ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

The genus Thymus L. belongs to the Lamiaceae family, consist of about 215 species of herbaceous perennials and small shrubs in the world. They originated from Mediterranean region. This genus is presented in Iranian flora by 14 species, including: T. daenensis, T. carmanicus, T. fallax, T. persicus, T. trautvetteri, T. migricus, T. kotschyanus, T. pubesens, T. nummularius, T. transcaspicus, T. eriocalyx, T. caucasicus, T. transcaucasicus, and T. fedtschenkoi. Thyme is an aromatic and medicinal herb that has been widely used in folk medicine, food preservatives and pharmaceutical preparations. Overall, this genus is one of the most popular plants throughout the entire world due to its volatile constituents. Thymol and carvacrol are the major compounds in most of the Thymus essential oils. The therapeutic potential of thyme rests on contents of thymol, carvacrol, flavonoids, eugenol, aliphatic phenols as well as luteolin, saponins, and tetra methoxylated flavones. The essential oil of thyme has antibacterial, antiseptic, antifungal, anti-parasitic and antioxidant activity.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
93
1. Introduction
The mint family (Lamiaceae) is one of the largest and
most distinctive families of flowering plants, with about
220 genera and almost 4000 species worldwide. This
family has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. The
Lamiaceae are best known for the essential oils common
to many members of the family. Many biologically
active essential oils have been isolated from various
members of this family. These plants are frequently
aromatic in all parts and include many widely used
culinary herbs, such as thyme. The genus Thymus L.
belongs to the Nepetoideae subfamily of Lamiaceae
family is a well-known aromatic herb and consists of
about 215 species of herbaceous perennials and small
shrubs in the world. The Mediterranean region can be
described as the center of the genus (Jamzad, 2010;
Morales, 2002; Cronquist, 1988). Thymus, with the
common Persian name of “Avishan or Azorbe,” (Safari
et al., 2010) is presented in Iranica flora by 14 species,
including: T. daenensis, T. carmanicus, T. fallax, T.
persicus, T. trautvetteri ,T. kotschyanus, T. pubesens ,T.
nummularius, T. transcaspicus T. eriocalyx, T.
caucasicus, T. migricus, T. transcaucasicus and T.
fedtschenkoi (Mozaffarian, 2008; Naghdi Badi and
Makkizadeh, 2003; Rechinger, 19631998) Which T.
carmanicus Jalas., T. daenensis subsp. daenensis Celak.,
and T. daenensis subsp. lancifolius, T. persicus (Roniger
ex Reach. F.), and T. trautvetteri Klokov and Desj.-
Shost. are endemic (Rechinger, 1982).
Journal of Herbal Drug
journal homepage: www.journal.iaushk.ac.ir
An overview on genus Thymus
Abdollah Ghasemi Pirbalouti1,2*, Zohreh Emami Bistghani1, Fatemeh Malekpoor1
1Medicinal Plants Department, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, 88146, Iran
2Medicinal Plants Program, College of Natural Sciences, Massachusetts University, Amherst, 01003, MA, USA
*Email: ghasemi@iaushk.ac.ir or aghasemipir@psis.umass.edu
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
The genus Thymus L. belongs to the Lamiaceae family, consist of about 215
species of herbaceous perennials and small shrubs in the world. They
originated from Mediterranean region. This genus is presented in Iranian
flora by 14 species, including: T. daenensis, T. carmanicus, T. fallax, T.
persicus, T. trautvetteri, T. migricus, T. kotschyanus, T. pubesens, T.
nummularius, T. transcaspicus, T. eriocalyx, T. caucasicus, T.
transcaucasicus, and T. fedtschenkoi. Thyme is an aromatic and medicinal
herb that has been widely used in folk medicine, food preservatives and
pharmaceutical preparations. Overall, this genus is one of the most popular
plants throughout the entire world due to its volatile constituents. Thymol
and carvacrol are the major compounds in most of the Thymus essential oils.
The therapeutic potential of thyme rests on contents of thymol, carvacrol,
flavonoids, eugenol, aliphatic phenols as well as luteolin, saponins, and tetra
methoxylated flavones. The essential oil of thyme has antibacterial,
antiseptic, antifungal, anti-parasitic and antioxidant activity.
Type: Review Article
Topic: Medicinal Plants
Received January 5th 2015
Accepted August 15th 2016
Key words:
Lamiaceae
Medicinal plants
Thymol
Carvacrol
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
94
2. Pharmaceutical importance of Thymus
Overall the aerial parts and volatile constituents of
Thymus are commonly used as medicinal herb. Thyme
has long history of been used in traditional medicine for
treatment of various diseases for instance to treat
respiratory diseases (whooping cough, bronchitis and
asthma), in the form of tea, ointment, tincture, syrup or
by steam inhalation. It is also used to prevent hardening
of the arteries, treatment of toothache, urinary tract
infection and dyspepsia (Hashim and Gamil, 1988). It
also expels fungus from stomach and intestine and it has
ability to increase appetite because of its important
component thymol, which has ability to kill bacteria and
parasites.
Nowadays, thyme has changed from a traditional
herb to a serious drug rational phytotherapy. It is
incredible wellspring of iron, calcium, manganese,
vitamin K and likewise upgrades blood flow and pushes
an invigorating impact for the entire system. This herb
invigorated activity on anxious framework made it as a
cure for physical and mental weakness and additionally
for diminishing insomnia. The remedial potential of
Thymus is due to the presence of flavonoids, thymol,
carvacrol, eugenol, phenols, luteolin and
tetramethoxylated. Its controls numerous valuable
effects, such as, antispasmodic, antimycotic,
mammalian age-delaying properties, bactericides,
antiseptics, antioxidants, anthelmintic properties and has
late been recommended as substitute as cancer
prevention agent (Monira et al., 2012; Omidbaigi, 2009;
Brown, 2002). Moreover, infusion and decoction of
aerial parts of Thymus species are used to produce tonic,
carminative, digestive, antispasmodic, anti-
inflammatory and expectorant and for the treatment of
colds in Iranian traditional medicine (Ghasemi
Pirbalouti, 2009; Nickavar et al., 2005; Zargari, 1989
1992). Recent studies have shown that Thymus species
have strong antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral,
antiparasitic, spasmolytic and antioxidant activities
(Mozaffarian, 2008; Omidbayg, 2007; Sefidkon, 2002;
Zargari, 1990). On the other hand, Thymus species are
commonly used as herbal tea, flavoring agents
(condiments and spices) because of their biological and
pharmacological properties (Burnett et al., 2005; Stahl-
Biskup and Saez, 2002).
