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The mind's eye in chess
Abstract
This chapter describes the progress made toward understanding chess skill. It describes the work on perception in chess, adding some new analyses of the data. It presents a theoretical formulation to characterize how expert chess players perceive the chess board. It describes some tasks that correlate with chess skill and the cognitive processes of skilled chess players. It is believed that the demonstration of de Groot's, far from being an incidental side effect of chess skill, actually reveals one of the most important processes that underlie chess skill—the ability to perceive familiar patterns of pieces. In the first experiment discussed in the chapter, two tasks were used. The memory task was very similar to de Groot's task: chess players saw a position for 5 seconds and then attempted to recall it. Unlike de Groot, multiple trials were used—5 seconds of viewing followed by recall—until the position was recalled perfectly. The second task or the perception task for simplicity involved showing chess players a position in plain view.
... Frequently playing and practicing chess is vital for intellectual growth because it continuously challenges and enhances cognitive abilities. It was reported that expertise in chess is acquired through extensive practice, which transitions cognitive processes from deliberate reasoning to intuitive, unconscious recognition [2][3][4]. In addition, chess masters excel due to their ability to recognize and encode patterns, or chunks of meaningful chess configurations. ...
... In addition, chess masters excel due to their ability to recognize and encode patterns, or chunks of meaningful chess configurations. Chess masters possess an extensive repertoire of familiar patterns and positions stored in long-term memory, estimated between 10,000 to 50,000, enabling them to identify and retrieve meaningful structures during play [2][3][4]. These patterns are crucial for quick, accurate decision-making. ...
... These patterns are crucial for quick, accurate decision-making. In addition, this repertoire is built through years of practice and exposure to chess positions [2][3][4]. These results lead to high demand for the research and development of chess-playing systems for intellectual entertainment, training, and practice. ...
... Simon and other AI scholars regard intuition as an efficient information-processing mechanism that enables rapid decision-making without explicit logical reasoning. Simon describes intuition as a process wherein individuals leverage prior knowledge and experience to swiftly recall and identify appropriate solutions to problems [24]. From this perspective, he proposes that machines can simulate human intuition through basic pattern recognition mechanisms. ...
... The study utilized MATLAB to resample the EEG data exported from ErgoLAB to 256 Hz, ensuring that the signals could be compared on the same time scale. The study defined two frequency bands of interest: Alpha (8-12 Hz) and Beta (15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30). A sliding window length of 250 milliseconds was set to obtain sufficient frequency resolution (4 Hz), while also avoiding overlap between consecutive stimuli, with power spectra and coherence calculated at 20-millisecond increments. ...
This study investigates the issue of task allocation in Human-Machine Collaboration (HMC) within the context of Industry 4.0. By integrating philosophical insights and cognitive science, it clearly defines two typical modes of human behavior in human-machine interaction(HMI): skill-based intuitive behavior and knowledge-based intellectual behavior. Building on this, the concept of 'intuitive interaction flow' is innovatively introduced by combining human intuition with machine humanoid intelligence, leading to the construction of a dual-loop HMC task allocation model. Through comparative experiments measuring electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) activities, distinct physiological patterns associated with these behavior modes are identified, providing a preliminary foundation for future adaptive HMC frameworks. This work offers a pathway for developing intelligent HMC systems that effectively integrate human intuition and machine intelligence in Industry 4.0.
... First, Chase and Simon broadened the skill range of players studied, ranging from novice to Grand Masters, allowing for a deeper examination of expertise development in chess players (Ericsson, 2005). Second, Chase and Simon explored chess expertise in empirical laboratory settings with established observational matrices allowing for more systematic and psychometrically sound data collection (Chase & Simon, 1973). ...
... For example, expertise has been described as exclusively skills, or knowledge, or abilities, as well as any combination of them (Anderson, 1982;Gaeth & Shanteau, 1984). Expertise has been defined as the whole decision-making process or limited to only the decision itself (Chase & Simon, 1973;Chi & Glaser, 1980). Expertise has been examined in decontextualized environments and conversely has been considered dependent on complex environments (Cellier et al., 1997;Shanteau, 1992). ...
In the evolving landscape of gaming, a need for reliable methods to differentiate expertise levels among players has emerged. This study defines experts by their exceptional skills, domain-specific knowledge, and successful application of these attributes in complex situations. Unlike conventional methods that rely on self-reported experience for expertise stratification, this research proposes a shift towards systematic behavioral observation for a more reliable assessment of expertise. The Model of Domain Learning (MDL) facilitates empirical differentiation between novice, competent, and expert categories, allowing for appropriate stratification. Drawing from digital proxemics theory and adapted from the behavioral assessment matrix used by McCreery and team (2011), this research is situated in observable behaviors in digital environments within the constructs of spatial positioning, spatial realization, spatial appropriation, and spatial interactivity as pivotal facets of expertise.
The innovative Behavioral Observation Matrix-Proxemics (BOM-Proxemics) was developed to systematically code indicators of expertise expressed via observable in-game behaviors. Through iterative expert review, the BOM-Proxemics underwent development and judgment-qualification stages to identify 16 observable in-game behaviors. The BOM-Proxemics demonstrated high inter-observer agreement and moderate to high internal consistency. Concurrent validity was established with a moderate positive correlation between the BOM-Proxemics scores and in-game ranks. Subsequently, a proportional-odds ordinal logistic regression was conducted to predict in-game rank using BOM-Proxemics scores. The results indicated that the BOM-Proxemics was a significant positive predictor of in-game rank, suggesting that higher scores on the instrument were associated with increased odds of achieving a higher rank in the game. The magnitude of this effect size was substantial, emphasizing the practical significance of the findings and reaffirming its efficacy in assessing expertise.
