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Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, Issue 47, Spring 2012, 23-40
23
Facilitation of the Development of
Critical Thinking Skills*
Belgin TANRIVERDI**
***
HAKAN TURAN***
Suggested Citation: & Turan, H. (2012) Evaluating teacher education
Egitim
Arastirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,, 47, 23-40
Abstract
Problem Statement: The economic and social changes in the 21st century
have wide-ranging consequences for education systems. To acquire
necessary competencies, what learners need most is to learn to learn by
reflecting critically on their learning aims. To provide this kind of learning
experience, teacher education curricula should be revised to promote
critical thinking (CT).
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this study is to investigate current teacher
education curricula based on pre-
development of CT skills (CTS). In order to fulfill that aim, courses in the
curricula, teaching methods, evaluation and assessment methods, and the
roles played by teachers were analyzed.
Methods: In this study, a qualitative research design was used. 44
participants were selected using a purposive sampling method from the
senior classes of different departments in the Faculty of Education. Three
main questions including the three components of curricula (content,
to the entire
process. Data were analyzed using a constant comparative method.
Results: Students think that professional courses and elective courses are
more effective than courses solely on their discipline. Participants also
think that courses on art, media, and philosophy should be integrated into
* This paper was presented at the 35th Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE)
Conference held in Budapest 26-30 August, 2010
** Corresponding author: Assist. Prof. Dr., Kocaeli University Faculty of Education, TURKEY,
tanriverdi@kocaeli.edu.tr
*** Assist. Prof. Dr., Kocaeli University Faculty of Education, TURKEY, yildizoz@kocaeli.edu.tr
**** Res. Assist. Dr., Kocaeli University Faculty of Education, TURKEY, hturan@kocaeli.edu.tr
24
the current curriculum. In terms of teaching methods, student-centered
methods as well as teacher-centered methods can be effective in
y. However,
the results of the study show that whatever method is used, the most
important factor in developing CTS is the role/attitude of the teacher.
Conclusions and Recommendations: The results of this study reveal that
teacher education curricula should be enriched with interdisciplinary
courses. Further studies should be done including primary and secondary
education teachers and teacher trainers in order to provide data for
developing teacher education curricula.
Keywords: Developing skills, thinking, critical thinking, teacher training, teacher
education curricula
The 21st century, with its global social, economic, educational, environmental,
and health challenges, does not demand the teaching of soon-to-be obsolete facts,
but, rather, the fostering of CT at all levels of education (Facione & Facione, 1994).
skills, and attitudes necessary in real life situations. To acquire competencies, what
learners need most, from an early age, is to learn to learn by reflecting critically on
their learning aims.
problem solving; it is a rational response to questions that cannot be answered
definitively and seeks to explore situations to arrive at optimal and justifiable
hypotheses or conclusions (Reinstein & Bayou, 1997). CT does not refer to being able
to process information well enough to know to stop for red lights. Rather, true CT
enables a person to, for example, responsibly judge between political candidates, or
evaluate society's need for nuclear power plants (Schafersman, 1991).
Almost 30 years ago, researchers, psychologists and educators started to
emphasize the importance of CTS (Ennis, 1987; College Board, 1983). Since then, CTS
have been accepted as one of the desirable outcomes of undergraduate education
(Halpern, 1993). Many educators view the promotion of CT as one of the highest
priorities in college education as well. Williams, Oliver & Stockdale (2004) claim that
few concepts have attracted more attention in higher education than the notion of
CT. Although Lincoln (1999) underscores the importance of preparing college
students who can synthesize and evaluate information, he also notes that universities
continue to graduate individuals who cannot think in a straight line, i.e. those who
cannot evaluate the interior logic of an irrational argument.
The improv
many colleges and universities. Though institutions are committed to developing CT,
there is an important question that needs careful treatment if this goal is to be met.
Faculty members must arrive at a shared understanding of what they mean by the
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 25
The courses or topics chosen will determine choices about the strategies and
methods used in classrooms. Some scholars believe that CT cannot be taught or
developed by lecturing. The intellectual skills of CT analysis, synthesis, reflection,
etc. must be learned by actually performing them. Classroom instruction,
homework, term papers, and exams, therefore, should emphasize active intellectual
participation by students (Schafersman, 1991).