3. Oil constituents of Thymus
So far various researches on essential oil of different
species of Thymus of over the world and in Iran has been
carried out. Previous chemical investigation on Thymus
species have shown the presence of aromatic terpens and
terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acid (Teimouri,
2012; Ebrahimi et al., 2008; Miguel et al., 2004; Stahi-
Biskup et al., 2002; Miri et al., 2002; Kasumov, 1983).
Thymol and carvacrol are the main phenolic compound
of thyme oil. The major nonphenolic compounds were
linalool and p-cymene (Piccaglia and Marotti, 1991).
Sefidkon et al. (2002) in two separate studies
investigated the essential oil of the species of Thymus
and found out that essential oil contains carvacrol,
thymol, gama-terpinene, p-cymene, and borneol.
The different components of essential oils in different
species of Thymus are variable due to hybridization and
polyploidization, despite its rare self-pollination (Lopez-
Pujol et al., 2004). In general, intraspecific hybrids of
the genus Thymus seem to possess intermediate
composition of essential oil in comparison with the
relevant characteristics of the parent plants (Loziene et
al., 2002). Thyme oil contains polyphenolic acid
(oleanic acid, rosmarinic acid, triterpene and caffeic
acid). Thyme oil also contains other components such
as, borneol, gerniol, pinene, linalool, 1-8, cineole,
sabinen, myrcene, and limonene (Rizk, 1986).
4. Cytogenic traits
Chromosomal information is an important key for
taxonomy, phylogeny, evolution, genetics and breeding
in thyme plants. However, the identification of
chromosomes has been difficult in thyme because of the
small chromosome size and the similarity in
chromosome morphology (Ziaei Nasab et al., 2012),
Since Thymus is an out-crossing plant and have inter and
intra species hybridization, so they show
morphologically and genetically variations among
themselves. One of the genetically variations in Thymus
is the number of chromosomes that it is clearly
detectable. Overall chromosomal information Thymus
genus represents two ploidy levels (diploid and
tetraploid) and five different chromosome numbers:
2n=2x= 28, 30, and 2n= 4x= 54, 56, and 58 (Lopez et
al., 2004).
In other work, T. praecox was considered as a species
with various chromosome numbers of 24, 28, 50, 54, 56,
and 58 (Fernandes et al., 1984). The mean value of
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
95
chromosomes total length (TL) was varied from 1.625
mm in T. kotschyanus (Bahrini, 2002) to 0.849 in T.
daenensis (Baytop, 1997). The mean value of
chromosomes long arm (LA) and short arm (SA) was
varied from 0.957, 0.669 mm in T. kotschyanus (Bahrini,
2002) to 0.479 and to 0.370 in T. daenensis respectively
(Baytop, 1997). The chromosome number of different
populations of T. daenensis were different (2n=2x=30
and 2n=4x=60) but among populations of T.
kotschyanus, T. pubescens and T. carmanicus were the
same (2n=4x=60) and T. fallax with one population was
diploid (2n=2x=30).
5. Antimicrobial activity
Recent studies have shown that Thymus species have
antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities
(Rahimmalek et al., 2009; Jordan et al., 2009; Bassam
et al., 2004). The anti-bacterial characteristic of Thymus
spp. is due to the occurrence of thymol in this genus.
This substance can be used as a disinfectant. Previous
studies showed that the essential oil and extract from T.
daenensis exhibited antimicrobial activities against
Candida albicans (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2009a),
Listeria monocytogenes (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al.,
2009b), Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli
(Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2010a), Staphylococcus
aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Klebsiella pneumoniae (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al.,
2010b), Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Ghasemi Pirbalouti
et al., 2010c), and Saprolegnia parasitica (Ghasemi
Pirbalouti et al., 2009c).
6. Ecological requirement
These species are heliophylous plants and like the sun, a
fact which reflects the ecology of the genus. Thyme
grows well in a temperate to warm, dry, sunny climate,
and where the plants are not shaded (Table 1). It needs
full sun to grow to its best potential. Thymus plants
frequently live on rocks or stones and it is very important
that the soils are well drained. Thyme prefers light, well-
drained soils with a pH of 5 to 8. Thyme species do best
in coarse, rough soils that would be unsuitable for many
other plants. Although thyme grows easily, especially in
calcareous light, dry, stony soils, it can be cultivated in
heavy wet soils, but it becomes less aromatic. But
different Thymus species require very different
substrata. Thymes are very resistant plants, which allows
them to live under extreme climatic conditions
concerning temperature and water supply. They do not
avoid either cold or aridness. Vegetation period of this
plant is 200-210 days. In appropriate conditions, it
germinates after 4-5 days. 40-50 days after vegetation,
the plant flowers and as soon as the flowers are opened
and before seed formation, it is harvested.
T. daenensis Celak.
The Persian and local names of T. daenensis are
‘‘Avishan-e-denaee’’ and ‘‘Ooshon-e-kohi’’,
respectively (Ghasemi Pirbalouti, 2009; Mozaffarian,
2006). A perennial dwarf shrub native plant to semi-arid
zones and generally grows in high altitude places in the
high altitudes in Zagros Mountains range, western and
south western Iran. This plant is considered as an
aromatic and medicinal plant. The aerial parts of T.
daenensis are commonly used as spices, condiments and
flavoring agents (Nickavar et al., 2005; Zargari, 1990;
Rechinger, 1982). it is recognized from other species by
its narrow leaves (Bahrini, 2002). The essential oil and
extracts from the aerial parts of T. daenensis contains
mainly monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, phenolic
compounds and flavniods (Ghasemi pirbalouti et al.,
2011). Earlier studies have identified thymol, carvacrol,
p-cymene and γ − terpinene as the major constituents
of the essential oils of T. daenensis (Ghasemi pirbalouti
et al., 2013). The essential oil and extracts isolated from
T. daenensis have been shown to have biological and
pharmacological activities, including anti-bacterial
(Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2013). Previous studies
(Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al., 2011) on the antimicrobial
activity of the essential oils of T. daenensis showed that
this specie which possess large quantities of phenolic
monoterpenes, have shown activity against viruses,
bacteria, food-derived microbial strains and fungi.
