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Geology and mineral resources of Hungary.
Abstract
Most minerals are of sedimentary origin. Bauxite is an important resource and oil, natural gas, copper, manganese and iron ores also occur, as do other radio-active and non-metallic ores. Much of the bauxite is found conveniently close to coal reserves and the Danube, providing power and transport. Well developed karst causes problems in mining and the characteristics and location of the resources are described. The country has an ambitious multi-mineral exploration 'Eocene Program' aimed at raw mineral self-sufficiency and which includes construction of cement, alumina and electric power plants.-M.S.OliverWATER English
... Mozambique is divided into two main geological structural regions, a Phanerozoic region and a Precambrian basement. The Precambrian basement is further divided into Archean cratonic units, Archean mobile belts and Proterozoic Units (Lächelt 2004). The Proterozoic Units consist of metamorphic rocks, quartzites, schists and gneisses along with interference of eruptive rock and dolerites. ...
... The Proterozoic Units consist of metamorphic rocks, quartzites, schists and gneisses along with interference of eruptive rock and dolerites. The rocks underwent pervasive tectonic reworking during the late Neoproterozoic collision orogeny at ca 550 Ma, known as the pan-African orogeny (Lächelt 2004). The eruptive rocks are weakly deformed Cambrian granites and granitoids with ages ranging from 514 to 504 Ma (Macey et al. 2013). ...
... The eruptive rocks are weakly deformed Cambrian granites and granitoids with ages ranging from 514 to 504 Ma (Macey et al. 2013). The coastal area is constituted by post-Cambrian sedimentary rocks and Quaternary alluvial sand formations (Lächelt 2004). ...
Vertical electrical sounding was used for assessing the suitability of the drill sites in crystalline areas within a water supply project in Nampula Province in Mozambique. Many boreholes have insufficient yield (<600 L/h). Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) was carried out over seven boreholes with sufficient yield, and five boreholes with insufficient yield, in Rapale District, in an attempt to understand the reason for the failed boreholes. Two significant hydrogeological units were identified: the altered zone (19–220 ohm-m) with disintegrated rock fragments characterized by intermediate porosity and permeability, and the fractured zone (>420 ohm-m) with low porosity and high permeability. In addition to this, there is unfractured nonpermeable intact rock with resistivity of thousands of ohm-m. The unsuccessful boreholes were drilled over a highly resistive zone corresponding to fresh crystalline rock and a narrow altered layer with lower resistivity. Successful boreholes were drilled in places where the upper layers with lower resistivity correspond to a well-developed altered layer or a well-fractured basement. There are a few exceptions with boreholes drilled in seemingly favourable locations but they were nevertheless unsuccessful boreholes for unknown reasons. Furthermore, there were boreholes drilled into very resistive zones that produced successful water wells, which may be due to narrow permeable fracture zones that are not resolved by ERT. Community involvement is proposed, in choosing between alternative borehole locations based on information acquired with a scientifically based approach, including conceptual geological models and ERT. This approach could probably lower the borehole failure rate.
... The Proterozoic crystalline basement is covered by some Proterozoic (Ediacaran) and mainly Paleozoic (Cambrian to Cretaceous) sedimentary rocks. To the north, northwest, and southeast, the basin is delimited by the outcropping crystalline basement ( Mokrik, 1997;Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). From there, the basement and the overlying sediments gradually dip towards the central part of the BAB by 2-4 m/km ( Fig. 1c). ...
... Both formations, the CAS and the O-S, have been faulted considerably during the Late Silurian and Early Devonian, especially along the Liep aja-Pskov fault zone in the central part of the BAB (cf. Fig. 1; Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997;Brangulis and Kanevs, 2002). Later major tectonic activity was mostly limited to the glacioisostatic downwarping and uplift caused by the late Cenozoic glaciations ( Mokrik, 1997;Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). ...
... Fig. 1; Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997;Brangulis and Kanevs, 2002). Later major tectonic activity was mostly limited to the glacioisostatic downwarping and uplift caused by the late Cenozoic glaciations ( Mokrik, 1997;Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). Faults are an important factor for aquifer connectivity, as they might either limit the groundwater flow or act as vertical Cross-sections of the BAB along the fine dashed lines in (a), showing the hydrogeological setting of the studied wells (200Â vertical exaggeration). ...
Analyses for 81Kr and noble gases on groundwater from the deepest aquifer system of the Baltic Artesian Basin (BAB) were performed to determine groundwater ages and uncover the flow dynamics of the system on a timescale of several hundred thousand years. We find that the system is controlled by mixing of three distinct water masses: Interglacial or recent meteoric water (δ18O ≈ -10.4‰) with a poorly evolved chemical and noble gas signature, glacial meltwater (δ18O ≤ -18‰) with elevated noble gas concentrations, and an old, high-salinity brine component (δ18O ≥ -4.5‰, Salinity ≥ 90 g Cl/L) with strongly depleted atmospheric noble gas concentrations. The 81Kr measurements are interpreted within this mixing framework to estimate the age of the end-members. Deconvoluted 81Kr ages range from 300 ka to 1.3 Ma for interglacial or recent meteoric water and glacial meltwater. For the brine component, ages exceed the dating range of the ATTA 3 instrument of 1.3 Ma. The radiogenic noble gas components 4He* and 40Ar* are less conclusive but also support an age of > 1 Ma for the brine. Based on the chemical and noble gas concentrations and the dating results, we conclude that the brine originates from evaporated seawater that has been modified by later water-rock interaction. As the obtained tracer ages cover several glacial cycles, we discuss the impact of the glacial cycles on flow patterns in the studied aquifer system.
... "White top," another miner's term, refers to discontinuous deposits, ranging in lithology from clay to sandy shale to calcareous sandstone, that occur at the top or within the upper part of the Herrin Coal seam (Wanless, 1957). At this site, the deposits consist of very gray claystone (figs. ...
... Description At two small outcrops, we will examine the basal sandstone and the disconformity that Wanless and Weller (1932) used to separate cyclothems. At both outcrops we will examine sandstones that probably correlate to the Copperas Creek Sandstone of the Sparland Cyclothem (Wanless, 1957). ...
... At the second exposure (figs. 3-9 and 3-10), the lithology of the basal sandstone of the Sparland Cyclothem (Wanless, 1957) is very unusual. The bounding sandstones of cyclothems commonly have conglomerates in the basal portion (Weller, 1930;Wanless, 1957). ...
... The first three facies belts formed a carbonate platform. A deep pericratonic basin with finegrained clastic deposition formed the last two facies belts (Raukas & Teedumäe 1997). Kalana abandoned quarry (58.713586, 26.045208 by World Geodetic System 84) (Fig. 1Fig. 1) is located between Kaugatuma and Lõo cliffs. ...
... Trace fossils are an important tool for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions (Seilacher 2007). They are relatively poorly known in the Silurian of Baltica, especially the Estonian and eastern Baltic ones (Raukas & Teedumäe 1997). Recently, several hard substrate ichnofossils, such as Trypanites and Osprioneides (Vinn & Wilson 2010) and bioclaustrations were described from the Silurian of Estonia (Vinn et al. 2014). ...
... The tropical Baltic Basin was characterized by diverse biota and environments . Organic buildups were common, especially coral-stromatoporoid reefs (Raukas & Teedumäe 1997). Nestor & Einasto (1977) described the palaeoenvironments of the Baltic Basin in detail. ...
Trace fossils of the ichnogenus Zoophycos have been described for the first time from the Silurian of Baltica. They occur in Llandovery pure limestones of middle Estonia and in Ludfordian argillaceous limestones and early Pridoli crinoid grainstones of western Estonia (Saaremaa). The occurrence of Zoophycos in the Silurian of Estonia was not restricted to a particular facies, though all finds come from shallow-water sediments. Zoophycos had a wide geographic distribution in the Silurian.
