drowning, and then destroys the Horcrux, the cursed object that casts the
images intended to frighten him off (DH, p.302-3, 306-7). His bravery and his commitment to their
cause help him to defy the vice of envy. Ron regains his place among his friends and their unity
restores their combined energy. From this point onwards, the story is driven steadily towards the
final confrontation between Harry and Voldemort. The trio uncover the true meaning behind the
Deathly Hallows (DH, p.333-9), free Luna, Dean and Mr Ollivander from the Death Eaters (DH,
p.378-80), break into Gringotts (DH, p.422-37) and, before long, are on their way to Hogwarts to
stop Voldemort from establishing his reign once and for all (DH, p.439). It is their true friendship
that channels their powers towards a mutual goal. In contrast, the Death Eaters contribute to the
Dark Lord’s eventual downfall because they are weakened by their envy towards each other (see
DH, p.368, 373, 380).

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In spite of their imagery of death and destruction, the final five chapters of Deathly Hallows are
entirely composed around the idea of ‘[h]atred stirreth up strifes: but love covereth all sins’
(Proverbs 10:12). The motif of loving reconciliation is recurrent in the final chapters. Percy
Weasley’s return to his family (DH, p.487; see also Luke 15:20-21), Severus Snape’s dying wish to
once more see the eyes of the only woman he ever loved (DH, p.528) and Narcissa betraying
Voldemort for fear of her son’s safety (DH, p.581) stand out in particular and draw attention to the
importance of unity and love as integral elements of charity. The nature of the dark forces, i.e. their
inability to feel compassion, inevitably contributes to Voldemort’s downfall. Since he is devoid of
any empathy, he is oblivious to Narcissa Malfoy’s and Snape’s betrayal
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because their motives are
rooted in their ability to love (DH, p.544, 552, 581). Furthermore, the demonstration of unity on the
side of the good is emphasized not in spite of, but through their heavy losses. The gruesome
depiction of Fred’s and Snape’s deaths and the great number of identified and anonymous casualties
are employed to stress the dedication of Harry and his companions to their defence of charity for the
benefit of the survivors (DH, p.512, 527-8). In addition, other magical creatures such as centaurs,
house-elves and hippogriffs, which have so far been marginalized in the wizarding community, join
forces and eventually make the victory of virtue possible (DH, p.490-1, 519, 588). The defeat of
evil derives from its own cruelty and its readiness to kill as many opponents as possible, as well as
from its genuine envy and discord. With Crabbe unleashing the fiendfyre that destroys one of the
Horcruxes (DH, p.507-10) and with Narcissa betraying Voldemort (DH, p.581), the vices are
ironically shown to perceive each other as opponents and eventually begin fighting each other like
they fight the virtues. Dumbledore had hinted towards this inherent weakness of Voldemort and his
supporters when he stressed that ‘we are only as strong as we stand united, as weak as we are
divided’ (GoF, p.784). Harry and his companions eventually defeat the vices because they possess
the very virtues they seek to defend – a source of power that is symbolized in Gryffindor's sword
which ‘imbib[es] only that which strengthens it’ (DH, p.249).

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The conflict between good and evil, between virtues and vices, is finally resolved by Harry’s
complete and voluntary self-sacrifice out of love. He proves himself worthy of the title ‘[t]he
Chosen One’ (HBP, p.42) when he is willing to surrender himself for a higher purpose (see
Wickert, 1995, p.44). Once he learns that he is about to die, Harry is even able to forgive
Dumbledore for leading him secretly but steadily towards his death. While he realizes that his
ultimate sacrifice has been anticipated and prepared by the person he trusted most, he is willing to
face his task and destiny without hesitation:
Dumbledore’s betrayal was almost nothing. Of course there had been a bigger plan;
[…]. How neat, how elegant, not to waste any more lives, but to give the dangerous
task to the boy who had already been marked for slaughter, and whose death would not
be a calamity, but another blow against Voldemort. (DH, p.555)
When Harry makes the decision to die in order to save the world that he has grown to love, he
severs his ties with the living (DH, p.556-60) and approaches Voldemort alone but, notably,
accompanied by spirits of his beloved parents and Sirius and Lupin (DH, p.561-2). Harry takes on
the role of the messianic figure when he welcomes death to save the wizarding world from
Voldemort. Twentieth-century fantasy literature has generally experienced a shift from a moral to
an ecological emphasis ‘whereby the objective is often to save or restore threatened or blighted
worlds rather than the self’ (Manlove, 1999, p.73). However, due to its construction as a
psychomachia, the Harry Potter series very much retains a moral attitude because Harry fully
embraces the diverse implications of charity, such as love, friendship, compassion and unity. In
contrast, the fragmentation of Voldemort’s soul symbolizes a perversion of morals. The murders he
committed in order to gain immortality have rendered his soul unstable and almost beyond repair,
while Harry’s readiness to sacrifice without defending himself is the crucial action that guarantees
the wholeness of his soul.
The chapter titled ‘King’s Cross’ shows Harry in a kind of limbo to illustrate his transition into
the truly charitable character he is to become. Before his self-sacrifice, Harry was capable of
performing an Unforgivable Curse, Crucio, which suggests that his virtuous character still showed