Proportional-odds ordinal logistic regression analysis was conducted for each subscale, revealing that the Spatial Positioning, Spatial Appropriation, and Spatial Interactivity subscales emerged as significant predictors of in-game rank, while Spatial Realization did not. These outcomes underscore the differential impact of proxemics domains on expertise categorization, offering insights into the specific behavioral dimensions that hold significance in assessing video game proficiency. By employing an one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the investigation uncovered substantial between-group differences based on in-game rank (novice, competent, expert). Notably, a significant variation in BOM-Proxemics scores was observed among these groups, with pairwise comparisons indicating significant differences in mean scores across all three expertise categories. This evidence highlights the discriminatory potential of the BOM-Proxemics in effectively differentiating expertise levels.
These outcomes demonstrate the BOM-Proxemics' validity, predictive power, and the varying impacts of different subscales, contributing to its robustness as a tool for evaluating game expertise based on observable behaviors. Further, the results offer insights that could inform the development of effective strategies for skill enhancement and training within the gaming community. The results of this study underscore the value of objective behavioral observation in quantifying gaming expertise and contribute to the discourse surrounding skill measurement within dynamic virtual environments.
... However these approaches can be gathered around two main views. Ericsson and Lehmann (1996) state that; the first one which was led by Galton (1869Galton ( /1979 brings the innate skills fore and capacities while the second and newer one, led by de Groot (1946Groot ( /1978 and Chase and Simon (1973), emphasizes training and experience. These two views match with the concept generated by Cross (1990) which mentions about the nature and nurture of design ability. ...
... A case can also be made that the deliberation before action is also only employed to justify the intuitive judgment already made. The debate is still ongoing, and we will not resolve it in this paper; for us it is important that intuitive judgments exist and both experimental and observational studies find significant use of intuition, particularly at a high level of mastery (Chase & Simon, 1973a;e.g. Chase & Simon, 1973b;Dörfler et al., 2009;Dreyfus, 2004;Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986;Gobet & Simon, 1996a, 1996b, 2000 e.g. ...
We paraphrase Descartes' famous dictum in the area of AI ethics where the "I doubt and therefore I am" is suggested as a necessary aspect of morality. Therefore AI, which cannot doubt itself, cannot possess moral agency. Of course, this is not the end of the story. We explore various aspects of the human mind that substantially differ from AI, which includes the sensory grounding of our knowing, the act of understanding, and the significance of being able to doubt ourselves. The foundation of our argument is the discipline of ethics, one of the oldest and largest knowledge projects of human history, yet, we seem only to be beginning to get a grasp of it. After a couple of thousand years of studying the ethics of humans, we (humans) arrived at a point where moral psychology suggests that our moral decisions are intuitive, and all the models from ethics become relevant only when we explain ourselves. This recognition has a major impact on what and how we can do regarding AI ethics. We do not offer a solution, we explore some ideas and leave the problem open, but we hope somewhat better understood than before our study.
... Based on these findings, Allard, Graham, and Paarsalu suggest that basketball players encode structured information better than nonplayers. Their results were consistent with earlier studies of chess (Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973b and bridge (Charness, 1979). ...
The purpose of this article is to illustrate the significance of the cognitive system in sport expertise. Consideration of visual-perceptual abilities, along with cognitive factors and their relationship with sport expertise, suggest that level of sport performance can be reliably differentiated on several cognitive dimensions. Information is given concerning the cognitive requirements of sports skills. It is argued that, although visual-perceptual abilities are inherent in all levels of sport performance, cognitive factors are essential for sport expertise.
... Expert memory theories postulate that with the acquisition of expertise, informational units are no longer encoded and retrieved in an individual way but rather in a meaningful and structured way (Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973bEricsson & Kintsch, 1995;Gobet & Simon, 1996). Experts perceive information in the form of microstructures of semantically linked elements, called chunks, facilitating information processing (Gobet et al., 2001). ...
Expertise is associated with a knowledge-driven information processing approach. Experts benefit from long-term knowledge structures—chunks and retrieval structures/templates—leading them to formulate expectations about local stimulus characteristics and to extract information projected onto distant areas from the fixation location. In an attempt to shed light on the way knowledge-driven processing impacts eye movements during music reading, this study aimed to determine how expert musicians deal with local complexity in a sight-reading task. Thirty musicians from two expertise levels had to sight read 4-bar score excerpts. Local analyses were conducted to investigate how the gaze behaves prior to and during the sight reading of different score characteristics, such as alteration, location of the notes on the staff, note count, and heterogeneity of notes. The results indicated that the more experts (i) were less affected by the foveal load induced by local complexity, showing a lower increase in fixation durations on local complexity compared to the less experts; (ii) presented a saccadic flexibility towards the local complexity projected onto the parafoveal area, being the only group to exhibit shorter progressive incoming saccade sizes on accidentals and larger progressive incoming saccade sizes on new notes compared to noncomplex features; and (iii) presented a visuomotor flexibility depending on the played complexity, being the only group to exhibit a shorter eye-hand span when playing accidentals or distant notes compared to noncomplex features. Overall, this study highlights the usefulness of local analyses as a relevant tool to investigate foveal and parafoveal processing skills in music reading.
... Beginning with the investigations of intelligence pioneer Alfred Binet into mental imagery (Binet, 1894), and extending through Adriaan de Groot's seminal work on cognitive processes (Degroot, 1978), to Nobel laureate Herbert Simon's studies on decision-making (Chase & Simon, 1973a;Gobet & Simon, 1996), chess has often been used as a domain of research by psychologists. It presents a deceptively simple set of rules within a complex environment, making it a particularly suitable ground for experimental inquiry-so much so that it has been dubbed the 'Drosophila of cognitive science' (Chase & Simon, 1973b). One of its most attractive attributes is the existence of an objective metric of skill, the Elo rating system (Elo, 1978;Vaci & Bilalić, 2017), a feature unique to chess, where players' rankings are determined exclusively by their performance against other competitors. ...