... However, because of severe environmental issues (particularly related to the self-ignition of graptolite argillite in dump piles) the mining was ceased in 1991. The average thickness of the shelly phosphorite ore at the Maardu deposit was 0.5 m with P2O5 content about 13% (Table 56; Raudsep, 1997). Flotation techniques were used at the Maardu plant to produce phosphate concentrates at about 22% P2O5 for production of single superphosphate fertilizer. ...
... It increases southwards due to general 8' -15' southward dip (about 2-4.5 m/km) of Lower Palaeozoic strata. The phosphate rock reserves of the Toolse deposit are estimated about 27.4 million tonnes of P2O5 (Raudsep, 1997). ...
... The Rakvere shelly phosphorite deposit (ca 14 049 ha) is considered the largest phosphorite deposit in Europe with an estimated 700 million tonnes of P 2O5 (Raudsep, 1997). The phosphate ore thickness varies between 3.1 to 7.6 metres (Raudsep, 1997) with an overburden ranging from 42 to 210 metres. ...
The sustainable supply of raw materials is a major challenge both to Europe and
Estonia. In 2014, Rectors of three Estonian Universities addressed a letter to the Estonian
Parliament and Government with a proposal to work out a modern and sustainable
Earth resources policy.
The release of Estonia's untapped mineral resources potential in a harmony with
society and the environment can create new jobs as well as favour an economic
growth. The proposal foresees a research and innovation programme/policy to be
developed to maintain Estonia's leadership in R&D and industrial expertise throughout
the entire raw materials value chain. One of the primary targets of the new
policy on Estonian mineral resources, raw materials and Earth crust is to create a
better understanding on the potential of Estonian mineral resources, the environmentally
sound usage of Earth crust and the economical benefits of expanding mining
industry to the society. In addition, the new policy will facilitate an implementation
of a modern, environmentally friendly and sustainable planning and resource usage
mechanism of Estonian natural resources. The Ministry of Environment has initiated
preparation of the strategy on Estonian mineral resources and Earth crust.
The conference entitled as "Strategic Raw Materials of Estonia", taking place on
October 16, 20 15 in Rakvere, will be a forum that brings together a wide range of
stakeholders -including various level policymakers, experts of financial markets, raw
material producers, geoscientists from universities, government and industry.
... The highest Silurian shell repair frequences (20-29% of individuals) in tentaculitoid tubeworms (Vinn 2009;Vinn 2012) possibly indicate their important role as prey. However, molluscs are more abundant in the Silurian of Baltica than the tentaculitoid tubeworms (Larsson 1979;Raukas and Teedumäe 1997;Vinn 2009) and most likely they were more important as the prey taxon for Silurian predators. The shell repair frequencies of Late Ordovician (Ebbestad and Peel 1997) and Silurian gastropods (Lindström and Peel 1997) were similar indicating similar predation intensity. ...
... Nestor and Einasto (1977) described five main environments in that basin: tidal flat/lagoonal, shoal, open shelf, transitional (basin slope), and a basin depression. The first three environments formed a carbonate platform (Raukas and Teedumäe 1997). ...
... The best be explained by a sampling bias. The Hirnantian and Llandovery faunas of Baltica are best studied in Estonia (Raukas and Teedumäe 1997), but most previous research was devoted to stratigraphy and taxonomy and not to paleoecology. However, Early Ordovician invertebrates are equally well studied (Raukas and Teedumäe 1997). ...
Signs of predation appear in the Middle Ordovician of Baltica. Shell repair dominates over the predatory borings in the Ordovician and Silurian. Predators attacked molluscs, brachiopods and tentaculitoids in the Ordovician and molluscs, tentaculitoids, brachiopods and ostracods in the Silurian. There is an increase in the number of prey species in the Late Ordovician, which could be related to the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. Molluscs are the favourite prey taxon in the Ordovician, but in the Silurian, molluscs became less dominant as the prey. This is probably not an artefact of preservation as Ordovician and Silurian molluscs are equally well preserved.
... Position of Bolsovian-Asturian Substage boundary, equivalent to Atokan-Desmoinesian Stage boundary according to Peppers (1996), shown as dotted line, whereas dashed line (with ?) and dashed down-arrow reflect need to lower boundary based on biostratigraphic data presented herein. Note that Cantabrian-Asturian Substage boundary poorly defined in Illinois Basin and elsewhere in USA, and that correlation between Pope Creek Coal and Tarter Coal members (Illinois) and Upper Block Coal and Lower Block Coal members (Indiana), respectively, approximate and based on Wanless (1957). Full names of microfloral biozones: Torispora securis-Vestispora fenestrata (SF), Cadiospora magna-Mooreisporites inusitatus (MI), Schopfites colchesterensis-Thymospora pseudothiessenii (CP), and Lycospora granulata-Granasporites medius (GM). ...
... As now configured, the basin underlies much of Illinois and parts of western Indiana and western Kentucky, with small outliers in Iowa and Missouri (Fig. 1B). The Illinois Basin contains a predominantly siliciclastic succession of Morrowan to Virgilian (Bashkirian to Gzhelian, upper Namurian to upper Stephanian) strata (Nelson et al., 1991(Nelson et al., , 2013, with accumulation influenced by glacioeustatic fluctuations that resulted in cyclic marine transgressions across the low-gradient continental platform (Wanless andShepard, 1935, 1936;Heckel, 1986;Watney et al., 1989;Langenheim and Nelson, 1992;Greb et al., 2003;Algeo and Heckel, 2008). Consistent with this paleogeographic setting, depositional environments in the Illinois Basin are intermediate between marine-dominated rocks of the Western Interior (Midcontinent) Basin and mainly deltaic to terrestrial strata of the Appalachian Basin ( Fig. 1A; Heckel, 1977Heckel, , 1980Nelson et al., 2013). ...
... The overlying Seville Limestone, which contains the fusulinid Fusulinella iowensis Thompson, 1934(but not the genus Beedeina Galloway, 1933, is either latest Atokan (Douglass, 1987) or earliest Desmoinesian (Wahlman, 2013) in age (Fig. 2). The coal and limestone have highly sporadic distributions, both units being thickest in linear belts that overlie depressions on the surface of the underlying Bernadotte Sandstone or older 'Pope Creek shale' (i.e., paleovalleys; Wanless, 1957 Nelson et al., 2013). The Bernadotte Sandstone is equivalent to the Murray Bluff Sandstone in southern Illinois (Wanless, 1957). ...
A taxonomic, quantitative, and biostratigraphic analysis is presented for a macrofloral assemblage collected from below the Rock Island (No. 1) Coal Member at the historical Friendship Farm locality in Rock Island County, on the northwestern margin of the Illinois Basin. The Middle Pennsylvanian (middle Moscovian) fossiliferous strata involve the middle Tradewater Formation, and are situated a short distance below the Atokan–Desmoinesian Stage boundary as defined by marine microfossils and palynology. The assemblage of 14 fossil-taxa is overwhelmingly dominated by pteridosperms, including Laveineopteris rarinervis, Neuropteris flexuosa, Alethopteris serlii, Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri, and Mariopteris nervosa, whereas lycopsids, sphenopsids, and ferns are comparatively rare. Homotaxial comparison with the macrofloral biozonation scheme established in Europe indicates an Asturian age for the assemblage, in all likelihood early Asturian (Linopteris obliqua Biozone). Similar comparisons with range limits documented in the Appalachian Basin yield a more ambiguous age, but an early Asturian age is equally probable. These findings indicate that the Bolsovian–Asturian Substage boundary of western Europe lies below the Atokan–Desmoinesian Stage boundary in the Illinois Basin, boundaries that have traditionally been correlated by palynology. The Middle Pennsylvanian interval near these boundaries is being increasingly recognized as one of significant environmental change, reflected in marked lithological and biological modifications throughout tropical Euramerica. However, the fact that the Bolsovian–Asturian and Atokan– Desmoinesian boundaries are not synchronous, albeit being broadly equivalent, suggests that the environmental perturbation was a protracted event that may have had global consequences.