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traces of vice (see DH, p.477). His quest is finished when his presumably fatal encounter with
Voldemort causes him to enter a state curiously positioned between life and death. Since Harry
refuses to fight the forces of evil when he is hit by the curse that is meant to kill him, he does not
die but finds himself transported to another place where, strangely, he encounters Dumbledore. This
place resembles King’s Cross station, a symbolic location of crossroads representing the principle
of free choice. Harry has decided to take the path of the virtues, whereas Voldemort has travelled
the road of the vices. Now, their decisions are mirrored in the manifestations of their souls. Harry
appears whole and healthy and does not feel any physical pain, but the fragment of Voldemort’s
soul is described as a small and gruesomely disfigured child (DH, p.566). Although the sight of it
repulses Harry, he also pities the horrible infant (DH, p.566). His sympathy for this ugly being
proves that Harry has further developed his sincere consideration and empathy in the course of his
quest. In contrast to Voldemort and to Dumbledore in his younger years (DH, p.573), Harry wants
neither fame nor glory because he has already successfully fought against pride and its many
temptations: all his actions are now determined by his affection for his friends and his family (see
Euchner, 1998, p.15-6). It is his decision to destroy the Horcruxes rather than follow the lure of the
Hallows that makes Harry stronger than either Dumbledore or Voldemort (DH, p.575).
Voldemort’s defeat is ultimately brought about by a combination of self-destruction and his
opponent’s will to sacrifice himself. However, the focus of this last battle is once again on the major
theme of love, which is invoked to support the symbolic power that charity holds over envy. Since
Voldemort completely fails to comprehend the power of love, he is rendered weak and he is unable
to recognize his countless preceding mistakes (DH, p.592). In typical fashion of the psychomachia,
he is killed by his own curse as it backfires on him – just like it did when he first attempted to kill
Harry sixteen years before. He has not learned from his previous mistake because he cannot
understand that something as immaterial as a mother’s love or a boy’s unwillingness to cause pain
are more powerful than the strongest spell-work. Harry, who could have used a curse to harm
Voldemort, instead decides to cast his trademark ‘Expelliarmus,’ the disarming spell. It is ironic

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that the one person, apart from Voldemort, whom Harry used to hate most, namely Severus Snape,
has taught him the spell that ultimately helps the virtues win the battle for the soul (see CoS, p.206).
Since Harry has forgiven Snape after witnessing his memories in the Pensieve, the Expelliarmus
spell he uses to attack Voldemort is particularly powerful. This spell and the fact that he is the true
master of the Elder Wand enable him to counteract the lethal Avada Kedavra curse (DH, p.595).
The epilogue closes Harry’s story and the psychomachia. It shows him as a husband, friend,
and father who has finally achieved his heart’s greatest desire: to establish a loving family and a
home (see PS, p.225-6; DH, p.603-7). Additionally, Harry honours Snape’s memory in a
wholehearted manner by naming his son after ‘a Slytherin [who] was probably the bravest man [he]
ever knew,’ which indicates his forgiveness and empathy (DH, p.607). Above all, Harry emphasizes
the importance of choice when he explains to his son Albus that it is truly irrelevant into which
house he will be sorted on his arrival at Hogwarts. Thanks to Harry’s leading example, the
Hogwarts Houses no longer represent the danger of discord and envy, but unity and friendship – as
well as what might be considered a healthy dose of rivalry.
Locating Christian motifs has been a popular approach of literary criticism to the Harry Potter
series in the past years. The vast majority of critics have come to the conclusion that the novels
either feature only a few, unsystematic references to Christian ethics (Baumgart, 2006, p.96) or
none at all (see Abanes, 2001, p.272-5). As I have shown, however, the heptalogy does indeed carry
a Christian message, even if this message remains to some extent concealed as a result of the
novels’ secularized language, setting and characters. The series both follows the fashion of the
psychomachia, a literary genre based on Christian morals, and uses central motifs of the
psychomachia, as I have discussed with regard to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. The
seventh and final instalment was chosen for two reasons. Firstly, the psychomachia is constructed to
result in the eventual self-destruction of the vices due to their violent nature. In Deathly Hallows,
the battle between virtues and vices is resolved because the Death Eaters increasingly turn against
each other. Lord Voldemort’s defeat is the direct consequence of Harry’s sacrifice and refusal to