T. pubescens Boiss. & Kotschy ex Celak.
T. pubescens is (Avishan-e-korkaloud) that grows
wildly and abundantly in the North and North-West of
Iran (Rechinger, 1982). It is a perennial plant widely
spread out in Iran and Turkey. This plant has low shrubs
with woody based stems and recumbent to upright
(Zargari, 1990). The flower branch is 2 to 13 cm. The
flowers are red or purple-blue and are 5 to 8 mm and
flowering begins from spring until summer (Jamzad,
2009). T. pubescens has been used by the local people as
a food additive, and as herbal remedy for gastro-
intestinal disorders. There are several reports on the
chemical compositions of T. pubescens from different
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
96
parts of Iran available to date (Askari et al., 2002). All
those previous reports indicated thymol, carvacrol,
p-cymen and ɣ–terpinene as the major components in
the oils. In other study the main compounds in the T.
pubescens oil were found to be carvacrol (32.1%),
thymol (19.1%) and α-terpineol (14.6%) (Morteza-
Semnani et al., 2006). There are evidences that within
the genus Thymus, chemical polymorphism of the
essential oils is a widespread phenomenon, and more
than 20 essential oil chemotypes exist in different
species of the genus Thymus (Stahl-Biskup, 1991).
Table 1. Climatic and planting requirements of Thymus genus
Temperature
Warm, dry, sunny climate, and where the plants are not shaded.
Rainfall
Does not like excessive moisture because of its susceptibility to rot diseases. Suitable is 500 to
1000 mm per year
Soil requirements
Light, well-drained soils with a pH of 5,0 to 8,0
Planting season
Transplant cuttings: in spring
Propagation
Seeds, stem cuttings, and layering
Irrigation
Drip and overhead irrigation are suitable, but do not over-irrigate.
Spacing
15 to 30 cm apart in the row with a row width of 60 cm.
Reference (Department Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Republic of Africa), (2012).
T. caramanicus Jalas
T. caramanicus Jalas, is an endemic species grown in
Iran. Kermanian thyme is a wooden plant, perennial
and Grey colored with C3 metabolism system that will
be 25-50 cm tall depending the climate of growth
region and soil quality (Zargari, 1990). At present
time, this plant is cultivated in medium scale in Iran,
showing antibacterial, antimycotic, antioxidative,
natural food preservative, and mammalian age
delaying properties (Stahl-Biskup and Saez, 2002). In
Iranian folk medicine, leaves of this plant are used in
treatment of rheumatism, skin disorders and as an
antibacterial agent (Zargari, 1990). The major
constituent of essential oil and extract from the aerial
parts of this plant are carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, γ-
terpinene and borneol respectively (Safaei-Ghomi,
2009). The beneficial health properties of thymol and
carvacrol as main components of T. caramanicus have
encouraged us to look into its anticancer activity.
T. fallax Fisch Mey
T. fallax Fisch Mey,is a pleasant smelling perennial
shrub, which grows in several regions of the world
such as Western Mediterranean, Southern Italy, Iran,
and Turkey (Baytop, 1997; Davis, 1982). T. fallax, a
perennial shrub by plant that grows on rocky slopes
and grassy areas at 1400-2500 m. Thyme is used for
seasoning, poultry, soups, and vegetables in herbal teas
prepared for colds and flues as well. Thyme and its oil
have been used as fumigants, antiseptics, antioxidants,
and mouth washes (Gulluce et al., 2007).
T. kotschyanus Boiss. & Hohen
T. kotschyanus is a perennial plant. It grows up to 20cm
of height. On the small wooden branches, dark, green
sharp and pointy leaves grow. The aromatic leaves are
used as spice and medicine. The white flowers are
scented. This species grows in mountainous regions
and although is dispersed almost all over the world, but
actually accumulates in Mediterranean region. This
species has the largest dispersion in Iran (Damavand
region) (Jamshidi et al., 2006). In a study, pulegone
(18.7%), isomenthone (17.8%), and thymol (14.9%)
were the main constituents in T. kotschyanus (Morteza-
Semnani et al., 2006). Aminzadeh et al., (2010)
reported in this species the percentage of the carvacrol
and the altitude of the region have a direct and
significant effect with the plant height. The altitude of
the region, organics percentage, SAR has a direct and
significant effect on thymol and the percentage of
nitrogen and CaCo3 have a negative relationship with
the changes of thymol.
T. transcaspicus
T. transcaspicus is an aromatic and medicinal plant,
which it has been widely distributed in the north of
Khorasan Razavi province, Iran, and southern areas of
Turkmenistan as reported by Rechinger (1982). This
plant has antifungal activities According to a previous
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
97
reports. Thymol, carvacrol, γ terpinene and p-cymene
are the major components of the oil of the aerial parts
of this plant (Miri et al., 2002). Thirty-eight
constituents, representing 98.59% of the total
components in the oil of T. transcaucasicus were
characterized by thymol (60.61%) and p-cymene
(9.32%) as the main compounds, followed by
carvacrol (4.61%), 1,8-cineole, (3.08%) and
pentacosane (3.17%). Monoterpenes comprised
91.34%, while sesquiterpenes consisted of 3.48% of
the oil.
T. persicus
Thymus persicus (Ronniger ex Rech.) Jalas is an
endemic species which is distributed in restricted
regions of the northwest of Iran including Zanjan and
West Azerbaijan provinces (Jamzad, 2009; Rechinger,
1982). Morphologically, T. persicus is well
differentiated in the genus Thymus by the small leaves
width among Thymus species with long non-glandular
and shorts-talked glandular hairs. The major
constituents of T. persicus are thymol (10.71%),
carvacrol (25.71%), ɣ-terpinene (5.63%), α-pinene
(1.14%), β-pinene (1.02%), limonene (11.65%) trans-
sabinene hydrate (7.78%), and 1-borneol
(4.07%)(Sefidkon et al., 2002). In other study the
major compounds in T. persicus oil were found to be
carvacrol (39.0% and 27.1%), geraniol (15.7% and
9.4%), p-cymene (7.5% and 10.2%), and thymol (6.5%
and 11.9%) before flowering and at the full flowering
stage, respectively (Sefidkon et al., 2002).
T. vulgaris
T. vulgaris is a perennial with a woody, fibrous root.
The stems are numerous, round, hard, branched, and
usually from 4 to 8 inches high, when of the largest
growth scarcely attaining a foot in height. The leaves
are small, only about 1/8 inch long and 1/16 inch
broad, narrow and elliptical, greenish-grey in color,
reflexed at the margins, and set in pairs upon very
small foot-stalks. The flowers terminate the branches
in whorls. The calyx is tubular, striated, closed at the
mouth with small hairs and divided into two lips, the
upper most cut into three teeth and the lower into two.
The entire plant smells pleasantly aromatic. The seeds
are small round nuts, often carried away by ants and
sometimes planted on ant hills, maybe to protect
against disease-carrying pathogens (Hoffman, 2003).