... Drill cores from the other areas of Baltica have added more stratigraphic information. The faunas of the Tremadoc to the Hirnantian of Baltica are well studied (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). The aim of this paper is: 1) to summarize the symbiotic associations found in the Ordovician of Baltica; 2) to find trends in the distribution of symbiosis in this region; and 3) to find possible controls on the symbiotic interactions in the Ordovician of Baltica. ...
... In general, most of samples of this study are derived from similar shallow water carbonate accumulation paleoenvironments. However, the pre-Dapingian part of Ordovician is mostly represented by terrigenous sediments in Baltica (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997), and the corresponding facies contained different communities that may have been less prone to symbiosis. Another problem is the lowering of biotic interaction frequency in the Katian. ...
... Similarly, some solitary organisms had their first symbionts relatively early after their first appearance, whereas others had a late appearance of symbionts. Chitinozoans that are known from the Tremadocian had their earliest symbionts in the Darriwilian (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997), while brachiopods that are known from the early Cambrian (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997) had their earliest symbionts in the Dapingian. The difference between the Middle and Late Ordovician symbiotic associations of Baltica could be explained by the diversification of bryozoans and appearance of symbiont tolerant taxa. ...
... Mines like Baragolai colliery, Jagun opencast mine, and Lekhapani mines are currently not in production. Approximately 315 million tons of coal was estimated as a total proved resource in the Makum coalfield (Rabchevsky, 1980). Although the Sulphur content is reasonably high (1.53 to 5.43%), the Makum coalfield produces good-quality coal with low to extremely low ash levels (1.9 to 5.9%) and low moisture levels (1.9 to 3.9%) (Barooah & Baruah, 1996;Rabchevsky, 1980 longitudes which also includes influenced buffer area. ...
... Approximately 315 million tons of coal was estimated as a total proved resource in the Makum coalfield (Rabchevsky, 1980). Although the Sulphur content is reasonably high (1.53 to 5.43%), the Makum coalfield produces good-quality coal with low to extremely low ash levels (1.9 to 5.9%) and low moisture levels (1.9 to 3.9%) (Barooah & Baruah, 1996;Rabchevsky, 1980 longitudes which also includes influenced buffer area. The nearest area influenced by the Makum coal mines (Ledo, Tikak, Tirap, and Tipong) was chosen for the present studies. ...
Acid mine drainage and soil erosion are significant problems in the coal mining area. It affects the water quality and soil quality, henceforth affecting plant growth and most aquatic life. During the last two decades, coal mining areas were increased by 194 hectares in Makum coalfield (Assam), which led to an increase in acid mine drainage and soil loss. In this paper, the water chemistry of water samples was analyzed, and annual soil loss near the area of Makum coalfield was calculated to investigate the most affected region by Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and soil erosion. The Watershed delineation, slope angle, elevation contour map, and drainage system of 57 km2 of the study area were developed by ArcGIS Pro. The Universal Soil Loss Equation was used to estimate the amount of annual soil loss. The USLE parameter was assessed using a Digital Elevation Model with a 30-meter X 30-meter resolution. The result indicates that the quality of drainage near the mines was highly acidic. Also, compared to the area near the riverside, the proximity of mines is more affected by soil erosion and needs improvement.
... The Excello carries a highly restricted marine fauna of inarticulate brachiopods, ammonoids, bivalves, fish remains, and conodonts. Articulate brachiopods have been found in their carbonate concretions (Wanless 1957(Wanless , 1958. Burrows are rare, except near the upper contact. ...
... The St. David is medium to dark gray, argillaceous, lime mudstone to wackestone containing an abundant normalmarine fauna of brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, ostracods, crinoids, fusulinids, and bryozoans (Savage 1921;Wanless 1957;Shaver et al. 1986). ...
For more than 40 years, geologists have understood that the thickness and quality of the Springfield Coal are intimately related to the Galatia channel, a paleochannel that existed contemporaneously with peat deposition. Early models envisioned a setting similar to the
Mississippi delta, in which the river periodically breached its natural levees and carried crevasse splays of gray mud (Dykersburg Shale) into flanking peat swamps, shielding peat from a later influx of sulfur-bearing marine water and sediment. Using new findings and reinterpreting old maps, we present a new model for Galatia channel development. Before the formation of Springfield peat, falling sea levels exposed the Illinois Basin area to soil
development and fluvial incision under a seasonal semiarid to wet subhumid climate. A “precursor” Galatia channel, carrying a bed load of sand, formed a meander belt several miles (kilometers) wide. Under a progressively more humid climate at glacial maximum, vegetation cover flourished and Springfield peat accumulation took place. As inferred under previous models, the thickest peat formed in lowlands flanking the channel. Dense, strongly rooted vegetation stabilized channel banks and restricted upstream sediment runoff. As a result, meanders became locked into place and the Galatia became a “black-water” stream that carried only fine suspended sediment. Some of this sediment was carried into peat swamps along the channel margins, creating belts of shaly coal a few hundred feet (meters) wide bordering the no-coal area. At the end of the glacial episode, the sea level rose, drowning the peat swamp and turning the Galatia channel into a broad estuary flanked by mud flats. With concurrent changes in atmospheric circulation, the Illinois Basin climate shifted from year-round rainfall to a strongly seasonal, wet–dry (monsoonal) regime. This drier climate led to reduced vegetation cover and increased soil erosion and runoff in the Galatia drainage basin. Thus, the channel carried a heavy sediment load, largely silt and fine sand. Much of this was deposited in the estuary as the Dykersburg Shale, which rapidly buried the Springfield peat to a depth of more than 98 ft (>30 m). As envisioned by earlier geologists, this thick deposit of gray, tidally influenced sediment shielded the peat from sulfur-rich marine water and sediment that invaded the area during maximum transgression. Large-scale rafting of peat during the initial stage of transgression produced “splits” and large coal-seam disruptions. Other channels developed at the same time as the Galatia. The south-flowing Sullivan channel in Indiana is probably an upstream segment of the Galatia. A large southeast-flowing system in eastcentral Illinois, named the Effingham channel, was abandoned before Springfield peat formation. The Leslie Cemetery channel in southern Indiana began as a precursor tributary to the Galatia channel that was abandoned and then reoccupied during later stages of peat formation. The poorly understood Terre Haute channel may have a similar origin. Channels and gray-shale clastic wedges similar to the Galatia channel and Dykersburg Shale affected the Murphysboro, Colchester, Herrin, Baker, and Danville coals. Each of these presents variations on the theme, the Herrin example being most similar to the Springfield. We interpret coal (peat) as having formed during glacial maxima, when the sea level was lowest and global cooling pinned the intertropical convergence zone near the equator. The resulting ever-wet climate in the tropics maintained the consistently high water table required for the production and preservation of peat. A warming cycle brought deglaciation, rapid sealevel rise, and a change to the seasonal wet-dry tropical climate, which in turn caused rapid drowning and burial of the peat deposit. The impact of the Galatia channel and its analogues on coal thickness and quality has been understood since the 1960s. Our new findings and model of origin for these channels provide insights into the driving forces behind sedimentary cycles overlooked by most previous authors.