Advances in Artificial Intelligence (AI) have made significant strides in recent years, often supplementing rather than replacing human performance. The extent of their assistance at the highest levels of human performance remains unclear. We analyse over 11.6 million decisions of elite chess players, a domain commonly used as a testbed for AI and psychology due to its complexity and objective assessment. We investigated the impact of two AI chess revolutions: the first in the late 1990s with the rise of powerful PCs and internet access and the second in the late 2010s with deep learning‐powered chess engines. The rate of human improvement mirrored AI advancements, but contrary to expectations, the quality of decisions mostly improved steadily over four decades, irrespective of age, with no distinct periods of rapid improvement. Only the youngest top players saw marked gains in the late 1990s, likely due to better access to knowledge and computers. Surprisingly, the recent wave of neural network‐powered engines has not significantly impacted the best players – at least, not yet. Our research highlights AI's potential to enhance human capability in complex tasks, given the right conditions, even among the most elite performers.
... o Chunking theory (Chase & Simon, 1973) is one explanation o Chess experts can encode multiple pieces into meaningful patterns or chunks ▪ We still do not know what a chunk is in music o Could chunks be multimodal? ▪ Music reading involves multimodal processing and cross-modal integration (Drai-Zerbib & Baccino, 2018) Goal: To test if chunking is multimodal for expert musicians using auditory interference during a visual search task ...
To explore how auditory interference impacts visual search performance for experts and novices, we monitored eye movements during a music-related visual search task. Participants encoded visually-presented search templates while listening to distracting music that was high in similarity (from the same piece of music as the search array but not containing any of the same bars of music), low in similarity (the high-similarity music with the notes scrambled), or a silent condition (no music was playing). Next, they searched for the search template in a search array. Compared to novices, experts were more accurate and had longer initial dwells on the target region, and this expertise difference was greater in the high-similarity and silent conditions, compared to the low-similarity condition. The results imply that experts can rapidly focus their attention on relevant information, and this ability can be modulated by cross-modal interference during visual search tasks.
... The implicitly assumed use of means-ends analysis becomes explicit when we consider further developmental theories that construe the child as a 'universal novice' and development as the acquisition of expertise (Wellman & Gelman, 1998). Some cognitive psychologists study the formation of expertise and skill acquisition as aspects of problem solving (e.g., Chase & Simon, 1973). Anderson's ACT* computational model provides a prominent example to illustrate these learning processes (Anderson, 1993). ...
Despite the central role of problem solving in cognition and despite the extensive study of problem solving in young children, we do not have a clear answer to the basic developmental question of the origins of broadly applicable "domain general" problem solving strategies. Do these strategies emerge gradually or all at once? Are these strategies innate or are they learned? This experiment teases apart some domain general strategies by presenting infants two types of toy-retrieval problems that differ only in which strategies may solve the problem. In each problem, a toy was placed on a cloth that extended through the entire length of a canal. When infants pulled on the cloth in the obtuse-canal problem, the toy continually moved closer to them. When they pulled the cloth in the acute-canal problem, the toy moved further away before moving closer to them. The obtuse-canal problem is solvable by hill-climbing or means-ends analysis. The acute-canal problem is solvable only by means-ends analysis, because it involves moving further from the goal. Results show that 9 months olds could not use either strategy and 16 month olds were comparatively better at using both strategies. The 12 month old infants could use hill-climbing just as well as the 16 month old infants but they were no better at using means-ends analysis than the 9 month old infants. This suggests that domain general problem solving strategies develop gradually throughout infancy. Twelve month old infants showed that with experience, they were able to solve the problem as well as 16 month olds. This suggests means-ends analysis can be learned within a particular context.
... Visual expertise often involves the ability to process domain-specific visual information efficiently using memory structures known as "chunks" (Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973bGobet & Simon, 2000; see also Reingold & Charness, 2005;Reingold & Sheridan, 2011). Skilled musicians direct their attention to broader patterns and underlying structures in music scores, rather than individual features Sheridan et al., 2020). ...
In research on music conducting, there is a lack of studies concerning conductors’ score-reading. The present investigation explored the reading strategies of four Swedish choral conductors. Two interconnected studies addressed the conductors’ explicit conceptions about score reading and their silent-reading strategies in actual reading situations. All conductors emphasized overviewing and script-like cognitive strategies, read relatively linearly, and tended to combine holistic descriptions with quicker scanning. However, verbal reports also revealed individual cognitive orientations that appeared to influence the conductors’ eye movements. These findings contribute to the understanding of the contrast between shared models of professional practice and individual reading styles.
... As a result, the group-specific information is encoded at a higher level of the hierarchical memory structure, which remains in memory until the end of the task. In this case, we assume that memory chunks are more likely to remain in long-term memory, and that one of the advantages of chunks is assumed to be their easier retrieval from memory compared to retrieving individual elements from short-term memory [34,9,40]. In the last stage d, after the seventh fixation, the oldest encoded element is erased from short-term memory, and the new fixation or element location is added. ...
Efficient attention deployment in visual search is limited by human visual memory, yet this limitation can be offset by exploiting the environment's structure. This paper introduces a computational cognitive model that simulates how the human visual system uses visual hierarchies to prevent refixations in sequential attention deployment. The model adopts computational rationality, positing behaviors as adaptations to cognitive constraints and environmental structures. In contrast to earlier models that predict search performance for hierarchical information, our model does not include predefined assumptions about particular search strategies. Instead, our model's search strategy emerges as a result of adapting to the environment through reinforcement learning algorithms. In an experiment with human participants we test the model's prediction that structured environments reduce visual search times compared to random tasks. Our model's predictions correspond well with human search performance across various set sizes for both structured and unstructured visual layouts. Our work improves understanding of the adaptive nature of visual search in hierarchically structured environments and informs the design of optimized search spaces.
... Chess experts, for example, have a good repertoire of patterns that they have acquired over several years of serious play. This enables them to recognize good moves without having to calculate all possible eventualities (Chase & Simon, 1973). Simon (1987) defined intuition as the recognition of patterns stored in memory, to which also refer. ...