15
resort to violence. Secondly, the psychomachia takes the form of a cycle in its depictions of the
battle between virtues and vices. Following this tradition, Deathly Hallows mirrors the theme of the
first novel because the central virtue, charity, is constructed as the immaterial counterpart to
largesse, the virtue presented in Philosopher’s Stone. Charity and largesse serve as a frame for
Harry’s entire moral development and, this way, direct the readers’ attention to the most central
message of the series: ‘Hatred stirreth up strifes: but love covereth all sins’ (Proverbs 10:12).

16
Works Cited
R. Abanes (2001) Harry Potter and the Bible: The Menace behind the Magick (Fremont: Horizon
Books).
T. Aquinas (1921) The ‘Summa Theologica’: Second Part of the Second Part (London: Burns Oats
& Washbourne).
G. Bachl (2002) ‘Harry Potter theologisch gelesen’ in H. Lexe (ed.) “Alohomora!”: Ergebnisse des
ersten Wiener Harry-Potter-Symposions (Wien: Edition Praesens Verlag für Literatur- und
Sprachwissenschaft) 109-124.
N. C. Baumgart (2006) ‘Die Bibel ein(sch)muggeln? Die Suche nach mythologischen, religiösen
und theologischen Spuren in den Harry Potter-Romanen’ in C. Garbe and M. Phillip (ed.) Harry
Potter – Ein Literatur- und Medienereignis im Blickpunkt interdisziplinärer Forschung (Hamburg:
LIT Verlag) 73-100.
W. Becker (1975) Von Kardinaltugenden, Todsünden und etlichen Lastern: Bilder und Plastiken
zur Kultur- und Sittengeschichte des 12. bis 19. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Koehler und Amelang).
Ciaran (2006) ‘Mother Appeals Decision to Keep HP in Schools’, MUGGLENET,
http://mugglenet.com (home page), date accessed 24 January 2009.
J. Cutts (1985) ‘Thomas Randolph’s The Muse’ Looking-Glass and The Battle of the Vices against
the Virtues’, Notes and Queries, XXXII, 161-2.
C. Drexler and N. Wandinger (2004) Leben, Tod und Zauberstab: auf theologischer Spurensuche
in Harry Potter (Berlin: LIT Verlag).
W. Euchner (1998) ‘Vorwort’ in B. Mandeville Die Bienenfabel, 2nd edn (Frankfurt am Main:
Suhrkamp) 7-56.
S. Gupta (2003) Re-Reading Harry Potter (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan).
M. Jones (1996) ‘Early Moral Plays and the Earliest Secular Drama’ in L. Potter et al. (ed.)
Medieval Drama (London: Routledge) 211-291.
The Holy Bible (1978) King James Version (Philadelphia: National Publishing Company).
G. Kuby (2003) Harry Potter: Gut oder Böse (Kißlegg-Immenried: Fe-Medienverlags GmbH).
Lady Alchymia (2005) ‘The Battle for the Soul’, MUGGLENET, http://www.mugglenet.com
(home page), date accessed 8 November 2007.
C. Manlove (1999) The Fantasy Literature of England (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan
Press).
G. Meilaender (1978) The Taste for the Other: The Social and Ethical Thought of C. S. Lewis
(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company).
P. Nel (2001) J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Novels (London: The Continuum International
Publishing Group Ltd.).