... IB-D4 was collected from an ~2-m-thick outcrop of thin-to medium-bedded, fine-to medium-grained micaceous litharenite in the Copperas Creek member of the Shelburn Formation (Frankie et al., 1995) in central Illinois (Figs. 1B and 5G). The Copperas Creek Sandstone can be up to 9 m thick (Wanless, 1957). ...
... 4C, 4D, and 4F). Furthermore, Type 1 sandstones are stratigraphically positioned in the lower parts of both basins, often near the basal Pennsylvanian unconformity (Table 2; Wanless, 1956Wanless, , 1957Kosanke et al., 1960;Fitzgerald, 1977;Lemish et al., 1981;Gregory, 1982;Ravn et al., 1984). In general, in both basins, Lower-Middle Pennsylvanian strata that have a Type 1 signature have been interpreted as fluvial deposits in regional-scale depositional systems with relatively small watersheds and spatially limited provenance located on adjacent structural highs or the Canadian Shield (Fitzgerald, 1977;Lemish et al., 1981;Gregory, 1982). ...
Morrowan, Atokan, and Desmoinesian (Lower–Middle Pennsylvanian) clastic strata in the Forest City (Iowa, northwest Missouri, eastern Nebraska, and Kansas) and Illinois Basins on the North American midcontinent record the interaction between fluctuations in eustatic sea-level and major tectonic events. One of three major Paleozoic eustatic sea-level lows occurred near the Mississippian/Pennsylvanian boundary and was followed by a eustatic rise that continued into Late Pennsylvanian time. Alleghenian mountain building that is linked to the creation of the Pangean supercontinent also began during latest Mississippian time and continued until latest Pennsylvanian or earliest Permian time. Detrital-zircon geochronology and stratigraphic descriptions allow reconstruction of sediment dispersal patterns associated with these events. Our detrital-zircon signatures from Morrowan–lower Desmoinesian strata in the Illinois Basin are interpreted to reflect a change from regional drainages that reworked underlying Mississippian strata to extensive extrabasinal fluvial systems that supplied detritus shed from southeastern New E ngland. By middle Desmoinesian time, detrital- zircon signatures in the Illinois Basin are more similar to those from coeval units in the central Appalachian Basin, indicating a southward shift in the provenance of the fluvial systems. In the Forest City Basin, Morrowan strata are absent and our detrital-zircon data indicate that Atokan–early Desmoinesian sedimentation was dominated by regional fluvial systems that recycled underlying strata. The introduction of extrabasinal fluvial systems with New England headwaters in the middle Desmoinesian coincided with the overtopping of the Mississippi River Arch and depositional linking of the Forest City and Illinois Basins. The Forest City and Illinois Basins collectively contain an Early–Middle Pennsylvanian sedimentary record in the backbulge depozone of the Alleghenian foreland basin system that reflects overtopping of the forebulge located along the Cincinnati Arch and the effects of eustatic sea-level rise. These results lend credence to the previously proposed transcontinental fluvial systems during late Paleozoic time and help to better constrain their courses.
... 127Strata fromWanless (1957) are reanalysed here to calculate optimized transition probability 128 matrix permutations. Initial lithofacies coding and hence initial matrix row positions are as 129 defined by the ideal cycle ofWanless (1957) shown inWilkinson et al. (2003) (Fig. 2B) except130 that three intervals of no exposure have been assumed to be a continuation of the fine-131 grained lithology either above or below. ...
... 127Strata fromWanless (1957) are reanalysed here to calculate optimized transition probability 128 matrix permutations. Initial lithofacies coding and hence initial matrix row positions are as 129 defined by the ideal cycle ofWanless (1957) shown inWilkinson et al. (2003) (Fig. 2B) except130 that three intervals of no exposure have been assumed to be a continuation of the fine-131 grained lithology either above or below. Analysis of the vertical succession as logged gives a 132 m value of 0.206(Fig 2C&D), slightly higher than the value of 0.187 given in Burgess(2016)133 which did not re-code the intervals of no exposure. ...
The ideal cycle concept is poorly defined yet implicit and potentially useful in many stratigraphic analyses. A new method allows quantitative definition of ideal cycles and provides a simple but robust method to analyze stratal order and quantify stratigraphic interpretations. The method calculates transition probability (TP) matrices from a vertical succession of strata for all possible permutations of facies-class row numbering in the matrices. The ordering of facies classes that gives highest transition probabilities along diagonals of the TP matrix can be taken as a quantitative definition of an ideal cycle for the strata being analyzed. Application to a synthetic example shows how an ideal cycle can be identified, even in noisy strata, without any assumptions about or prior knowledge of cyclicity. Application to two outcrop examples shows how it can be useful to define the most optimal cycle and determine how much evidence is present for ordered and cyclical facies successions.
... Interrupted chains of end moraines and glaciofl uvial formations in Estonia mark marginal positions of the ice sheet in present topography. It is believed that they represent temporary stagnations (Karukäpp & Raukas 1997) or even readvances (Raukas 1992, Raukas et al. 2004) of the ice terminus when the glacier regime was close to equilibrium. This, in turn, is most likely refl ected also in the proglacial sedimentary environment in front of the ice margin. ...
... Most often, the corresponding zone in northwestern Russia is considered to be the Neva zone ( , Raukas et al. 2004). The Pandivere-Neva zone is represented by a curved belt of push end-moraines, glaciofl uvial deltas and marginal eskers (Karukäpp & Raukas 1997). In western Estonia the marginal eskers, which represent a specifi c type of glaciofl uvial delta (Raukas 1992), are the most outlined landforms due to a more or less continuous length of 150 km. ...
The Southern Lithuanian territory is composed of glaciogenic deposits of different age and polygenetic origin. The recurring permafrost and cryogenic structures in the ground were an important phenomenon taking place in the southeastern periglacial zone. Intensive slope transformation took place together with permafrost degradation and deposition of the loess-like sediment cover. These events were followed by soil formation processes. Sediment cover is composed of three to four lithocomplexes that correlate with palaeogeographic stages of the Last Ice Age. The boundary of the Grūda (Brandenburg) stage glaciation correlates with the maximum of the Late Nemunas (Late Weichselian) and is conditionally drawn along the poorly preserved and sporadically distributed abraded hills. The marginal hilly formations, left by the glacier of the Žiogeliai (Frankfurt) phase, are clearly marked by the high moraine ridge on the right bank of Merkys. The specific character of Baltija (Pomeranian) deglaciation was predetermined by the wide (30-40 m), dead ice elevation and the Simnas-Balbieriškis-Stakliškės glaciolacustrine basin, dammed between the South Lithuania Upland and the younger South Lithuanian glacier. Its excess water eroded a great part of the Middle Nemunas valley between Punia and Merkinė in a southerly direction. The middle part of the territory, extending from the southwest to the northeast is a part of Vilnius-Warsaw-Berlin Urstromtal. P. 7
... In-depth sedimentological, stratigraphic, or paleoecological research has been conducted at multiple sites with signifi cant glacial-sedimentary records (Grimley et al., 2001;Webb et al., 2012;Grimley and Phillips, 2015). In the current study, geologic data from the fi eld research of others was utilized, in part, for geomorphic interpretations in north-central Illinois (Berg et al., 1984(Berg et al., , 1985, southernmost Illinois (Willman and Frye, 1980), western Illinois (Wanless, 1957), and central Illinois (Leighton and Brophy, 1961;Heigold et al., 1985). ...