The evaluation and assessment methods used in the courses are as crucial as the
methods used in the classrooms. Schafersman states that term papers promote CT
among students by requiring that they acquire, synthesize, and logically analyze
information, and that they then present this information and their conclusions in
written form. He thinks essay questions requiring inferences, assumptions,
concise, logically persuasive lines of reasoning about why a claim should be either
conditionally accepted or not accepted.
All of these questions about the development of CTS are more or less related to
-school factor
affecting student performance. Teachers need the skills to give every pupil adequate
opportunities to acquire necessary competencies in a safe and attractive school
environment based on mutual respect and cooperation. Furthermore, teachers who
ask challenging questions and require students to give evidence or reasons for their
conclusions and opinions are likely to develop CTS and a critical spirit in their
students (Patrick, 1986). Effective teachers challenge students to examine alternative
positions on controversial topics or public issues, require justification for beliefs
about what is true or good, and insist on orderly classroom discourse. In this
manner, they provide powerful lessons about responsible scholarship and citizenship
in a free society (Orr & Klein, 1991).
CT has been identified as one of the major issues in the Turkish education system.
In a number of official resources, such as A Draft for General Competencies of
Teaching (2005), the National Ministry of education emphasized that teachers should
growth as well as their CTS. In the Higher Education Competencies Framework
pre-service teacher will be able to evaluate knowledge and skills related to his
, 72).
However, related literature indicates that pre-service teachers generally possess
low or medium levels of CTS in Turkey. For example, a study conducted by
the students were low on the dimensions of self-confidence and truth-seeking. The
study conducted by Maden and Durukan (2010) revealed that Turkish pre-service
teachers are disposed towards CT at the rate of 3.77 (Min. 1, Max. 6). The findings of
another study conducted with 82 pre-
indicated that although the importance they attributed to citizenship was quite high,
their scores on CT scale were relatively low. There are very few studies considering
26
the impact of current teach
study done by Karadeniz (2006), the results indicated that although teachers at
secondary schools had positive attitudes towards CT education, they thought that
teacher education curricula lacked information about developing CTS. In another
study conducted with Turkish pre-service teachers, it was found that the students in
the 1st class compared to the ones in the 4th class showed more positive opinions of
As Walsh and Paul (1988) claim, schools of education must integrate CTS into all
aspects of teacher preparation and train future teachers to model effective thinking
strategies. In contrast to the passive reception of knowledge within teacher-centered
classrooms, this style of teaching promotes active, student-centered learning.
However, because of the lack of studies, it is almost impossible to draw conclusions
about the impact of teacher education curricula in Turkey on pre-
CTS.
The main purpose of this study is to investigate current teacher education
the following items were analyzed in terms of their relationship to and importance in
developing CTS.
1. Courses/topics in the teacher education curricula
2. Strategies and methods used in these courses
3. Evaluation and assessment methods used in these courses
4. The role/attitude of the teacher
Method
Research Design
In the study, a qualitative research design with a focus group interview was used.
The purpose of qualitative research is not to generalize to other subjects or settings,
but to explore deeply a specific phenomenon or experience from which to build
further knowledge (Thomas & Magilvy, 2011). Focus groups are uniquely able to
generate data from the synergy of group interaction (Green et al. 2003), hence the
types and ranges of data generated through the social interaction of the group are
often deeper and richer than those obtained from one-on-one interviews (Thomas,
MacMillan, McColl, Hale & Bond, 1995). Participants in this type of research are,
therefore, selected on the criteria that they would have something to say on the topic,
are within the age-range, have similar social characteristics and would be
comfortable talking to the interviewer and each other (Marshall & Rossman, 2006).
For this reason, purposive sampling, a commonly used non-random sampling
appropriateness, was used in this study.
In order to avoid the pitfall of equipment failure, all equipment was checked
ahead of time. Also, researchers took notes in order to avoid unexpected technical
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 27
problems. To avoid the pitfall of environmental distractions, a quiet meeting hall
with a round table inside, away from common interruptions in the workplace
including loudspeakers, doors shutting, and telephones ringing, was arranged ahead
of time. The participants were informed about the possible length of the interview so
that they could set aside a designated time. Since an analysis can only be as accurate
as the person doing it, and a transcription only as precise as the person transcribing,
researchers became both interviewers and transcribers to establish dependability. To
avoid transcription errors in punctuation, transcribers used italics or exclamation
points to emphasize words as they are heard on the tape. Such attention to detail
made it easier for the researchers to analyze the data.