The marine ecosystem is under constant threat from degrading because of climate change, overexploitation, pollution, and other stresses. In the expanding aquaculture industry global harvesting knowledge that can be applied to enhance production and environmental stewardship is abounding. Some of these useful technology tools, cannot account for the complex, dynamic factors that influence the decisions in the maritime realm disregarding local ecological knowledge. This study contributes a novel perspective, through a focus on human cognition. Complex challenges require wise decisions amidst uncertainty about the future. However, intuition is often ruled out as a proper way of making decisions. Some people in the aquaculture industry admit to 'muddling through', i.e., making most of their practical management decisions primarily based on intuition (knowing from inside), which has both qualitative and quantitative advantages. Through intuition, one can have access to important tacit knowledge, which can be used to investigate and implement more resilient decisions. The article calls on both fish farmers and researchers to pay greater attention to intuition because it is an immediate and significant component of decision-making. This article adds further significance through discussing how (future) tech tools, such as AI, may support intuition, addressing potential benefits, difficulties, and approaches to mainstreaming intuition in aquaculture. This article is the first to combine different cognitive perspectives on decision-making for the practice field of aquaculture. Further empirical studies of these interactions will provide a promising pathway for upcoming interdisciplinary research.
... Human pattern recognition depends on the perception of relevant cues and information from an environment or display. A key process in recognition is learning how the cues and patterns indicate particular states of the world or are predictive of following states [23][24][25]. Thus, if we present data to end users via a novel display abstraction, through repeated exposure they should be able to learn what indicates malicious versus nonmalicious content. ...
In this human subjects study, we sought to enable user-based detection of malware within portable document format (PDF) files. Such malware is often difficult to detect with traditional malware detection tools. Humans are excellent sensors and pattern detectors and could be a key to more robust malware detection but need something to sense. By design, malware is often hidden deep within a file and its presence or operation may be completely hidden from users. To combat this, we built a visualization to expose underlying file contents and conducted a study to assess whether the visualization would enable novice users to detect malware embedded within PDF files. We found that when users engaged with the tool, detection for PDF malware was well above chance performance, better than a control condition, and with high discriminability. The display significantly improved user detection of malware in PDF files; combined with feedback and the ability to provide aggregated detection information to security analysts in a future version, we believe it could enable more effective detection and response. This research highlights the need for integration as well as experimentation between human and machine to best improve cyber defense.
... Since then, experience has been studied in almost all SE areas: design [22], usability [23], testing [24], etc. Generally, the theory of experience proposed by [19] has been repeatedly confirmed. For example, experts recognize or remember more programming language sentences than novices [25], or employ a better reasoning or better problem-solving strategies than novices [26]. ...
Context. Nowadays there is a great deal of uncertainty surrounding the effects of experience on Requirements Engineering (RE). There is a widespread idea that experience improves analyst performance. However, there are empirical studies that demonstrate the exact opposite. Aim. Determine whether experience influences requirements analyst performance. Method. Quasi-experiments run with students and professionals. The experimental task was to elicit requirements using the open interview technique immediately followed by the consolidation of the elicited information in domains with which the analysts were and were not familiar. Results. In unfamiliar domains, interview, requirements, development, and professional experience does not influence analyst effectiveness. In familiar domains, effectiveness varies depending on the type of experience. Interview experience has a strong positive effect, whereas professional experience has a moderate negative effect. Requirements experience appears to have a moderately positive effect; however, the statistical power of the analysis is insufficient to be able to confirm this point. Development experience has no effect either way. Conclusion. Experience effects analyst effectiveness differently depending on the problem domain type (familiar, unfamiliar). Generally, experience does not account for all the observed variability, which means there are other influential factors.
... Another viewpoint suggests that intuition may be cultivated by intentional practice and is based on knowledge gained from training (Betsch & Glöckner, 2010). According to studies by Chase and Simon (1973) and Gobet and Simon (1996), intuition is associated with the capacity to change gameplay and memory function quickly. It is considered that professionals are able to swiftly retrieve the appropriate action from memory due to intuitive processes that rely on pattern recognition. ...
"Literature is scarce regarding the psychological predictors of chess expertise and A-level chess performance. Methods: A cross-sectional study was designed and conducted on a total number of 90 Hungarian and Romanian competitive chess players. More than half were males, the average age was 32.07 (SD=12.99). The study aimed to explore the predictive influence of age, gender, number of hours spent practicing, preferences for rational and intuitive thinking styles, self-efficacy, and emotionality on the likelihood of obtaining a publicly accessible ELO rating within the range of 1800-2500 (indicating at least A-level expertise or higher). Binary logistic regression was applied to examine the weight of each predictor. Results: The data evinced the statistically significant role of gender, and rational thinking style on A-level chess expertise and from all the conclusive predictors the most determinant was the rational thinking style which raised the chance of high expertise more than 60 times. Conclusions: Practice contributes positively to the development of A-level competence. However, the most crucial factor in predicting high chess expertise and performance is the preference for rational thinking style. Keywords: chess expertise, ELO rating, A-level, emotionality, self-efficacy, rational thinking, intuitive thinking, practice, adults"
... Pattern recognition dimension leads an individual to rely on heuristics in decision-making, such as availability, representativeness, and anchoring (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). In such contexts, individuals tend to increasingly rely on intuition, and its underlying mechanism of pattern recognition (see Chase & Simon, 1973;Simon, 1989). In other words, in such contexts, managerial decision-making tends to rely on "best practices"-seeking any similarities between desired strategic outcomes and drivers that have led to such outcomes in the past. ...