In the central United States, the Laurentide ice sheet advanced considerably farther south and west during the Illinois Episode (marine isotope stage [MIS] 6) in Illinois than during the Wisconsin Episode (MIS 2). The Illinois Episode landscape, beyond the last glacial margin, is thus relatively undisturbed from its original form, with only a drape of last glacial loess on uplands, resulting in some of the best preserved geomorphic features of the MIS 6 Laurentide ice sheet. Recent field observations and high-resolution digital elevation maps have led to new ideas about how an ancestral Lake Michigan Lobe reached its southernmost Pleistocene extent (ca. 150- 140 ka) and about the region's deglacial history. Illinois Episode moraines are notably more narrow and discontinuous than last glacial moraines in northeastern Illinois. Subglacial lineations in Illinois, formed during the Illinois Episode, include a continuum from drumlins and megaflutes to megascale lineations. Crag-and-tail forms are most apparent in southeastern Illinois, influenced by buried Paleozoic bedrock obstacles. In north-central Illinois, megaflutes and drumlins occur in an area of thick glacial drift (>20 m). During deglaciation, an MIS 6 Lake Michigan Lobe likely separated into sublobes as the ice sheet thinned and basal ice conditions became warmer and wetter. Ice streaming into the Kaskaskia River Basin, southwestern Illinois, is envisioned during this period. Factors that likely contributed to faster glacial flow in the basin include the regional topography, a relatively soft and fine-grained substrate, and the subglacial hydrology.
... Likewise, the Early Cambrian black shales from Estonia ( Baltica) display low CIA values (ca. 59) ( Tosca et al., 2010), which are consistent with the cold climatic conditions at the high latitudes (approximately 60 °S) of the Southern Hemisphere ( Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997;Golonka, 2002Golonka, , 2007). In contrast, black shales in Oman ...
... The total thickness of Quaternary sediments is usually less than 5 m in North Estonia but generally over 10 m in South Estonia. Locally the thicknesses may be over 200 m, whilst the thicknesses over 100 m are fairly common in South Estonia (Haanja and Otepää heights) and in the Gulf of Finland (Raukas & Kajak 1997). The bedrock topography, uneven thickness of the Quaternary cover and postglacial land rise have shaped the modern topography of Estonia. ...
... It may also be illuminating to investigate how the degree of order present in the strata varies in different locations down depositional dip and along depositional strike. Wanless (1957). A) The vertical section was measured bed-by-bed from a section near the Sangamon River in Illinois. ...
Identifying order or pattern in strata on the basis of qualitative interpretation forms the basis for much current sedimentological and sequence stratigraphic analysis. Order can be usefully defined as some arrangement of facies or unit thickness that has a discernable trend or pattern that is unlikely to occur by chance because it requires some particular systematic process to form. Coarsening, fining, thickening, or thinning-upward trends, and arrangement of strata into cycles are examples of order. Qualitative interpretations of order often demonstrate little more than an implicit assumption of order. This paper defines a robust yet simple-to-apply quantitative method to identify order in strata and to indicate when order cannot be reliably demonstrated. The method is based on two calculated metrics, the Markov metric m derived from analysis of a vertical facies succession, and the runs metric r derived from analysis of observed thicknesses of stratal units. Most importantly, both metrics can be compared with equivalent metrics calculated for disordered strata composed of many randomly shuffled versions of the same lithological units. Probability values can then be calculated from the comparison between observed and randomly shuffled cases, and these p values indicate the degree of evidence present for order in the observed strata. Several test examples using synthetic strata show that the m and r values can define and identify different degrees and types of stratal order, and that the metrics are robust for both stationary and non-stationary successions with a range of different lengths and numbers of distinct facies. Analysis of four outcrop examples, two siliciclastic and two carbonate, demonstrate that ordered facies successions and thickness trends may be less common than typically assumed; none of the four examples analyzed show trends in thickness, and only the examples from the Book Cliffs, which represent a bedset scale composite of observations, show evidence for facies order. The examples demonstrate how a quantitative analysis can lead to better understanding of strata, either ordered or disordered, and can provide better insight into the validity of current stratigraphic interpretations and models. Absence of order in many of the analyzed 1D vertical successions may also indicate that we need to focus more on longer-term trends and analysis of 2D and 3D stratal geometries.
... The first three facies belts formed a carbonate platform (i.e. carbonate shelf), the latter two a deeper pericratonic basin with finegrained clastic deposits (Raukas & Teedumäe 1997). ...
The Päärdu hardground from the Telychian (Rumba Formation) of western Estonia is sparsely encrusted (0.4% of the studied surface) by possible tabulate corals, sheet-like bryozoans and discoidal echinoderm holdfasts. Both the upper and cryptic sides of the hardground are intensely bioeroded by Trypanites borings. The taxonomic composition of the Päärdu hardground association is rather different from the characteristic Silurian association in being dominated by tabulate corals, while bryozoans and echinoderms played a minor role in the association. The Päärdu hardground is more sparsely encrusted than common for the
Late Ordovician and Silurian hardgrounds, but this may be a characteristic feature of the hardgrounds of Baltica. The Päärdu hardground is important among the Silurian hardgrounds because it has unusually low encrustation combined with high bioerosion.
... The middle and western part of modern Estonia, including Saaremaa Island, was covered by the epicontinental Baltic paleobasin. This basin was characterized by diverse tropical faunas and extensive shelf environments (Hints 2008; Raukas and Teedumäe 1997). The sedimentary facies of the Silu‐ rian of Estonia are divided laterally into five facies belts along a reconstructed bathymetric profile (Nestor and Einasto 1977). ...
The earliest known rugosans attached syn vivo to vertical stems occur in the late Silurian of Saaremaa, Estonia. These rugosans display vertical to subvertical attachment scars and are more common in the Ludfordian than in the Pridoli. The unknown hosts provided a higher tier for the feeding, making the association beneficial for the rugosans. Several rugosans were themselves syn vivo encrusted by bryozoans and unknown endobiotic tubicolous organisms, possibly cornulitids. Estonian rugosans appear to have been host size selective and preferred substrates of certain size. Silurian symbiotic rugosans are more often endobionts in stromatoporoids than epibionts on the vertical stems.
... The lower boundary of this TRU is indicated by a very thin, unnamed black marine shale that overlies a very thin (0.05 feet) unnamed coal. This coal is possibly equivalent to the Kerton Creek Coal (Ekblaw 1931, Wanless 1957 or to the Survant Coal (Kosanke et al. 1960, Jacobson et al. 1985 Creek. An underclay claystone and the Springfield Coal are the non-marine rocks that mark the top of the TRU. ...
... In addition we did not find any signs of diagenetic phosphatization in other fossils found around the Sphenothallus tubes. The limestone and oil shale rocks containing Sphenothallus tubes have no elevated phosphorus content and they don't contain any sedimentary phosphorites (Raukas and Teedumäe 1997). Moreover, we did not find any signatures of organic material in ATR-FTIR spectra of Sphenothallus tube (Fig. 7). ...
Sphenothallus is a problematic fossil with possible cnidarian affinities. Two species of Sphenothallus, S. aff. longissimus and S. kukersianus, occur in the normal marine sediments of the Late Ordovician of Estonia. S. longissimus is more common than S. kukersianus and has a range from early Sandbian to middle Katian. Sphenothallus had a wide paleobiogeographic distribution in the Late Ordovician. The tubes of Sphenothallus are composed of lamellae with a homogeneous microstructure. The homogeneous microstructure could represent a diagenetic fabric, based on the similarity to diagenetic structures in Torellella (Cnidaria?, Hyolithelminthes). Tubes of Sphenothallus have an apatitic composition, but one tube contains lamellae of diagenetic calcite within the apatitic structure. Sphenothallus presumably had originally biomineralized apatitic tubes. Different lattice parameters of the apatite indicate that biomineralization systems of phosphatic cnidarians Sphenothallus and Conularia sp. may have been different.