Participants
The study participants were pre-service teachers enrolled in the senior class in the
Faculty of Education at Kocaeli University. Class attendance and academic success
were taken into consideration since it is important to have attended the majority of
the courses in the curriculum. From the pool of qualified students, 44 volunteers (28
female and 16 male students) were invited to the interview conducted by the
researchers at the end of 2009-2010 academic semester. Of the participants from
evening classes and regular classes, 9 were from science teaching, 9 were from
English teaching, 9 were from primary school teaching, 9 were from mathematics
teaching, 5 were from pre-school teaching, and 4 were from Turkish language
teaching departments. The duration of the interviews ranged between 75 and 120
minutes. At the beginning of the interview participants were informed that the entire
interview would be recorded if they had no objections.
Research Instruments
Preliminary data collection included six focus-group interviews with pre-service
teachers. Qualitative interviews differ from quantitative interviews with structured
questionnaires in that qualitative interviews provide the researcher with deeper and
Rubin, 2005). Accordingly, this technique was chosen to allow pre-service teachers
the opportunity to criticize the curricula of the faculty and suggest ideas according to
their own experiences and points of view. Another reason to use this technique was
in pur Mason, 1996). Data
creation better suits the ontological assumptions of qualitative research. It is often
stated that in qualitative research, the researcher him or herself is the research
instrument (Pyett, 2003), as it is through the researcher that qualitative data are
generated or collected, and analyzed and interpreted. During the interview process,
the researchers were seen as a part of the interview process because as teacher
trainers they were involved in the design of the curriculum and education.
Standardized open-ended interviews were used in this study. Participants were
always asked identical questions, but the questions were worded so that responses
are open-ended (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). This open-endedness allows the
participants to contribute as much detailed information as they desire and it also
allows the researcher to ask probing questions as a means of follow-up (Creswell,
2007).
28
A one-page-long text explaining/summarizing CTS was prepared based on the
related literature in order to provide unity in content. This text was read and
corrected by two experts completing their Ph.D. studies in CTS. Through their
recommendations, the final text was copied and distributed to the participants 10
days before the interview. They were requested to read the text until they mastered
the text. At the beginning of each session, students were asked if they read the text in
order to reach a consensus.
In standardized open-ended interviews, the interviewer develops and uses an
interview guide, a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the
conversation (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 1990). Preparing the questions ahead of time in
interviews both allows the interviewer to be prepared and appear competent during
the interview and allows informants the freedom to express their views in their own
study. It is not included in the article because of space limitations.
As Creswell notes, a semi-structured interview guide often need not include
more than five or six general questions. The three open-ended questions directed at
the participants in this study were as follows:
1. What courses/topics do you think have had a positive impact on the
development of your CTS?
2. What methods used in these courses do you think had a positive impact on
the development of your CTS?
3. What evaluation and assessment methods do you think had a positive
impact on the development of your CTS?
The questions were drawn from three curriculum components: content, teaching
methods, and evaluation and assessment. Student were not asked about the other
component, the main objective of the curriculum, since it is beyond their knowledge.
During the interv
T
at the interviewees. After the first interview, related literature was reviewed once
more because students an additional question to
the entire process. This question was as follows:
4. in the development of
Trustworthiness
Lincoln & Guba (1985) address four components of trustworthiness that are
relevant to qualitative research: (a) truth value (credibility); (b) applicability
(transferability); (c) consistency (dependability); and (d) neutrality (confirmability).
To establish credibility, focus group transcripts and interpretations of the focus
group data were sent to one student in each focus group (6 students total) and they
were asked to review the data. However, only two students responded. In order to
establish transferability, different students from different departments were invited
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 29
to the interviews. In order to establish dependability, the specific purpose of the
study, how and why the participants were selected for the study, how the data were
collected, how the data were transformed for analysis, and the interpretation and
presentation of the research findings were presented in detail in the article. In order
to establish confirmability, immediately following each focus group interview, the
researchers wrote notes regarding personal feelings and biases, because reflective
research allows a big picture view with interpretations that produce new insights
(Johns, 2009).