Organizational ambidexterity has long been in the focus of understanding how organizations address tensions between exploitation, which implies building new competencies in order to drive radical change, and exploitation, which implies building on top of existing competencies in order to deliver persistent incremental improvements. Research has shown that, at the organizational level, established incumbent organizations tend to avoid exploration. In this paper, we focus on understanding which cognitive profiles tend to get promoted to the highest management positions in established incumbent organizations. To address this research question, we used a data set on 176 key decision‐makers at five multinational organizations. Results indicate that inherent biases in promotion decisions at the highest levels of the established incumbent organizations favor pattern‐recognition cognitive profiles of managers, thus influencing organizational preference for exploitation over exploration. Results have implications for theory, explaining neurocognitive underpinnings of preference for exploitation in case of established incumbent organizations which arise from biases in promotional decisions; and for practice, implying the importance of debiasing promotion decisions to ensure organizational ability to deliver on explorative strategies, favoring innovations and new market creation.
... The US Army's main goal is to enhance memory, therefore focusing on this, it has already identified and investigated several NIBS methods for their performance-enhancing properties, especially transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS). The two techniques listed use two or more electrodes placed on the surface of the scalp to administer low-intensity (direct or alternating) electric current to the cortical areas (Chase & Simon, 1973). ...
In the first part of the series of articles, we dealt with the theoretical foundations of cognitive intelligence, including primarily the possibilities of increasing military cognitive performance and the relationship between AI. Every military in the world uses some form of general cognitive intelligence assessment to place recruits in the right jobs. In the assessment, one form of examination is the examination of cognitive ability. The purpose of this article is to explore whether military cognitive intelligence assessments can actually work. Accordingly, in this second part, after the theoretical approach of the first part, we want to prove our hypothesis with practical examples, according to which cognitive intelligence can decisively influence the execution of tasks in armies, so it can be a decisive condition for successfully fighting a war.
... Career Experience is similar to the classic idea of experience as time-based in that it takes into account the chronological amount of time spent in the area [1]. A comprehensive understanding of the field and a depth of knowledge gained over years of working in numerous positions and technologies are correlated with this dimension of experience [28,29]. This definition was used by three out of the studies in our review [2,7,21] . ...
The relationship between developer experience and code quality continues to provoke extensive debate and diverging interpretations in software engineering. To investigate this subject, we conducted a systematic literature review and identified 18 relevant papers from which we aim to answer an overarching research question: to what extent does developer experience impact on code quality? Our analysis reveals different definitions and dimensions for both developer experience and code quality, highlighting the complexity and multifaceted nature of their relationship. We also observed contradictory results on the impact of developer experience on code quality. This literature review contributes in two key ways. First, it synthesizes various perspectives on developer experience and code quality, offering a consolidated viewpoint of the current academic work. Second, it uncovers significant gaps in our understanding of the relationship between these two concepts, pinpointing areas for further research and emphasizing the needs for more focused studies to bridge these knowledge gaps.
... Other results from proficiency studies problematize the notion that simplicity of models directly leads to improved performance. On the contrary, early recall experiments and later eye-tracking experiments suggest that the mental models of proficient players are more complex than those of novice players, with an expert's repository of chess piece configurations being estimated at 300,000 [8,9,13,21]. A study by Almeida and colleagues [1] targeted behavior of video game players more directly and reported important interactions between skill and gameplay/eye movement behavior, with more proficient players fixating and interacting more with goal-related objects in a map. ...
The main research aim of this paper is to investigate the early processing of entities in video games by players with the aim of ascertaining whether visual design can influence the prediction of mechanical characteristics such as damage.
... The use of AI in melanoma diagnosis is not a unitary construct; Tschandl et al. [51] suggest using different AI-based applications at different levels of mastery [76]. We note that the scope of this problem is possibly far more general than the medical field, as those who studied the levels of mastery emphasize the qualitative changes in the nature of knowledge with the increase of mastery [77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87]. Tschandl et al. [51] also argue for the significance of testing the performance of AI-based solutions under real-world conditions and by the intended users, rather than testing isolated AI applications by programmers. ...
AI has long been regarded as a panacea for decision-making and many other aspects of knowledge work; as something that will help humans get rid of their shortcomings. We believe that AI can be a useful asset to support decision-makers, but not that it should replace decision-makers. Decision-making uses algorithmic analysis, but it is not solely algorithmic analysis; it also involves other factors, many of which are very human, such as creativity, intuition, emotions, feelings, and value judgments. We have conducted semi-structured open-ended research interviews with 17 dermatologists to understand what they expect from an AI application to deliver to medical diagnosis. We have found four aggregate dimensions along which the thinking of dermatologists can be described: the ways in which our participants chose to interact with AI, responsibility, ‘explainability’, and the new way of thinking (mindset) needed for working with AI. We believe that our findings will help physicians who might consider using AI in their diagnosis to understand how to use AI beneficially. It will also be useful for AI vendors in improving their understanding of how medics want to use AI in diagnosis. Further research will be needed to examine if our findings have relevance in the wider medical field and beyond.
... For example, cinematographers' perceptual skills may be comparable to other expert skills that involve similar types of cognitive challenges for perceptual engagement, for instance skills that require anticipation of trajectories of objects and motivated goal-directed actions of other entities in specific contexts. Consider experts in the game of chess who have, since the early studies by Chase and Simon (1973), often been employed as a cognitive model for studying skilled perception of strategic objects and their spatio-functional interrelations (Langner et al. 2019: 74). Although expertise in chess and in cinematography might appear to be very different activities, in terms of perceptual skills they parallel: both involve analysis and anticipation of objects' temporo-spatial dynamics related to their coordinated movements that are apparently logical but may embody hidden motivations. ...