The plant has an agreeable aromatic smell and a warm
pungent taste. The fragrance of its leaves is due to an
essential oil, which gives it its flavoring value for
culinary purposes, and is also the source of its
medicinal properties. It is in flower from May to
August (Hoffman, 2003).
Table 2. Properties of thymol and carvacrol
Thymol
Carvacrol
Name
2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol
5-isopropyl-2-methylphenol
Color
white-colored crystalline
white-yellow
Molecular Structural
Molecular Weight
150.22
150.21
Boil point
233 C0
236-237 C0
Refractive index
1.522 in 20 C0
1.5209 in 20 C0
Solvent
Alcohol and organic solvents
Alcohol and organic solvents
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
98
References
Askari, F., Sefidkon, F. and Rezaee, M.B. 2002.
Essential oil of Thymus pubescens from different
locality of Lar valley, Iranian journal of medicinal
and aromatic plants, 12: 29-53.
Bahrini, B. 2002. Final report in: Research Institute of
Forests and Rangelands.
Bassam, A., Ghaleb, A., Dahood, A., Naser J. 2004.
Antibacterial Activities of Some Plant Extracts
Utilized in Popular Medicine in Palestine, Turkish
Journal of Biology, 28: 99-102.
Baytop, T. 1997. Publication of the Turk Dil Kurumu
(The Turkish Language Society), No: 578.
Brown, R. G. 2002. Dictionary of Medical Plants.
Sarup and Sons Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Burnett, S., Thomas, P. and Van Lersel, M. 2005. Post
germination drenches with PEG-8000 reduce
growth of salvia and marigolds. Horticultural
Science, 40: 675-679.
Cronquist, A. 1988. The Evolution and Classification
of Flowering Plants. The New York Botanical
Garden, New York, USA.
Davis, P.H. 1982. Edinburgh University Press:
Edinburgh, Vol. 7, P. 349.
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishers
Directorate: Plant Production. 2012.
Ebrahimi, S.N., Hadian, J., Mirjalili, M.H., Sonboli, A.
and Yousefzadi, M. 2008. Essential oil
composition and antibacterial activity of Thymus
caramanicus at different phonological stages. Food
Chemistry, 110: 927-931.
Fernandes, A. and Leitao, M. T. 1984. Contribution to
the Cytotaxonomic Investigation of the
Spermatophyte of Portugal. Mem. Soc. Brot., 27:
27-75.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A, Bahmani, M, Avijgan, M.
2009a. Anti- Candida activity of Iranian medicinal
plants. Electronic Journal of Biology, 5: 85-88.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Jahanbazi, P., Enteshari, S.,
Malekpoor, F., Hamedi, B. 2010c. Antimicrobial
activity of some of the Iranian medicinal plants.
Archives of Biological Science Belgrade, 62: 633-
642.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Malekpoor, F., Enteshari, S.,
Yousefi, M., Momtaz, H., Hamedi, B. 2010b.
Antibacterial activity of some folklore medicinal
plants used by Bakhtiari tribal in Southwest Iran.
International Journal of Biology, 2: 55-63.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Moosavi, H., Momtaz, H.,
Rahimi, E. 2010a. Antibacterial activities of the
essential oils of some Iranian herbs against
Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli.
Advances in Food Sciences, 32: 30-34.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Roshan Chaleshtori, A.,
Tajbakhsh, E., Momtaz, H., Rahimi, E., Shahin, F.
2009b. Bioactivity of medicinal plants extracts
against Listeria monocytogenes isolated from food.
Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 7:
132-135.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Taheri, M., Raisee, M.,
Bahrami, H.R., Abdizadeh, R. 2009c. In vitro
antifungal activity of plant extracts on Saprolegnia
parasitica from cutaneous lesions of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) eggs. Journal of Food,
Agriculture and Environment, 7: 94-96.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A. 2009. Medicinal Plants used in
Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari districts Iran. Herba
Polonica, 55:69-75.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A., Rahimmalek, M., Malekpoor,
F., Karimi, A. 2011. Variation in antibacterial
activity, thymol and carvacol contents of wild
populations of Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis
Celak.. Plant Omics Journal, 4(4): 209-214.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A. Neshat, SH., Rahimi, E.,
Hamedi, B., Malekpoor, F. 2013. Chemical
composition and antibacterial activity of essentials
oils of Iranian herbs against Staphylococus aureus
isolated from milk. International Journal of Food
Properties.
Gulluce, M., Sahin, F, Sokmen M, Ozer H, Daferera
D, Sokmen A, Polissiou M, Adiguzel A, Ozkan H.
2007. Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of
the essential oils and methanol extract from Mentha
longifolia L. ssp. longifolia. Food Chemistry,
103:4: 1449- 1456.
Hashim, S. and M. Gamil, 1988. Plants and herbs
between the Iraqi folk medicine and scientific
research. Baghdad, Dar revolution of Press and
Publication.
Hoffmann, D. Medical Herbalism. Rochester (VT):
Healing Arts Press. 2003.
Jamshidi, A., Aminzadeh, M. Azarnivand, H. and
Abedi, M. 2006. Medicinal plant research network
(MPRN).
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
99
Jamzad, Z. 2009. New Species and New Plant records
of Lamiaceae from Iran.
Jamzad, Z. 2010. Thymus and Satureja spp of Iran,
Research instituted of Forests and rangelands
Press, 172 P.
Jordan, M.J., Martinez, R.M., Martinez, C., Martinez,
Monino, I., Sotomayor, J.A. 2009. Polyphenolic
extract and essential oil quality of Thymus zygis
ssp. gracilis shrubs cultivated under different
watering levels. Industrial Crops and Production.
29:145-153.
Kasumov, F.Y. 1983. Essential oil of Thymus
transcaucasicus Ronn. and Thymus eriophorus
Ronn. Maslo-Zhir. Prom-st. 1: (29).
Lopez-Pujol, J., Bosch, M., Simon, J. & Blanche, C.
2004. Allozyme Diversity in the Tetraploid
Endemic Thymus Loscosii (Lamiaceae). Annals
of Botany, 93: 1-10.
Loziene, K., Vaiciuniene, J. and Venskutions, P. R.
2002. Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil
of an Interspecific Hybrid of Thymus
(Thymus×Oblongifolius Opiz) Growing Wild in
Lithuanian. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 14:
308-311.
Miguel, G., Simoes, M., Figueiredo, A, C., Barroso,
J.C., Pedro, L.G. and Carvalho, L. 2004.
Composition and antioxidant activities of the
essential oils of Thymus caespititius, Thymus
camphoratus and Thymus mastichina. Food
Chemistry, 86:183-188.