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R. Newhauser (1993) The Treatise on Vices and Virtues in Latin and the Vernacular (Turnhout:
Brepols).
‘Prudentius’ (1999) in S. Döpp and W. Geerlings (ed.) Lexikon der Antiken Christlichen Literatur,
2nd edn (Freiburg: Herder).
A. Prudentius Clemens (1949) ‘Psychomachia’ in H. J. Thomson (ed.) Prudentius: Volume 1
(Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb Classical Library) 274-343.
J. K. Rowling (1997) Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, 16th edn (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (1998) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, 5th edn (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (1999) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, 10th edn (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (2000) Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, 2nd edn (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (2003) Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (2005) Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (London: Bloomsbury).
-----. (2007) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (London: Bloomsbury).
U. Wickert (1995) Das Buch der Tugenden (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe).
1
One of the many out of context examples in Abanes: ‘In addition to these references [to Satanism], snakes/serpents
have always had a long history of symbolism in occult tradition. Interestingly, in the Harry Potter series, Harry – who is
portrayed as a “True Seer” possessing the gift of foretelling the future (i.e., divination) – can speak to snakes. This is but
one of the “evil wizard” abilities that Harry received from Lord Voldemort when the wicked sorcerer first tried to kill
him. Again, Rowling has infused her fantasy tales with some very intricate occultism’ (2001, p. 189-90). Abanes fails to
mention that Harry’s alleged divination abilities neither are based on fact, nor are appreciated by Harry, who, in
addition, also would rather not be able to speak Parseltongue, since he fears this connection with Voldemort (see PoA,
p.348; see CoS, p.357).
2
Recent attacks on the series on both sides of the Atlantic include Laura Mallory’s campaign to have the Harry Potter
novels removed from the local High Schools of Gwinnett County, Georgia (http://mugglenet.com/app/news/show/126,
date accessed 24 January 2009) and Gabriele Kuby’s publication of Harry Potter: Gut oder Böse (2003). Whereas
Mallory has never read a single novel of the series, Kuby has only read Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Both reject the books on the ground of one single argument: Harry is in league with Satan because he is a wizard.
3
One of the few better-informed theological discussions of the novels is provided in Leben, Tod und Zauberstab: auf
theologischer Spurensuche in Harry Potter (2004) by Christoph Drexler and Nikolaus Wandinger (eds.). This
publication, however, will not be included in the following discussion because the authors’ focus lies on selected,
recurring elements and Christian themes in isolated scene discussed with regard to just one volume, a focus which fails
to recognize the narrative structure of the heptalogy as a whole.
4
‘Die Harry Potter-Bände enthalten keine Theologie und gehen keine theologischen Wege. Das ist Konsens in der
entsprechenden Sekundärliteratur’ (my transl.).
5
Other than the closed system of the cardinal virtues of Greek origin or the theological virtues faith, hope and love (I
Corintheans 13,13), the remedial virtues describe a set of morals that serve as a cure for a specific set of vices. Unlike
Apostle Paul’s clear definition of the theological virtues, there is great variation in the cardinal virtues as a result of the
different schools of Greek philosophy (Newhauser, 1993, p.99, 106). These differences are one of the many reasons for
the great variety of the remedial virtues. The remedial virtues in the ‘Psychomachia’ by Prudentius are Fides (Faith),
Pudicitia (Chastity), Patientia (Patience), Mens Humilis (Humility), Sobrietas (Soberness), Operatio (Good Works) and
Concordia (Concord).
6
Compare I Corinthians 15:37; Galatians 6:7-8.
7
Whereas the first is an overt Christian satire, the latter one takes recourse to fairy-tale imagery in order to relay the
Christian message to an audience of children (Meilaender, 1978, p.212-3).
8
‘The Battle for the Soul’ (2005) http://www.mugglenet.com/editorials/editorials/edit-ladyalchymia01.shtml, date
accessed 8 November 2007.
9
In the instance of Chamber of Secrets (1998), Rowling deviates for one time only from a more or less
conventionalized list and combines loyalty and chastity into one chivalric virtue. She refrains from also including a
second counter-vice, but instead emphasizes the many implications of lust.

18
10
In this part of the series a strong connection between the psychomachia and animal symbolism can be observed.
Medieval woodcuts, such as the psychomachia series by Johann Baemler of Nuremberg (1476), show the allegorical
figures embodying the virtues and vices being accompanied by symbolical animals and plants (Becker, 1975, p.49-51).
The angry dog and the stag are also featured in Baemler’s woodcuts of Patience and Wrath (Becker, 1975, p.50).
11
The concrete forms for gluttony and abstinence feature in the Quidditch World Cup and the Triwizard Tournament
and the varied reactions by the wizarding world towards these events (GoF, p.98-105, 206-12).
12
Some of Harry’s poor choices include ready emotional abuse of his cousin (OoP, p.19-23), setting himself above his
friends because he feels isolated and wrongly accused (OoP, p.77-9), not seeking help when he should, but proudly
pretending he is stronger than he actually is (OoP, p.309), and not listening to his friends’ advice (OoP, p.806).
13
While Harry has shown in Prisoner of Azkaban that he is capable of patience, he now proves to be able to connect the
virtue of reason with the virtue of emotion, friendship.
14
Snape’s entire motivation draws from his undying love for Lily Potter, whose Patronus took the form of a doe. Again,
there is an interesting, if lesser known corresponding biblical verse that supports the argument that the Potter series is
based on Christian images: ‘Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe; let her breasts satisfy thee at all times; and
be thou ravished always with her love’ (Proverbs 5:19).