Cinematographers represent a group of experts whose professional skills depend to a great extent on their visual perceptual abilities. By the term perceptual professionalization , we emphasize the embodied dynamics of perceptual learning processes that shape the ways in which cinematographers make creative decisions during their daily practices. Novice cinematographers are initiated in film schools and during assisting jobs to a range of technical skills required for working as heads of the camera department in film productions. However, honing one’s perceptual skills as a professional cinematographer is nothing less than a lifelong process. While scientific studies show evidence for behavioral and physiological differences between experts and novices in many different fields, so far no such studies exist between professional cinematographers and novices. As a starting point for studying how cinematographers’ perceptual learning evolves from the level of novice to that of experienced professional, we assumed that the different expertise levels of cinematographers can be observed in the way they view moving images. We then conducted an eye-tracking case study where we identified differences in the gaze patterns between film professionals with different levels of expertise in cinematography during viewing a film trailer. As the experiential heuristics of creative decision-making of professional cinematographers largely rely on the practical skills accumulated in film work, in order to gain access to such knowledge, we also report how involving a practicing cinematographer both in designing the study and in analyzing the results provided us new insights to the topic under scrutiny. Based on our findings, a new study protocol is proposed.
... The original paper on deeper learning (Hewlett Foundation, 2013) refers to skills in critical thinking (the ability to make well-informed judgments based on sound reasoning about multiple sources) and skills in scientific inquiry (the ability to generate and test plausible hypotheses) as key components. Some features of scientific inquiry skills can be gleaned from expertise research which found that experts are better in recognizing meaningful patterns in complexity (Chase & Simon, 1973) and are capable of mentally representing a problem based on deep structures (e.g., complex relations between concepts) rather than surface structures. The ability to critically evaluate information helps dealing with the complexity of ill-defined problems. ...
... The need for a different burden of proof for computational process theories is convincingly illustrated by Simon and Gobet's (2000) own words. They try to explain Chase and Simon's (1973) observation of an expertise advantage on memory for random but legal chess moves. In 1973, Chase and Simon were surprised by This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
This article is part of an exchange concerning the contributions of the constraint attunement hypothesis (CAH) to the understanding of expertise effects in memory recall. K. A. Ericsson, V. Patel, and W. Kintsch (2000) and H. A. Simon and F. Gobet (2000) claim that the CAH is not novel and that existing theories of this phenomenon do not have the limitations that were attributed to them. In this reply, the CAH is argued to be the only theory of expertise effects in memory recall to adopt the abstraction hierarchy as a theory of the environment, a feature that has important theoretical implications. Also, other theories focus on psychological mechanisms but have not satisfied the burden of scientific proof required of process theories. Progress can be made by integrating the complementary advantages of existing theories into a unified theory that acknowledges the equally important roles of the organism and the environment.
... J. Gibson, 1991). Consider a well-known example from cognitive psychology (Chase & Simon, 1973). Chess masters can readily reconstruct the positions of pieces on a board when the arrangement is a result of moves in an actual game; amateur chess players are not nearly as accurate in reconstructing the array. ...
Animal learning research has increasingly used complex stimuli that approximate natural objects, events, and locations, a trend that has accompanied a resurgence of interest in the role of cognitive factors in learning. Accounts of complex stimulus control have focused mainly on cognitive mechanisms and largely ignored the contribution of stimulus information to perception and memory for complex events. It is argued here that research on animal learning stands to benefit from a more detailed consideration of the stimulus and that James Gibson’s stimulus-centered theory of perception serves as a useful framework for analyses of complex stimuli. Several issues in the field of animal learning and cognition are considered from the Gibsonian perspective on stimuli, including the fundamental problem of defining the effective stimulus.
Despite advancements in entrepreneurship education, consistently developing students with the needed skills for doing entrepreneurship remains a challenge. This paper proposes the use of deliberate practice and cognitive apprenticeship pedagogical strategies supported by educational technologies to enhance skill development. An integrated process and methodology for establishing skill standards based on the task performance of expert entrepreneurs is introduced. The expert model is then used to create a deliberate practice GPT chatbot to provide real-time feedback to scale students’ skill development outside of the classroom. The approach demonstrates a framework that can be utilized by entrepreneurship education researchers and practitioners to improve what and how we teach to impact students’ entrepreneurial skills.
This study investigates the cognitive processes underlying chess expertise by examining planning, cognitive reflection, inter-temporal choice, and risky choice in chess players. The study involves 25 chess players and 25 non-chess players, comparing their performance on the Tower of London (TOL) task, Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), inter-temporal choice (ITC), and risky choice tasks. Results indicate that chess players outperform non-chess players in TOL and CRT, showing superior planning and cognitive reflection abilities. Chess players also prefer future rewards over immediate ones in ITC, suggesting a higher propensity for future more rewarding options. In risky choice tasks, chess players made more decisions based on expected value than non-chess players, but the evidence in favour of differences between groups is very weak. Despite this study not being able to establish causality, the findings highlight the cognitive advantages associated with chess expertise and suggest potential areas for further research on the transfer of cognitive skills from chess to other domains and differences in general abilities between experts and novices.
The goals of the study were to identify the factors that college coaches associate with athletic achievement and to test deliberate practice theory predictions for practice relevance, effort, and pleasure. Swimming, tennis, and volleyball coaches from Division I and Division III schools rank ordered 15 attributes that contribute to successful athletic achievement. They also rated the relevance, effort, and pleasure of 7 athletic and 7 everyday events for improving athletic achievement. The rank orders showed that the coaches primarily attributed athletic achievement to innate talent, intrinsic motivation, and effort while factors such as accumulated practice and type of the practice received lower rankings. Findings for practice effort were consistent with deliberate practice theory while the relevance and pleasure findings were mixed. Several explanations for successful athletic achievement, other than talent, are discussed.