Triangulation
Triangulation, a method used to check and establish validity in qualitative
research, involves the use of multiple data sources, multiple researchers, multiple
theoretical perspectives, and/or multiple methods (Schwandt, 2001). In order to
establish data triangulation, a comparable number of participants from each
department were included in the study. In order to establish investigator
triangulation, researchers from different disciplines and positions were involved in
the study. The first and third researchers are experts on curriculum development and
instruction, the first and second researchers have done studies using qualitative
research methods before, and the third researcher has done his Ph.D. study on CTS.
They are all teacher trainers. All of the above-mentioned details are strengths of the
study. However, one weakness of this study is the fact that it did not include the
ideas of other teacher trainers and former graduates from the faculty.
Data Analysis
Constant comparison analysis (CCA), created by Glaser and Strauss (1967), was
used in this study. This is a preferred method when the researcher is interested in
utilizing an entire dataset to identify underlying themes presented through the data.
was undertaken both deductively (e.g., codes are identified prior to analysis and then
looked for in the data) and inductively (e.g., codes emerge from the data) in this
study. To perform the CCA, the researchers first read through the entire set of data.
After they chunked the data into smaller meaningful parts, they labeled each chunk
with a code. After all the data were coded, the codes were grouped by similarity, and
a theme was identified and documented for each grouping.
Two independent transcriptions were performed. In the first, an attempt was
made to transcribe the talk 'verbatim', i.e. without grammatical or other tidying up,
and imported to N-Vivo8. The second transcription was informed using the analytic
ideas and transcription symbols of conversation analysis. This provided additional
information on how the researchers organized their talk, and represents a more
objective, comprehensive, and, therefore, more reliable recording of the data because
of the level of detail given by this method. Using the first transcription, the first two
researchers coded the same material at the same time; ideas were shared and
combined and consensus was reached about categorization and coding. The whole
coding process is summarized in Figure 1.
30
Figure 1. Coding process for main categories and sub-categories.
Results
Findings are given in four different areas: (1) courses/topics, (2)
strategies/methods, (3) evaluation and assessment methods, and (4) the role/attitude
of the teacher.
The courses/topics in teacher education curricula
Courses/topics that exist in the current curricula
Courses/topics that develop CT skills. The courses mentioned by the students most
often are generally focused on film analysis and media analysis (elective courses in
the ELT Curriculum), English literature, course book analysis, comparative education
(compulsory courses in ELT curriculum), effective communication (a compulsory
course in all tracks apart from mathematics and science teaching), drama (a
compulsory course in all tracks apart from mathematics teaching), special teaching
methods (a compulsory course for all), and material development and adaptation
(compulsory for all). The participants stated that students were allowed to draw
courses. Students also agreed that elective courses and professional courses develop
their CTS rather than courses based solely on their discipline. Courses based on
analyzing and synthesizing previous knowledge with current knowledge were
cultures, and different points of view.
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 31
Courses/topics that do not develop CTS. Most of the students (30) think that courses
based on theory rather than practice do not develop CTS. They also think that the
de.
Courses that do not exist in the present curricula
Rather than stating a specific course, students tended to name general topics. Art-
focused courses such as theatre, film, photography, and writing as well as
philosophy-based courses were thought to develop CTS. Since some of these courses
take place in some of the curricula of the same faculties, especially as elective
courses, students from mathematics and science teaching think that they should take
these courses as well. All of the students agreed that they should take elective
courses from other departments or faculties starting with the first year of their
education. Almost half of them (20) thought that they should share the same
classroom with students from different departments or faculties in order to share
their ideas and different points of view.
Strategies/methods used in courses
Strategies/methods that develop CTS
Discussion, group discussion, group work, model designing, material
development, material adaptation, project work, text analysis, media analysis, case
studies, research/problem-based methods, and brainstorming were said to develop
CTS. Participants think visual text analysis helps them to develop new ideas and
understandings of people/cultures.
Strategies/methods that do not develop CT skills
much more important than the methods used in the courses. They think that just as
there is not one single best method, there is not one single worst method either.
Evaluation and assessment methods used in courses
Evaluation and assessment methods that develop CTS
Most of the participants were in favor of process evaluation rather than product
evaluation; in other words, success should not be determined by mid-terms or final
exams but rather what has been done during the term should be considered. They
favored self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and immediate feedback in evaluation
processes.