Miri, R., Ramezan, M., Javidnia, K. and Ahmadi, L.,
2002. Composition of the volatile oil of Thymus
transcaspicus Klokov from Iran. Flavour and
Fragrance Journal, 17: 245-246.
Monira, A., El, K.A. and Naima, Z. 2012. Evaluation
of protective and antioxidant activity of thyme
(Thymus vulgaris) extract on paracetamol-induced
toxicity in rats. Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences, 6(7): 467-474.
Morales, R. 2002. The history, botany and taxonomy
of the genus Thymus. In: Stahl-Biskup., Saez, F.
(Eds), Thyme: The Genus Thymus. Taylor &
Francis, London. pp: 1-43.
Morteza-Semnani, K., Rostami, B., Akbarzadeh, M.
2006. Essential oil composition of Thymus
kotschyanus and Thymus pubescens from Iran.
Journal of Essential Oil Research, 18: 272 274.
Mozaffarian V. 2006. A dictionary of Iranian plant
names. Farhang Mosavar Publ., Tehran, Iran. (In
Persian).
Mozaffarian, V. 2008. A Pictorial Dictionary of
Botany Botanical Taxon-omy LatinEnglish
FrenchGermanyPersian/Complied. Farahang
Moaser, Tehran 522.
Naghdi Badi, H.A., Makkizadeh, M. 2003. Review of
common Thyme. Journal of Medicinal Plants,
2(7):112. [In Persian]
Nickavar, B., Mojab, F., Dolat-Abadi, R. 2005.
Analysis of the essential oils of two Thymus species
from Iran. Food Chemistry, 90: 609-611.
Omidbaigi, R. 2009. Production and Processing of
Medicinal Plants. Vol. 2. Behnashr Publisher,
Mashhad, Iran.
Omidbaygi, R. 2007. Production and Refinery
medicinal plants. Fourth edition. Astan Ghods
press, Mashhad, Iran (in Persian)
Piccaglia, R., Marotti, M. 1991. Composition of the
essential oil of an Italian Thymus vulgaris L.
ecotype. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 6: 241-
244.
Rahimmalek, M., Bahreininejad, B., Khorrami, M.,
Sayed Tabatabaei, B.E. 2009. Genetic variability
and geographical differentiation in Thymus
daenensis subsp. daenensis Cleak, an endangered
aromatic and medicinal plant as revealed by Inter
Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers.
Biochemical Genetics, 47:831-842.
Rechinger, K.H. 1982. Flora Iranica,.152. Austria,
Graz: Akademische Druck und Verlagsanstalt.
Rechinger, K.H. 19631998. Flora Iranica, vol. 1
173. Akademische Druck und Ver-lagsanstalt,
Graz, Austria.
Rizk, A.M. 1986. The phyto chemistry of flora of
qatar. King Print of Richmond, Great Britain.
Safari, H., Tavili, A., and Saberi, M. 2010.
Allelopathic effects of Thymus kotschyanus on
seed germination and initial growth of Bromus
tomentellus and Trifolium repens. Frontiers of
Agriculture in China, 4: 475480.
Safei Ghomi, J., Meshkatalsadat, M.H., Shabnam
Shamai, M., Hashemi Nejad, A. 2009. Chemical
characterization of bioactive volatile molecules of
four Thymus species using nanoscale, 4(4):835-
841.
Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Journal of Herbal Drugs, Vol. 6, No. 2: 93-100, 2015
100
Sefidkon, F., Dabiri, M. and Mirmostafa, S.A. 2002.
The essential oil of Thymus persicus (Ronniger ex
Rech. f.) Jalas from Iran. Journal of Essential Oil
Research, 14: 351-352.
Sefidkon, F. 2002. Essential oil composition of
Thymus pubescens and T. kotschyanus from Iran.
Journal of Essential Oil Research, 14: 116-117.
Stahi-Biskup, E. and Saez, F. 2002. Thyme-the genus
Thymus. Taylor & Francis. London. 75.
Stahl-Biskup, 1991. The chemical composition of
Thymus oils: a review of literature 1960-1989,
Journal of Essential Oil Research, 3: 61-62.
Teimouri, M. 2012. Antimicrobial activity and
essential oil composition of Thymus daenensis
Celak from Iran. Journal of Medicinal Plants
Research, 6: 631-635.
Zargari, A. 1990. Medicinal plants, Iran: Tehran
University Press. Vol. 4, 2842.
Ziaei-Nasab, M., Hesamzadeh-Hejazi, S.M., Bihamta,
M.R., Mirza, M., Naderi-Shahab, M.A. 2012.
Assessment of karyotypical variation among 16
populations of Thymus daenensis Celak and
Thymus Kotschyanus Boiss. Species in
Iran. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11 (5):
1028-1036.
... Also, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, P (available), Fe, Na, and Mg have a strong effect [8]. Thymus species prefer to live on rocks or stones and in well-drained loamy to sandy soils with a pH of 5 to 8 [9,23,24]. However, each species requires very different substrata. ...
... Thymus species grow well in a temperate to warm, dry, and sunny climate. They are very resistant plants, which allows them to live under extreme climatic conditions concerning temperature and water supply [23,24]. T. laevigatus is frost tolerant and its prostrate habit is well adapted to exposed conditions [26]. ...
... Light is a crucial environmental factor in the growth and development of plants [32]. Thymus species are heliophilous plants like the sun and their best potential appears in full sun [9,23]. T.vulgaris needed 16 hours of lighting for the optimal development of the full flowers [30]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In natural habitats of wild plants, growth, and productivity are influenced by various environmental factors, including edaphic and climatic conditions. Yemen has many natural habitats that contain endemic plants. Thymus laevigatus is one of these plants distributed in higher mountain areas in the Northern part of the country. Assessment of environmental factors in these areas is still limited. So, this study aimed to analyze the edaphic and climatic factors affecting the growth of wild thyme in the Utmah Natural Reserve. Soils 0-25, and 25-50 cm deep were randomly sampled from the rhizosphere of the thyme. Edaphic factors include soil texture, organic matter, pH, EC, mobile potassium (K2O) and phosphorous (P2O5), Exchangeable (Ca, Mg, Na), Available (Fe, Zn, Mn), and total Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The meteorological data (precipitation, temperature, and average monthly sunshine duration) for 2015-2022 were obtained from the Water and Environment Center – Sana’a University. Results showed that K2O, Zn, and Ca concentrations are deficient; Mn is adequate; Mg is near moderate; P2O5 is moderate; Fe and organic matter are adequate; Na is high. Soil is without salinity and pH is alkaline. The soil texture is sandy loam. The bioclimatic zone is semi-arid with a temperate winter. Wet periods are months of April, May, mid-July, August, and October with a yearly average rainfall of 377.13 mm. Minimum temperatures are between 6.83-15.01°C, while the maximum is between 23.21-31.16°C. The average sunshine hours during thyme growth season are 10.68 h/ day. The obtained results represent the basic requirements for the growth and productivity of thyme in its natural habitats. Also, it provides preliminary information that can be used to plan conservation projects for this plant and contribute to its domestication and cultivation.