This thesis seeks to understand an appropriate decision-making framework for the fire service to use in unfamiliar situations. Firefighters and emergency responders rely on pattern recognition when they are presented with familiar situations; however, relying on such intuition can result in costly time delays. A case study method was used to evaluate decision-making during disasters in the fire service and the mining industry. The fire service cases include the 1949 Mann Gulch Fire and the fire service response to the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center. The mining case studies, both of which occurred in 2010, include the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the Chilean mine collapse. The fire service cases were assessed to determine which decision-making tools were utilized and what additional factors influenced positive and negative outcomes throughout the events. The mining cases were evaluated to understand organizational structures and response systems. This thesis recommends that fire service leaders utilize expanded interdisciplinary teams to creatively seek alternative solutions when addressing unfamiliar problems. Using such teams will require leaders to expand response frameworks and alter familiar patterns of response to include outside agencies and nontraditional emergency responders. Finally, leaders should deliberately encourage open communication about successes and failures to encourage collaboration and innovation throughout the response.
To explore the memory advantage and the underlying mechanisms of bridge experts, this study conducted two experiments. Experiment 1 investigated the effects of the suit categorization rule and the rank ordering rule on the memory performance of bridge experts when memorizing hands. The findings revealed that the suit categorization rule significantly influenced the memory advantage of bridge experts, regardless of whether the task involved recognition or free recall. Conversely, the rank ordering rule had no discernible effect on their memory performance, though the honor card information within this rule notably impacted their memory. Building on the first experiment, Experiment 2 further examined the roles of visual familiarity induced by the suit categorization and honor card rules, alongside the abstract knowledge embedded in these rules, on the memory performance of bridge experts. The results demonstrated that visual familiarity influenced recognition among bridge experts, while both visual familiarity and abstract knowledge jointly contributed to recall performance. These research findings concurrently support both chunking/template theory and SEEK theory.
This article examines how chess education is integrated with Armenia’s competency-based State Standard of General Education, adopted in 2021. The standard prioritizes eight core competencies: language literacy, self-awareness and social skills, learning to learn, economic literacy, cultural understanding, digital and media skills, democratic and civic values, and math and science proficiency. The authors explore how chess education fosters these competencies, highlighting its relevance to real-world applications. For example, chess enhances language proficiency through vocabulary building and analytical discussions, promotes self-awareness and teamwork through strategic planning, and cultivates economic understanding by introducing risk management and investment concepts. It also deepens cultural appreciation by linking students to chess’s historical and artistic significance, boosts digital literacy through online tools and algorithmic thinking, and reinforces democratic principles by teaching rule adherence and respect for all chess pieces. Moreover, chess strengthens math and science skills through geometric reasoning and problem-solving. This innovative study connects chess education with competency development, showcasing its potential to transform public education. By aligning chess teaching with competency-based learning, the authors propose a fresh approach to developing critical skills needed for 21st-century learners.
« Tous les hommes ont naturellement le désir de savoir », écrit Aristote. Si seulement ! L’incipit de La Métaphysique ne saurait être un postulat pour ceux qui veulent partager l’amour de la sagesse, il constitue plutôt un objectif : « comment rendre les idées philosophiques désirables ? » Cette importance du désir est cruciale si l’on considère qu’une idée juste ne désigne pas tant une solution vraie qu’un vrai problème. En philosophie, le « désir de savoir » n’est pas une curiosité pour les solutions, c’est un désir de questionner – et cela n’a rien d’inné. La liberté de penser suppose ainsi l’amour des problèmes : comprendre que ces derniers ne sont pas des « ennuis », mais les gestes intellectuels même qui permettent de se mouvoir dans la pensée. A contrario, la quête exclusive des solutions nous fait perdre le sens du savoir et nous empêche de nous construire comme sujet. Pour explorer ces enjeux, ce livre propose une analyse de ce qu’est un problème philosophique, depuis sa rencontre concrète où tout notre être se retrouve exposé dans sa fragilité, jusqu’à sa résolution pratique qui fait de la philosophie une manière de vivre, en passant par sa position parmi le champ des croyances et sa construction. Ces quatre dimensions du problème forment la trame d’une compréhension éthique de ce que philosopher veut dire.
Introduction
Visuocognitive performance is closely related to expertise in chess and has been scrutinized by several investigations in the last decades. The results indicate that experts’ decision-making benefits from the chunking process, perception and visual strategies. Despite numerous studies which link these concepts, most of these investigations have employed common research designs that do not use real chess play, but create artificial laboratory conditions via screen-based chess stimuli and obtrusive stationary eye tracking with or without capturing of decision-making or virtual reality settings.
Methods
The present study assessed the visuocognitive performance of chess novices, intermediates and experts in a real chess setting. Instead of check detection, find-the-best-move tasks or to distinguish between regions of a chessboard that were relevant or irrelevant to the best move in previous studies, we introduced n-mate tasks and sequentially manipulated their difficulty. Due to the complexity of the tasks, we monitored players’ visual strategies in a fine-graded initial phase (different time intervals instead of analysing a fixed number of first fixations) of task-solving and for complete trials, employing non-obtrusive mobile eye tracking, multi-sensor observation and full-automatic annotation of decision-making.
Results
The results revealed significant expertise-dependent differences in visuocognitive performance based on a circumstantial spatial and temporal analysis. In order to provide more detailed results, for the first time the analyses were performed under the special consideration of different time intervals and spatial scalings. In summary, experts showed a significantly higher number of fixations on areas of interest and empty squares between pieces in the task processing than less-skilled players. However, they had a strikingly low total number of fixations on the whole board and in complete trials.
Discussion
As a conclusion, experts apply different visual search strategies in problem-solving. Moreover, experts’ visuocognitive processing benefits from stored chunks of mating constellations.