Evaluation and assessment methods that do not develop CTS
Multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, and true-false questions were mentioned as
barriers to the development of CTS. Participants declared that questions based on
memorization build neither CTS nor professional skills.
32
The role/attitude of the teacher
Most of the students (38) related the main categories and sub-categories
discussed above to the role of the teacher. They think that courses or topics, teaching
with teachers who have positive attitudes towards students, who have mastered
their own disciplines, and who promote and practice CT in the classroom to
contribute to their students' intellectual development. Participants think teachers
need the skills to give every pupil adequate opportunities to acquire necessary CTS
in a safe and attractive school environment based on mutual respect and cooperation,
opining that a positive classroom environment characterized by teacher warmth and
encouragement can enhance all kinds of learning. Table 1 summarizes topics, sub-
topics, numbers of references, and sample statements.
Table 1
Topics, Sub-Topics, Sample Statements, and Numbers of References
Topics
Sample statements
Sub-topics
Nu
mbe
r of
Refe
renc
es
Courses/
Topics
Developing CTS -The Material Adaptation course helped me to
think about my strengths and weaknesses and how to adapt an
everyday object into an educational tool with low budget, time,
and energy (*PSE).
-Media Analysis and Film Analysis made us think about one
situation from different perspectives, attitudes, and points of
view. We realize that there can be a hidden meaning in every
kind of message (*ELT).
Not developing CTS -Courses related to our discipline generally
prevent us from thinking. Courses based on our professional
skills are much better than science-related courses (*ST).
-Courses based on our discipline might ignite our CTS, but
courses based on our profession could develop our CTS better
(*MT).
1.
Courses
that exist in
the
curricula
43
- We have courses that only relate to our department or
profession. Our curriculum should be supported by different
courses from other departments or faculties such as philosophy,
media analysis, writing, music, or poetry (ST).
-Courses focused on art such as the Art of Mathematics, Drama,
or Citizenship Rights should be integrated into our curriculum
(MT).
-Starting with university life, I wish we would take project-
based courses with different students from different
departments. We would have adapted to school life more easily
and promptly (*PS).
2.Courses
that do not
exist in the
curricula
60
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 33
Table 1 Continue
Methods
used in the
courses
-In the film analysis course, we watch a film and try to
helped me to empathize with different people and cultures (ELT).
-Case studies are the best for solving real life problems. Since
everybody has different solutions, we get a lot of different ideas
and start to think of other solutions and understand ours is not
always the best (ST).
-I believe that lecturing sometimes makes students more
cognitively active than group work or discussion if the teacher
knows what to do and how to do it (ELT).
3.Strategies
/methods
that develop
CTS
38
-When we heard we would have presentations, we thought that we
could freely present what we had researched, but after a while
responsibility to lead and teach the classroom, not students (PST).
- r teamwork develops our thinking
(*TL).
4.Strategies
/methods
that do not
develop
CTS
14
Evaluation
and
assessment
methods
- Open-ended questions are better than multiple-choice questions.
synthesize (PST).
- a
question was interrogating how the end of the film would have
changed if the protagonist of another film had been added to this
film
5.Evaluation
/assessment
methods
that develop
CTS
14
- Our success is generally evaluated in mid-terms and exams.
Courses should be project-based, and not only product but also
process should be assessed (TL).
-Multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, asking definitions, or asking
the same words written in the book made us memorize the details.
honest, we generally answer the questions to align with our
(ELT).
6.Evaluation
/assessment
methods
that do not
develop CTS
8
The role of
the teacher
-In the American Literature course, we generally analyzed
different texts about various topics and she never uttered a
negative word. It was amazing. Then our teacher left, and the new
teacher made us analyze the texts but this time we did not feel as
satisfied as before (ELT).
-Throughout the term, the teacher did almost nothing but grade
our performances (ST).
7.Role of the
teacher
65
The abbreviations for students are as follows: ELT: ELT department, ST: Science
teaching, MT: Mathematics teaching, PST: Pre-school teaching, TL: Turkish language
teaching, PS: Primary school teaching.