... Besides its volatile constituents (essential oil) like terpenoids, fresh thyme also contains phenolic compounds, an important class of natural antioxidants. Several reports have been published emphasizing the chemical composition and biological activities of Thymus EO (TEO) 9,10 . The diversity in the chemical composition of EOs might be because of extraction techniques, polarity of extracting solvents, and harvesting conditions and period 11 . ...
... The cardioprotective potential of thymoquinone is mainly attributed to its antioxidant and antiinflammatory effects 13 . Thyme is widely utilized as a flavoring, and food preservative agent in herbal tea, culinary, ornamental, cosmetics, and perfumery industries and is also used for the treatment of respiratory disorders, throat ailments, and skin problems 10 . ...
... The Thymus genus, which belongs to the Lamiaceae family and includes over 215 species around the world, has 18 species present in the Iranian flora (Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al. 2015;Jalas 1982;Jamzad 2012). T. daenensis Čelak., an endemic medicinal species, has been introduced in Iran in two subspecies, including T. daenensis subsp. ...
... Jalas (Fig. 1). Thyme leaves and flowering parts are known for their carminative, digestive, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, emmenagogic, and tonic properties, and are widely used in traditional medicine (Elahian et al. 2020;Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al. 2015;Manukyan 2019). Thymol, which is found in tow sub-species, is the Fig. 1 A Thymus daenensis subsp. ...
Article
Full-text available
The geographical distribution of species has been significantly affected by human activities, which has led to changes in the ranges of many species in terms of latitude and altitude. To assess the effects of climate change on the distribution of species and determine the suitability of their habitats, species distribution models (SDMs) have been developed. This study aimed to use the MaxEnt model to develop SDMs for Thymus daenensis subs. daenensis and Thymus daenensis subs. lancifolius in Iran under two representative concentration pathways (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) for the years 2050 and 2070. The objective was to identify the crucial bioclimatic (n = 6) and topographic (n = 1) variables that affect their distribution and predict how their distribution may change under different climate scenarios. The results showed that the most significant factors influencing the distribution of the two taxa were the slope and mean temperature of the driest quarter (bio9). The MaxEnt modeling was effective, as indicated by all Area under the Curve values being over 0.9. Based on the projections, the two subspecies are expected to experience a decrease in area in the coming years. These results can be useful in developing adaptive management strategies to protect and sustainably utilize these species in the face of global climate change. Special attention should be given to conserving T. d. subsp daenensis and T. d. subsp lancifolius considering their significant habitat loss in the future.
... Thymus species are mainly found in Iran's western and northern highlands, including West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Zanjan, Kurdistan, Mazandaran, Golestan, Tehran, Hamadan, Markazi, and North Khorasan provinces [38,39]. The carminative, digestive, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, emmenagogic, and tonic properties of thyme leaves and flowering parts are widely used in the folk medicine [40][41][42]. Essential oils are a group of remarkable substances found in Thymus spp. that have antifungal, phytotoxic, and insecticidal properties, encouraging their investigation and prospective usage in agricultural and food-related fields. T. daenensis Celak and T. kotschyanus Boiss. ...
... According to Esfanjani et al. [66] the most important environmental factors affecting distribution pattern of T. kotschyanus were pH, elevation, precipitation and temperature variation. Consistent with our findings tow studied species are distributed in the slopes of the mountainous in the heights of the Iranian and Turanian regions (Fig. 3F) and it is very important that the soils are well drained [40]. In mountainous areas like Iran slope percentage as a key topographic factor is vital in regulating the spatial arrangement of soil nutrient, soil stability [67,68], water [69,70], heat, and sunlight, creating diverse microclimates with unique soil properties [11,[71][72][73]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Within a few decades, the species habitat was reshaped at an alarming rate followed by climate change, leading to mass extinction, especially for sensitive species. Species distribution models (SDMs), which estimate both present and future species distribution, have been extensively developed to investigate the impacts of climate change on species distribution and assess habitat suitability. In the West Asia essential oils of T. daenensis and T. kotschyanus include high amounts of thymol and carvacrol and are commonly used as herbal tea, spice, flavoring agents and medicinal plants. Therefore, this study aimed to model these Thymus species in Iran using the MaxEnt model under two representative concentration pathways (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) for the years 2050 and 2070. The findings revealed that the mean temperature of the warmest quarter (bio10) was the most significant variable affecting the distribution of T. daenensis. In the case of T. kotschyanus, slope percentage was the primary influencing factor. The MaxEnt modeling also demonstrated excellent performance, as indicated by all the Area Under the Curve (AUC) values exceeding 0.9. Moreover, based on the projections, the two mentioned species are expected to undergo negative area changes in the coming years. These results can serve as a valuable achievement for developing adaptive management strategies aimed at enhancing protection and sustainable utilization in the context of global climate change.
... Several medicinal plants, such as Thyme, are of great significance in traditional medicine and are found within Iran's meadows 28 . The Thymus genus, belonging to the Lamiaceae family, includes over 215 species worldwide and is represented in the Iranian flora by 18 species [29][30][31] . Thymus species are mainly concentrated in the western or northern highlands of Iran, such as West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Zanjan, Kurditan, Mazandaran, Golestan, Tehran, Hamadan, Markazi, and North Khorasan 29,30 . ...