A number of psychological researchers have understood problem solving as a framework for understanding higher-level cognition (Newell, 1980), and as a bridge to unify our understanding of learning and performance (Anderson, 1993). Social experiences shape the course of children's development (Vygotsky, 1978), and children take an active role in guiding their own development through social interactions (Rogoff, 1990). The present study experimentally manipulated the social learning opportunities 60 parents provided for their 12-month-old infants and separately measured individual differences in infants’ working memory capacity. The present study contributes to our understanding of problem solving development in three broad ways. First, it replicates previous results about domain general problem solving during infancy. As previously found with the pull-through-angle problem solving task, infants can use hill climbing more readily than they can use means ends analysis. Furthermore, the pattern of pulls without retrievals that infants make suggests that the feedback they get as they use an operator influences their tendency to continue using that operator. A second contribution is an analysis of the underlying structure of working memory capacity during infancy. The principal underlying factor of two well established measures of memory during infancy, modified match-to-sample delayed response and elicited-imitation, appears to be the same and differences in performance between items are less a function of the typically understood constructs (e.g., short term memory versus working memory) but instead reflect other qualities (i.e., handedness, attention / executive iv function). Perhaps the largest contribution of the present study is the experimental manipulation of social learning opportunities available to infants. Scaffolding provides a unique contribution to problem-solving. Scaffolding diminishes the influence of individual differences like working memory capacity and scaffolding. Whereas both scaffolding and modeling facilitated infants’ problem solving more than an absence of social learning opportunities (control), scaffolding helped infants learn faster than modeling. These results help us uncover the origins of how social learning opportunities available to infants, along with individual difference like working memory capacity, cause infants’ problem solving development.
In this article, as the first in a series of articles, we look at cognitive intelligence, in particular the potential for cognitive enhancement in the military and the relationship with AI. This article provides the theoretical foundation for the second part, in which practical results and further research are analysed. By 2024, exploring the potential applications of artificial intelligence (AI) will have become a key area of civil and military research. New machine learning techniques and new computational skills have allowed previously unimaginable abilities to be explored. The results achieved have made dreams that were previously thought unattainable achievable and further results are expected in the near future.
George Miller’s famous dictum of “giving psychology away” does not appear to be a problem anymore. With advances in technology, professionals and the lay public are finding it easy to publish in a variety of formats. However, scholars and citizens have raised concerns about the authenticity of psychological information so abundantly reported in the media. The current chapter explores possible sources of misinformation when writing about psychological research-based information for public consumption and some suggestions for improving this process.
In defense of the psychological approach to judicial intuition. A polemic.
Współczesne badania dowodzą, że sędziowie, podejmując decyzje prawnicze, nie zawsze kierują się wyłącznie deliberatywnymi kryteriami prawnymi. Wpływ na kształt finalnego wyroku sędziego może mieć wiele nieuświadomionych czynników o charakterze tak indywidualnym, jak i związanym z oto-czeniem: emocjonalnych, psychologicznych, instytucjonalnych, politycznych czy osobistych. Jednym z najbardziej kontrowersyjnych w naukach prawnych pojęć odnoszących się do decyzji podejmowanych przez sędziów jest intuicja sędziowska, będąca przedmiotem coraz liczniejszych analiz w domenie prawniczej. Przykład takowej stanowi artykuł Anny Tomzy Intuicja sędziowska w aktualnym dyskursie amerykańskiej jurysprudencji-przegląd stanowisk. Autorka przedstawia w nim oryginalną krytykę psychologicznego podejścia do intuicji u sędziów, w zamian podkreślając konieczność poszukiwania nowego rozumienia intuicji, w szczególności uwzględnienia perspektywy logicznej. Artykuł stanowi odpowiedź na pracę Anny Tomzy. Wskazujemy w nim niektóre problemy wyni-kające z proponowanych przez nią tez oraz przedstawiamy odmienną perspektywę, stanowiącą prze-ciwwagę dla głównych tez Autorki, takich jak odchodzenie od perspektywy psychologicznej przez amerykańską naukę prawa, niecelowość formułowania psychologicznych koncepcji prawniczej intu-icji, nieracjonalność intuicji czy każdorazowa konieczność badania definicji i rozumienia pojęć intu-icji innych niż prawne i psychologiczne. Słowa kluczowe intuicja prawnicza, hunch, realizm prawniczy, naturalizm prawniczy 1 Praca powstała w wyniku realizacji projektów badawczych nr 2018/29/N/HS5/01324 (TZ) oraz 2017/25/N/HS5/00944 (MP) finansowanych ze środków Narodowego Centrum Nauki. Dziękujemy Piotro-wi Bystranowskiemu, Adamowi Dyrdzie, Bartoszowi Janikowi oraz Jakubowi Kretowi za cenne uwagi do-tyczące tekstu.
Conceptual models are essential for successful IT implementation, as they concisely represent the system's component structures, behavior, and relationships. However, for conceptual models to fully realize their potential, they must be understood. To this end, hierarchy has been employed in business process modeling to enhance understanding of complex models. Prior research has proposed a two-component framework to explain the effects of hierarchy on understanding. Drawing on empirical data, this work extends this framework by investigating the influence of expertise on the understanding of hierarchical business process models. Our findings indicate that experts and novices benefit from hiding task-irrelevant information in subprocesses, with experts benefiting significantly more than novices. Additionally, experts profit more from recognizing familiar patterns in subprocesses than novices. Based on our results, we propose two principles for designing hierarchy and suggest future research avenues.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a reality in today’s world with the rise of the 4th industrial revolution, especially in the armed forces. Military AI systems can process more data more effectively than traditional systems. Due to its intrinsic computing and decision-making capabilities, AI also increases combat systems’ self-control, self-regulation, and self-actuation. Artificial intelligence is used in almost every military application, and increased research and development support from military research agencies to develop new and advanced AI technologies is expected to drive the widespread demand for AI-driven systems in the military. This essay will discuss several AI applications in the military, as well as their capabilities, opportunities, and potential harm and devastation when there is instability. The article looks at current and future potential for developing artificial intelligence algorithms, particularly in military applications. Most of the discussion focused on the seven patterns of AI, the usage and implementation of AI algorithms in the military, object detection, military logistics, and robots, the global instability induced by AI use, and nuclear risk. The article also looks at the current and future potential for developing artificial intelligence algorithms, particularly in military applications.
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