... The Dahomey Basin is a combination of inland/coastal/offshore sedimentary basin in the Gulf of Guinea (Obaje, 2009). The lithology based stratigraphic classification of Dahomey basin by Jones and Hockey (Brownfield and Charpentier, 2006) is suitable for this study in that lithology is a key parameter in determining suitability of materials for engineering purposes. ...
Abstract. The spate of engineering structures collapse in Lagos metropolis with its attendant loss of lives and properties has assumed an alarming proportion in recent times. Efforts to mitigate such incidence has necessitated an integrated geophysical and geotechnical investigation of a proposed four storey building sites with a view to determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project. Resistivity investigation, un-drained multi-stage triaxial compression and oedometer consolidation tests to determine the engineering properties of the subsurface. The results revealed peaty clay to silty sand materials characterized by 35kN/m2 - 75kN/m2 cohesion values, (5°-13°) internal friction, 29.3% - 64.5% natural water content and 1.652 – 1.972 Mg/m3 bulk density. The allowable bearing capacity of 50 kN/m2, volume compressibility from 0.115 m2/MN to 0.666 m2/MN, initial void ratio and consolidation coefficient of 0.779 - 1.381 and 2.7 m2/year - 8.3 m2/year respectively on the pressure range of 0 to 400 kN/m2 and estimated settlement values of 114 to 273 mm were obtained for the site materials. These results are indicative of soft to stiff clays and presence of sands and silts in the essentially clayey deposit. The study area is thus underlain by extensive zone of ductile and low strength founding materials having medium to high compressibility and settlement value that exceeds the tolerable limit suitable for founding a four storey building and should therefore be avoided. These characteristics preclude the use of conventional shallow foundations, piles or vibro-replacement up to a depth of 30 m.
... carbonate platform). The latter two facies belts formed a deeper pericratonic basin where fine-grained clastic deposits were deposited (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). Laukna (58.929152, 24.186950) is an old quarry in an ancient coastal terrace, about 5 km to north from Koluvere Castle in western Estonia ( Fig. 1). ...
... Over the years, Mindoro Island has remained a place of interest because of its active geologic and tectonic settings, and has been investigated by numerous workers on various subjects (e.g., Teves 1954;Caagusan 1966;Andal et al. 1968;Hashimoto and Sato 1968;Rangin et al. 1985;Karig and Sarewitz 1986;Bureau of Mines and Geosciences 1982;Aurelio and Peña 2004) resulting in a better understanding of the geology of the island. Despite studies on the stratigraphy, paleontology, mineralization potential, and tectonics of the island (e.g., Hashimoto and Sato 1968;MMAJ-JICA 1983;Karig and Sarewitz 1986;Sarewitz and Karig 1986;Rangin et al. 1988), calcareous nannofossils in the area have so far received little attention. ...
This study investigates the calcareous nannofossil assemblage and composition of 62 field samples collected from a calcareous sedimentary sequence exposed in Mamburao, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines. The sequence consisting of foraminifera-rich, alternating beds of mudstones and fine- to medium-grained sandstones was subjected to stratigraphic logging and detailed calcareous nannofossil analysis. The nannofossils were used to interpret the biostratigraphic assignment of the sequence relative to the identified formations in the study area. Index calcareous nannofossil species reveal a Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene age (~1.67 to 4.13 Ma) of the sequence, which suggests it was formed from continuous sedimentation after the Miocene collision of the Palawan-Mindoro Block with the Philippine Mobile Belt. Based on its lithologic description and age, the sequence represents the northwest extension of the Balanga Formation, a sedimentary unit reported to be extensively distributed in southeast Mindoro.
... 2. Construction of interconnected surface drains: Every effort should be made to ensure that surface water is carried away from a slope (Cedergren 1989;Holtz and Schuster 1996). Such considerations become important when a failure has already occurred. ...
The Narippara area, which is nestled in the Banasuramala of Wayanad district, witnessed initiation of landslide, which was manifested in the form of curvilinear cracks running for a length of 170 m. In the event of continuous rainfall, these cracks may get reactivated, leading to a major landslide. This could affect the life and livelihood of a large number of families living downslope and could cause extensive damage to property. Extensive mining for building stones in this area has been a cause for much concern amongst the local population. This study aims at understanding the impact of quarrying on slope stability through geotechnical, geophysical and environmental impact assessment (EIA). Geotechnical analysis shows that the area is stable under dry condition but parts of the area are critical under wet and saturated conditions. Moreover, resistivity studies revealed that the cracks that had developed extend up to the bedrock and the suspected mechanism of failure will be translational in nature. EIA reveal that due to quarrying and mining operations, the possibility of land disturbances cannot be ruled out during the monsoon season. In the present study, an attempt is also made to suggest management strategies for mitigating further effects of landslides in this area.
... Kukersite has been mainly mined due to its higher calorific value (9–11 MJ/kg). On the other hand, graptolite argillite has a lower calorific value (4.2–6.7 MJ/kg); consequently it has not been mined as a source of fuel (Kattai & Puura, 1988; Raukas & Teedumäe, 1997). However, graptolite argillite is characterized by significant amounts of microelements including U, Mo, Zn, Pb and other metals; thus can be treated as a potential source of metal ore and/or two-fold energy including U and shale oil (Raukas and Punning, 2009). ...
... This is confirmed by the Last Interglacial dating of sediments 24.5 m above present HWM at Mary Ann Bay in southeastern Tasmania (Murray-Wallace et a/., 1990). Morphostratigraphic evidence that deposits at up to 32 m altitude in northeastern Tasmaniaare also of Last Interglacial age, together with the circumstantial evidence provided by an historical record of relatively high levels of seismic activity centred near the edge of the continental shelf off northeastern Tasmania, are consistent with the possibility of locally greater uplift in the Flinders Island area than elsewhere in Tasmania due to hotspot activity (Bowden 1978, Richardson 1989. ...
Two short sections of acolian calcareniLc coastline on Flinders Island exhibit broad interlidal shore platforms with solution pans, deep intertidal notches, caves formed by emerging groundwater and by marine erosion, alveolar weathering of cliffs, and evidence of sub-calcrete mechanical rock disintegration processes. The rate of slope retreat is governed by calcrete that caps the aeolianite cliffs. Biogenic erosion processes arc associated with algal penetration of the rock and abrasion by marine molluscs. The oldest erosional landforms recognisable on the aeolianite date from the Last Interglacial which implies that the rock is no younger than Middle Pleistocene. Radiometric dating of a speleothem modified by secondary solution and collected from approximately present HWM indicates that the cavity in which it formed was in existence during the late Last Glacial Stage and was invaded by the sea during the Holocene.
... Two offshore environments (i.e. basin slope, and a basin depression facies zones) formed a deeper basin with fine-grained siliciclastic deposits (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). ...
... It is reported to be highly fossiliferous and consists of deposits of limestone (Gbadebo and Bankole, 2007), sand with sandstone, siltstone, clay, mudstone and shale interbed. According to Agbaje (2009), the basal conglomerate of Abeokuta formation has poorly rounded quartz pebbles with a silicified and ferruginous sandstone matrix. The prevailing wind direction was Southwesterly at the period of study (wet season period–June–October) while the prevailing wind speed ranged range between 2.52 to 3.55 m/s and in the dry season. ...