... According to McCutchan and Fox and Joly et al. an increase in elevation results in a linear decrease in temperature, which has a significant impact on the distribution of living organisms 59,60 . Our study found that three species are distributed in the slopes of the mountainous regions in the Caspian Sea, and Iraniano-Turanian regions, particularly in well-drained soils 31 . Slope percentage plays a vital role in regulating the spatial arrangement of soil nutrients, soil stability 61,62 , water availability, heat, and sunlight 63 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Over the course of a few decades, climate change has caused a rapid and alarming reshaping of species habitats, resulting in mass extinction, particularly among sensitive species. In order to investigate the effects of climate change on species distribution and assess habitat suitability, researchers have developed species distribution models (SDMs) that estimate present and future species distribution. In West Asia, thyme species such as T. fedtschenkoi, T. pubescens, and T. transcaucasicus are rich in thymol and carvacrol, and are commonly used as herbal tea, spice, flavoring agents, and medicinal plants. This study aims to model the distribution of these Thymus species in Iran using the MaxEnt model under two representative concentration pathways (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) for the years 2050 and 2070. The objective is to identify the crucial bioclimatic (n = 5), edaphic (n = 1), and topographic (n = 3) variables that influence their distribution and predict how their distribution might change under various climate scenarios. The findings reveal that the most significant variable affecting T. fedtschenkoi and T. pubescens is altitude, while soil organic carbon content is the primary factor influencing the distribution of T. transcaucasicus. The MaxEnt modeling demonstrates excellent performance, as indicated by all the area under the curve (AUC) values exceeding 0.9. Based on the projections, it is expected that these three thyme species will experience negative area changes in the coming years. These results can serve as a valuable tool for developing adaptive management strategies aimed at enhancing protection and sustainable utilization in the context of global climate change. Special attention should be given to conserving T. fedtschenkoi, T. pubescens, and T. transcaucasicus due to their significant habitat loss in the future.
... The species of the genus Thymus L. are low-growing woody perennials native to Europe and North Africa [35], as well as to Western Asia and the Mediterranean regions [36]. The Mediterranean has long been considered the origin of the genus [37]. Most species originated in the Mediterranean region but have since been distributed worldwide [30]. ...
Article
Metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is the most common liver disease in the globe. To date, there are no approved medications for MAFLD, and lifestyle modifications remain the primary strategy for its management. The use of medicinal herbs as dietary supplements for managing MAFLD is currently attracting interest. The aim of this review was to highlight the potential of thyme, oregano, and rosemary (TOR), along with their bioactive compounds, in mitigating MAFLD. The chemical composition of these herbs, their mechanisms of action, and their effects in both preclinical and clinical studies are highlighted. To gather relevant literature data, international research databases, such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, were searched using the following keywords: MAFLD, NAFLD, Thymus, Origanum, Rosmarinus, phytochemicals, and hepatic steatosis. The reviewed data indicate that TOR plants are rich in bioactive phytochemicals, including polyphenols and volatile compounds. Thyme and oregano are rich in rosmarinic acid, thymol, and carvacrol. Rosemary, on the other hand, is characterized by its high content of carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and 1,8-cineole. In vitro and animal studies suggest that the extracts of TOR and their main compounds can ameliorate hepatic steatosis, reduce oxidative stress, suppress apoptosis, and regulate lipid and glucose metabolism. These effects are mediated through the regulation of several signaling pathways and mediators. However, clinical evidence remains limited, with few trials available, and the results are not yet conclusive. In conclusion, TOR exhibit substantial potential as adjunctive therapies for MAFLD. While preclinical data are promising, further clinical trials are imperative to validate the efficacy of these herbs on MAFLD and their safety in humans.
... Hence, based on their beneficial therapeutic effects to human and animal health care, some essential oils were classified as safe to use according to the United States Agency for Food and Drug Products [13]. Thymus algeriensis belongs to the Lamiaceae family, which is native to the Mediterranean region [14]. This plant is considered one of the most popular medicinal plants in the world based on its therapeutic and aromatic properties. ...
Article
Full-text available
Due to the increasing resistance prevalence to the last line of antibiotics, such as colistin, and the rising threat of multi-drug resistant bacteria, it is crucial to find alternative therapeutic options. The current study focuses on evaluating antibacterial activities alone and in combination with colistin of Thymus algeriensis essential oil (TA-EO) against colistin-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli co-harboring mcr-1 gene. GC/MS was used to determine the chemical composition of TA-EO. Disc diffusion and microdilution techniques were used to evaluate the antimicrobial activities of TA-EO. Synergism between colistin and TA-EO was evaluated by checkerboard assay. The major compounds of TA-EO were docked with known enzymes involved in resistance to colistin, as well as the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan and amino acids. GC/MS revealed that TA-EO was of carvacrol chemotype (67.94 %). The TA-EO showed remarkable antibacterial activities against all Gram-negative bacterial strains, with the diameter of inhibition zones varied between 30 and 50 mm and a ratio MBC/MIC equal to 1 for the vast majority of bacterial isolates. Interestingly, the checkerboard showed synergism between TA-EO and colistin against colistin-resistant Escherichia coli co-harboring mcr-1 gene (FICI˂1) and reduced the MIC of colistin by 16- to 512-fold and those of TA-EO by 4- to 16-fold. The docking study demonstrated that carvacrol had high binding free energies against MCR-1, a phosphoethanolamine transferase extracellular domain, and its catalytic domain implicated in resistance to colistin, and undecaprenyl pyrophosphate synthase in complex with magnesium which is involved in bacterial peptidoglycan biosynthesis. The molecular dynamics study for 100-ns also revealed the stability of the MCR-1/carvacrol complex with a constant surface area over the simulation. These results support using carvacrol or TA-EO as a bactericidal agent, either alone or in combination with colistin, to treat infections caused by colistin-resistant Gram-negative bacteria.