34
Disccussion and Conclusions
The purpose of any teacher training is to equip student teachers with necessary
skills to enable them train youths to become useful to themselves and society. Such
skills include knowledge acquisition, practical skills, and the mastery and use of
those skills to arrive at reasonable conclusions and actions. CT is highly valued by
educators both in Turkey and Europe. Within the context of emerging globalization,
teacher education curricula should undergo significant educational reforms to
incorporate CT in an effort to improve student learning.
Based on the findings of this research, one can conclude that pre-service teachers
think that CTS must be integrated into all subject areas. When courses/topics are
considered, participants think that courses/topics based on analysis such as media
analysis, text analysis, contrastive analysis, material adaptation, and the courses
based on art and movement such as drama courses develop their own CTS. One of
the common points of these courses is that they are based in both theory and
practice; that is, students are allowed to draw conclusions from a given context and
view, synthesizing previous knowledge with current
Similarly, a study by Feuerstein (2002), found that critical media literacy courses
d newspaper advertisements, especially
advancing the CTS of students rated with low and medium levels of academic
achievement and those coming from low-medium socio-economic backgrounds.
Another conclusion drawn from the study is that pre-service teachers from ELT
classes, pre-school teaching, and elementary school teaching think that elective
courses allow them to experience more critical thought-oriented environments
through variety in coursework. Pre-service teachers from science and mathematics
teaching are not satisfied with the courses solely based in their disciplines. Their
curricula should be enriched with some art, drama, or media-T
related courses, and
also with more interdisciplinary elective courses, which means that universities
nd
by Ijaiya (1996) and Alabi (2000) (as quoted in Ijaiya,
Alabi, & Fasasi, 2011) reveal that one major factor important to the development and
subsequent application of CTS is adequate exposure to the different disciplines of
education such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, management of education, and
teaching practice supervision. Policy makers should cooperate with curriculum
developers to enrich teacher education curricula with different courses from different
departments. The best solution could be to develop masters or Ph.D. programs in
schools of education integrating two or more disciplines such as science and media,
philosophy and mathematics, art and teaching methods, etc.
In terms of strategies/methods used in courses, participants state that individual
work is as valuable as group work/team work. The most often-mentioned methods
were those requiring the analysis of a written or visual text. Students agree that
lecturing or question-answer methods can be as effective as group discussion, group
work, teamwork, brainstorming, etc. if presented appropriately. They also think that
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 35
project or research based studies could be both a teaching method and an evaluation
method as well. The findings of this study are similar to the findings of the study
conducted by Lloyd & Bahr (2010), emphasizing that classroom practices including
demonstration and modeling, discussion of examples, collaborative problem-solving
activities, and guided selection of frameworks for analysis are effective strategies for
developing CTS.
One of the most crucial findings of the study is that the role of the teacher matters
more than the other factors discussed above. The study by Ijaiya, Alabi, & Fasasi
(2011) reveals that the percentage of high-order questions asked by teachers in
listening/speaking classes is not high. Both strategies and evaluation methods are
linked to what the teacher does in the classroom. A suitable classroom environment
and a teacher with appropriate attitudes, expertise, and behaviors allow students to
develop their CTS. Therefore, teachers must regularly model for students what it is to
reflectively examine, critically assess, and effectively improve life. The study
conducted by Mangena & Chabelli (2005) shows that negative teacher attitudes and
resistance to change seem to be major obstacles in the facilitation of CT in nursing
education. Similarly, Ford and Profetto-McGarth (1994) believe that the nature of the
teacher-student relationship must be transformed from the existing power
relationship of superior-to-subordinate to a more egalitarian one that emphasizes
working with the student. This will promote a peer relationship, whereby the
educator and student enter a trusting teaching-learning partnership, placing more
emphasis on student-centered approaches to learning.
Perhaps the most significant question of all is this: even if predisposed to CT, will
pre-service teachers in fact consciously teach CTS during their induction years and
beyond? While little is known about the extent to which teacher preparation
programs actually prepare students in schools to think critically, this study
represents an important step in generating new knowledge about pre-service
litation of the development
of CTS. Further quantitative and especially qualitative studies aiming at deep
analysis of the ideas of experienced teachers and new graduates would provide
fruitful knowledge about how teacher education curricula can best develop CTS.
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Problem Durumu:
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programl
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edya temelli derslerin
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