This study assessed the level of contamination of the topsoil by Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd and Zn and the spatial distribution of these heavy metals around a cement factory. Thirty–eight composite soil samples were collected around the cement factory and subjected to nitric–perchloric acid digestion. Total metal contents of the soil were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry (FAAS) and the data generated were analyzed statistically. Spatial mapping of the distribution of heavy metals was done through the use of Inverse Distance Weighted technique (IDW) of ArcGIS 10. The results showed that the contamination domain of Cd was in the extreme domain while Pb and Cu levels in the soil were in the severe and moderate contamination domains. Zn and Cr posed no potential environmental hazard because of their low level in the soil. The spatial mapping of the heavy metals indicated Pb and Cu enrichment of the soil not only to come from cement production activities but also from vehicular activities while Cd enrichment of the soil was mainly from the cement production. Mapping of Zn and Cr distribution showed that their enrichments in the soil were from cement production activities. From these findings, it is highly recommended that environmental auditing of the cement production line be carried out to reduce the release of pollutants. It is also important that remediation activities be carried out on the soil to reduce the levels of Cd, Pb and Cu to avert potential ecological disasters.
... One of the better known occurrences of phosphatic nodules in the Illinois Basin is in the black fissile shale that overlies the Colchester (No. 2) Coal Member of the Carbondale Formation. The black shale, sometimes separated from the No. 2 Coal by the gray Francis Creek Shale Member, is recognized in much of Illinois by its "pimply" character (Wanless, 1957;W. H. Smith, personal communication). ...
Phosphatic petrifactions of wood have been collected from two separate localities in the Pennsylvanian of Illinois. Optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and chemical analyses show that the mineralization is primarily carbonate fluorapatite. One petrifaction is closely associated with nodules and irregular masses of similar fluorapatite composition. The early replacement of wood by carbonate fluorapatite indicates the ready formation of the fluorapatite under some diagenetic conditions and suggests that the origin of at least some of the nodules and irregular masses is not necessarily from coprolites or other organic residues.
... Most often this zone is correlated with the Neva zone in northwestern Russia (Raukas et al., 1971;Lundqvist & Saarnisto, 1995;Raukas et al., 2004;Kalm, 2010). The Pandivere-Neva zone forms a curved and interrupted belt of push end-moraines, glaciofluvial deltas and eskers (Karukäpp & Raukas, 1997). Due to Holocene wave erosion these forms have been levelled and the height of these features range only from a few metres up to 20 m. ...
The distribution and varve thickness data of Late Weichselian varved clay were analyzed to describe the proglacial sedimentary environment, ice recession and water-level changes in the Baltic Ice Lake at the distal position of Pandivere-Neva (13.5-13.1 ka BP) ice-recessional formations in western Estonia. According to vertical changes in natural water content, fabric and varve thickness, four clay units were distinguished, reflecting a change in the sedimentary environment from ice-proximal to distal conditions. The varved clay complex is locally interrupted by a massive silty-clay unit, interpreted as an icedrift material during the stagnation of the glacier margin at the Pandivere-Neva line. Varve correlation gave a 294-year-long floating varve chronology. According to total varve thickness and the relation between thicknesses of seasonal layers, an about 130-year period of ice-proximal conditions in the study area was followed by a rapid (within ca 20 years) change to more distal conditions. The presented varve chronology does not cover the entire period of proglacial conditions in the area, as all studied clay sections displayed an erosional discontinuity at the upper contact. In total, ca 4 m of selective post-sedimentary erosion of clay is attributed to wave erosion due to a water-level drop after the final drainage of the Baltic Ice Lake. It is concluded that the Yoldia Sea minimum level in the Parnu area was 0 to -2 m a.s.l.
... The sedimentary beds of the East-European Platform lie on the southern slope of the Baltic Shield, and decline southward at about 3–4 m/ km. The Estonian Paleoproterozoic basement is overlain by Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) and Paleozoic (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian) sedimentary rocks, covered by Quaternary deposits (Fig. 1) (Raukas and Teedumäe, 1997). Both the Ordovician and Silurian sequences in Estonia consist mainly of shallow water carbonates–limestone, ...
High natural fluoride (up to 6.1 mg/l) and boron (up to 2.1 mg/l) concentrations in groundwater are recorded in western Estonia, where a carbonaceous Silurian Ordovician aquifer system is the main source of drinking water. The aim of this study is to examine the dissolution of boron and fluoride from different carbonate rocks using batch dissolution tests. The total boron and fluorine concentration within carbonate rocks varies between 100-1000 and 5-150 mg/kg, respectively. Generally, boron and fluoride concentrations increase as the amount of terrigenous material in the rock increases. Laboratory leaching experiments showed that the amount of leached boron and fluoride was proportional to the content of these elements in the rock samples. Further, boron and fluoride concentrations in leachates were positively correlated with the amount of terrigenous material in rocks. Both boron and fluoride concentrations in leachates continually rose over 49 days of leaching. Long-term water-rock interaction is responsible for the high boron and fluoride contents in groundwater of western Estonia.
... The Baltic island Saaremaa (2,673 km²; 57° 50'–58° 40' N, 21° 45'–23° 20' E) is located off the Estonian west coast. Its bedrock is formed by Silurian limestone (Raukas & Teedumäe 1997), which is located partly close to the surface but more often is covered by Weichselian moraines or Holocene marine sediments (Poska & Saarse 2002 ). The mean annual temperature is about 6.0 °C, with a rather continental temperature regime, that is, warm summers (mean July temperature: 16.5 °C) and cold winters (mean temperature of the coldest month February ranging from –3.5 °C in the west to –5.0 °C in the east; Anonymous 1970 ). ...
We studied the communities of the class Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei on the Baltic island Saaremaa (Estonia, hemiboreal zone). These tall-forb communities of anhydromorphic, nutrient-poor sites usually grow as ecotones alongside forest edges. We documented the variety of community types occurring on the island by 41 relevés of 5 m² plots, in which we recorded all vascular plants, bryophytes, and lichens, and measured some soil parameters. According to the syntaxonomic analysis, the stands on Saaremaa belong to 12 communities, including 11 previously published associations and one unit with presumable association rank that has not yet been described formally. Of these communities, only one belongs to the acidophytic sub-class Melampyro pratensis-Holcenea mollis, while the others are equally divided between the mesophytic order Origanetalia vulgaris s.str. and the xerophytic order Antherico ramosi-Geranietalia sanguinei within the basiphytic subclass Trifolio-Geranienea sanguinei. Within the first order, we accept the alliances Knaution dipsacifoliae, which is nomenclaturally validated here, and Trifolion medii s.str.; within the second order we accept the alliances Galio veri-Geranion sanguinei and Geranion sanguinei s.str. For all communities, we review the known distribution within the Nordic and Baltic region and provide a comprehensive overview of names that have previously been applied here. Due to the prevailing limestone bedrock, soil pH (H2O) of the plots was consistently high (6.0–7.8). The communities analysed showed high species densities throughout, with association means from 24 to 45 species on 5 m². Compared to similar analyses of the same associations in NE Lower Saxony (n = 7) and NE Germany (n = 6), species densities of the Estonian stands were 1.2–2.2 times higher, with mean ratios of 1.82 relative to Lower Saxony and 1.60 relative to NE Germany. These differences were statistically significant in most cases and are in accordance with previous findings in various dry grassland types. As most of the causes suggested for dry grasslands do not hold for forest-edge communities, however, other explanations must be found. We consider the shorter vegetation period in the hemiboreal zone as a potential candidate, as this may reduce competition and thus enhance local coexistence of many species. Finally, we suggest further research that might help to explain the surprising biodiversity pattern we discovered.