... The study of the EOs' chemical composition and the evaluation of their biological activities are necessary to confirm their use as preservatives in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic fields. The genus Thymus is considered to be one of the eight most important genera in the Lamiaceae family, comprising approximately 215 species that are native to the Mediterranean basin (Pirbalouti et al., 2015). The majority of these oils are characterized by their richness in oxygenated monoterpenes, in particular, phenolic compounds such as thymol and its isomer carvacrol, accompanied by other more or less biologically active compounds such as eugenol, p-cymene, terpinene, linalool, geraniol, and borneol (Nikolić et al., 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and preservative efficacy of Thymus broussonetii Boiss. essential oil (EO) in a topically applied formulation using a challenge test. Methods The essential oil was extracted from the aerial part of T. broussonetii using hydrodistillation, and the obtained EO was further analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The antioxidant effect of the EO was evaluated using three methods: the inhibition of free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), β-carotene–linoleic acid, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) methods. The antimicrobial activity and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of this EO were assayed by the disk-diffusion method and the broth microdilution method, respectively. The preservative efficacy of T. broussonetii EO was assayed at 1% and 2% (v/w) in a topical cream formulation using a challenge test against standard-specific microorganisms recommended by the European Pharmacopoeia. Furthermore, the identified phytochemical compounds were docked for their effect on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, human casein kinase 1 alpha 1 (CSNK1A1), glycogen synthase kinase 3, Staphylococcus aureus nucleoside diphosphate kinase, Escherichia coli beta-ketoacyl-[acyl-carrier protein] synthase, Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasR ligand-binding domain, and sterol 14-alpha demethylase (CYP51) from Candida albicans. The ADME/toxicity was predicted by analyzing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion parameters. Results and discussion chemical composition of the EO revealed the presence of thymol (63.09%), p-cymene (11%), and γ-terpinene (8.99%) as the major components. The antioxidant assays revealed that the essential oil exhibited strong antioxidant activity, as indicated by the minimum inhibitory concentration IC50 (IC50 = 210 ± 0.3 μg/mL for the DPPH assay, IC50 = 145 ± 0.1 μg/mL for the β-carotene assay, and IC50 = 84 ± 0.21 μg/mL for the FRAP assay) when compared to quercetin and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as controls. The investigated essential oil exhibited important antimicrobial activity against all the tested microorganisms, and the MICs of the EO against bacteria and fungi were 0.02%–1%. Moreover, the EO of T. broussonetii evaluated at 2% (v/w) in a cream formulation succeeded in satisfying the A criteria for preservation efficacy against S. aureus, E. coli, and Aspergillus brasiliensis but exhibited less efficacy against P. aeruginosa (1.78 log reduction in the number of CFU/g after 7 days of evaluation) and C. albicans (1.09 log reduction in the number of CFU/g after 14 days of evaluation) when compared to the synthetic preservative phenoxyethanol 1% (v/w). In silico results showed that the antimicrobial activity of T. broussonetii EO is mostly attributed to thymol, terpinen-4-ol, and aromadendrene, while the antioxidant activity is attributed to thymol. These results indicate that the EO of T. broussonetii possesses important antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and can, therefore, be used as a natural preservative ingredient in the cosmetic industry.
Article
Full-text available
The usage of medicinal, aromatic, and spice plants worldwide has been increasing in recent decades, as evidenced by the growing number of products in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, chemical, food, and related industries. In the past, these special crops were on the periphery of social interest in many countries. Many widely used pharmaceuticals are derived from plants and other natural sources, or are based on traditional knowledge of herbal remedies. However, medicinal plants can also have non-traditional uses, such as phytoremediation, which involves cleaning up substrates contaminated with toxic metals using also these plants. However, thanks to numerous scientific and professional meetings, the development of analytical and biological testing methods, and related tools, along with the introduction of large-scale cultivation, processing, and technological innovation of herbal plants, has gained great significance for the economy. The Special Issue of the Horticulturae Journal, titled "Medicinal, Aromatic, Spice Plants: Biodiversity, Phytochemistry, Bioactivity, and their Processing Innovation", addresses several important subjects of investigation by scientists from various universities and research institutes. They represent different scientific fields, including biology, agronomy, ecology, environmental sciences, chemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacy. Pharmaceutical interest in plants as a source of medicines is less likely to raise concerns about the sustainability of harvesting, as relatively small amounts of plant material are needed to conduct screenings for bioactivity, which is the basis of many contemporary drug development strategies. However, issues related to intellectual and cultural property rights have emerged as significant factors in these research and development fields. A very important aspect of consolidating all original scientific work is the exchange of recent scientific information, results, and knowledge.
Article
Full-text available
The antibacterial activities of hot water, methanol and ethanol extracts of 5 plant extracts utilized in Palestine in popular medicine were studied. The dried extracts of Syzyium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) (seed), Cinnamomum cassia(Lauraceae) (cassia bark, Chinese cinnamon) (bark), Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceaea) (leaf), Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceaea) (leaf) and Rosmarinus officinalis (Labiatae) (leaf) were tested in vitro against 4 bacterial species by disk diffusion and micro-dilution. The patterns of inhibition varied with the plant extract, the solvent used for extraction, and the organism tested. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA) and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 were the most inhibited microorganisms. S. aromaticumextract was the most active against multi- drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosaand enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 EHEC. The combinations of ethanolic extracts of S. officinalis with R. officinalis and of R. officinalis with T. vulgaris on bacterial species tested exhibited a higher effect than that of any individual extract. Results of this kind herald the interesting promise of designing a potentially active antibacterial synergized agent of plant origin.
Article
Paracetamol is a common analgesic and antipyretic drug which is safe in therapeutic doses but can produce life-threatening hepatic and renal damages with toxic doses. The current study was designed to investigate the protective effects of aqueous extract of thyme (Thymus Vulgaris) against paracetamol-induced toxicity in male albino rats. A total of 24 rats were used for the study. The rats were grouped into four with sex rats in each group. Group I was the control, group II received thyme extract at a dose of 500 mg / kg body weight for 14 days. group III received paracetamol at a dose of 200 mg / kg body weight / ml without extract for 14 days, and group IV received paracetamol plus thyme extract for 14 days. Administration of paracetamol to rats induced marked disturbance of hepatic and renal functions, characterized by a significant increase in the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP),total bilirubin, total protein, blood urea and serum creatinine (p < 0.01) and injured the hepatic and renal cells evident from increased level of malondialdehyde (MDA) (p < 0.01) along with depletion of super oxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), activities and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels (p < 0.01). Histopathological changes showed that paracetamol caused significant structural damages to liver and kidneys. Oral co-administration of thyme extract with paracetamol significantly decreased the level of liver enzymes (ALT, AST and ALP), total bilirubin, total protein, blood urea and creatinine. The increased levels of lipid peroxidation in tissues were reverted significantly. Thyme treatment also resulted in a significant increased in CAT, SOD and GSH in both liver and kidneys. Moreover, thyme extract also exhibited some improvement in the histological architecture of liver and kidney. These results clearly show the antioxidant and protective property of thyme extract.
Article
Essential oils isolated by steam distillation from the aerial parts of Thymus pubescens Boiss. et Kotschy ex Celak, before flowering and full flowering stage, were analyzed by capillary GC and GC/MS. Among the 37 compounds identified, the major components were carvacrol (64.8% and 48.8%), thymol (11.9% and 13.9%), γ-terpinene (6.1% and trace) and p-cymene (2.9% and 12.7%) before flowering and full flowering stage, respectively.
Article
From 1960 to 1989 more than 80 Thymus taxa from 27 different countries all over the world have been investigated for the composition of their essential oils. About 200 different compounds, mostly terpenes, have been identified. The terpene phenols thymol and carvacrol represent the most important compounds in the genus, followed by linalool, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, borneol, terpinen-4-ol and 1, 8-cineole. This paper lists the main components of the essential oils of all the taxa investigated from 1960 to 1989. In addition, seasonal variations of Thymus oils and essential oil polymorphism within the genus Thymus are also reported.