The Ordovician-Cambrian aquifer system in the northern Baltic Artesian Basin contains glacial palaeogroundwater that originates from the Scandinavian Ice Sheet that covered the study area in the Pleistocene. Previously, no absolute dating of this palaeogroundwater has been attempted. In this multi-tracer study, we use ³H, ¹⁴C, ⁴He and stable isotopes of water to constrain the age distribution of groundwater. We apply the geochemical modelling approach developed by van der Kemp et al. (2000) and Blaser et al. (2010) to calculate the theoretical composition of recharge waters in three hypothetical conditions: modern, glacial and interstadial for ¹⁴C model age calculations. In the second phase of the geochemical modelling, the calculated recharge water compositions are used to calculate the ¹⁴C model ages using a series of inverse models developed with NETPATH. The calculated ¹⁴C model ages show that the groundwater in the aquifer system originates from three different climatic periods: (1) the post-glacial period; (2) the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM) and (3) the pre-LGM period. A larger pre-LGM component seems to be present in the southern and north-eastern parts of the aquifer system where the radiogenic ⁴He concentrations are higher (from ∼3.0·10⁻⁵ to 5.5·10⁻⁴ cc·g⁻¹) and the stable isotopic composition of water is heavier (δ¹⁸O from −13.5‰ to −17.3‰). Glacial palaeogroundwater from the north-western part of the aquifer system is younger and has ¹⁴C model ages that coincide with the end of the LGM period. It is also characterized by lower radiogenic ⁴He concentrations (∼2.0·10⁻⁵ cc·g⁻¹) and lighter stable isotopic composition (δ¹⁸O from −17.7 to −22.4‰). Relations between radiogenic ⁴He and ¹⁴C model ages and between radiogenic ⁴He and Cl⁻ concentration show that groundwater in the aquifer system does not have a single well-defined age. Rather, the groundwater age distribution has been influenced by mixing between waters originating from end-members with strongly differing ages. Overall the results suggest, that in the shallower northern part of the aquifer system, significant changes in groundwater composition can be brought about by glacial meltwater intrusion during a single glaciation. However, multiple cycles of glacial advance and retreat are needed to transport glacial meltwater to the deeper parts of the aquifer system.
Caddisfly larvae construct underwater protective cases using surrounding materials, thus providing information on environmental conditions in both modern and ancient systems. Microbial bioherms associated with caddisfly cases are found in the Berriassian-Hauterivian (~140–130 Ma) Shinekhudag Formation of Mongolia, and yield new insights into aspects of lacustrine paleoecosystems and paleoenvironments. This formation contains the earliest record of plant-armored caddisfly cases and a rare occurrence of microbial-caddisfly association from the Mesozoic. The bioherms are investigated within the context of stratigraphic correlations, depositional environment interpretations, and basin-evolution models of the sedimentary fill. The bioherms form 0.5–2.0 m diameter mound-shaped bodies and are concentrated within a single, oil shale-bound stratigraphic interval. Each bioherm is composed of up to 40% caddisfly cases along with stromatolites of millimeter-scale, micritic laminations. Petrographic analyses reveal these bioherms are composed of non-systematic associations of columnar and oncoidal microbialites, constructed around colonies of caddisfly cases. The cases are straight to curved, slightly tapered, and tube-shaped, with a progressively increasing length and width trend (7–21 mm by 1.5–2.5 mm). Despite these variations, the case architectures reveal similar construction materials; the particles used for cases are dominated by plant fragments, ostracod valves, carbonate rocks, and rare mica and feldspar grains. Allochems within the bioherms include ooids, ostracods, plant fragments, rare gastropods, feldspar grains bound in micritic matrices, and are consolidated by carbonate dominated cements. The combination of microbial-caddisfly association, plant fragment case particles, and ooids/oncoids are indicative of a shallow, littoral lake setting. Stratigraphic juxtaposition of nearshore bioherms and the bounding distal oil-shale facies suggests that the bioherms developed in an underfilled lake basin, resulting from an abrupt and short-lived lake desiccation event. Lake chemistry is believed to have been relatively alkaline, saline to hypersaline, and rich in Ca, Mg, and HCO3 ions. Through analyzing bioherm characteristics, caddisfly case architecture, carbonate microfacies, and stratigraphic variability, we infer larger-scale processes that controlled basin development during their formation.
A characteristic coarsely pitted ornamentation (with pits larger than 0.015 mm across) can be found on some very enigmatic and rare Lower Ordovician phosphatic-shelled linguliform brachiopods, including the paterinid Lacunites balaschovae Gorjansky and the obolid Foveola maarduensis Gorjansky. Both of these species are poorly understood and known from only a few specimens from the Floian of the East Baltic. Here we describe the Ordovician species Lacunites ivantsovi sp. nov. from the lower Darriwilian of the St Petersburg region and Foveola ivari sp. nov. from the Sandbian of Estonia, representing the last known survivors of these genera in the area. The new Darriwilian species of Lacunites is also one of the last members of the Class Paterinata, which most importantly includes some of the earliest known brachiopods from the early Cambrian. The coarsely pitted ornamentation of Foveola ivari is associated with the formation of asymmetrical so-called terrace lines in the umbonal area. The latter may indicate a burrowing life style. The pits in Lacunites and Foveola are directly comparable to the more or less identical coarse pits in the discinoid Trematis. Unlike the microscopic pits found in many fossil linguliforms, it is most likely that the coarse pits were empty in life; the minute surface ornamentation of irregular wrinkles in the outer primary layer continues across the bottom of the depressions in Foveola and Trematis; in the latter the cementing attachment discs of an attached phosphatic tubular Byronia-like organism also extend down into the pits.
The extent of the impact of global temperature rise and consequent sea level rise to the west Estonian coastal zone of the Baltic Sea is analysed. Relative sea level rise in the study area may extend up to 90-110 cm and average yearly temperature reach 7.8-8.8 °C by the end of the century, based on PIK, ICCP and WBGU publications, neotectonic movements of the coastal zone, EMHI and EGK databases and EGK fieldwork. The coastal zone is principally lowlands. The extent of the area to be submerged, up to 1 m elevation of the current sea level, is almost 146 km2 or almost 0.3% of the Estonian mainland, the extent of the area to be affected by the sea, up to 2 m elevation, is 253 km2, the area up to 3 m elevation is 449 km2 and the area up to 5 m elevation is 761 km2, respectively. The impact of seawater is most striking in the form of erosion of sandy beaches. The yearly regression of sandy banks may be up to 1 m, but can reach more than 10 m as a consequence of major storms. Blue algae show up to beaches earlier than before and fish perish as a result of seawater warming. Larger amounts of substances such as P, N and Pb will be carried to the sea from the soil. Together with oil products they cause increased sea water pollution, which promotes eutrophication. Water level rise in the mouths of rivers or streams and coastal zone causes progressing extension of seawater impact to the coastal surface water and groundwater. It also prompts development of riverbank landslides and intensifies salinization of groundwater. Damage accompanying sea level rise can be estimated in tens of millions of euros. In order to mitigate the impact, the rate of sea level rise needs to be specified, to analyse the actions with most important objects and to estimate the costs. While building new valuable constructions, the impact of sea level rise has to be taken into account.
The main object of this research is Stefanets Member (Aalenian-Lower Bajocian substage). It is located at the base of Etropole Formation (Etropole Fm.) and consists mainly of shale and siltstones. The study area is located in the South Moesian platform margin (SMPM) and neighbouring border zone of Iskar-Yantra step, where Lower-Middle Jurassic sediments are in higher depths. The thickness of these rocks also varies in a broad range and among them those of Stefanets Member rarely exceeds 200 m.
Four well-core samples with good petroleum generative potential from R-2 Odarne, R-1 Alexandrovo, R-1 Beglej and R-2 Beglej are under consideration. The determined values for TOC are up to 1.88 wt.%. The magnitudes of S2 are higher than S1 as a consequence of the thermal maturity level.
The HI values are low defining the organic matter of the evaluated samples as kerogen Type III. There is a tendency of HI decreasing with increasing depths and thermal maturity of the rocks.
Maturity of the sediments from Stefanets Member varies in the study area. According to Tmax and vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) values the range covers early to late maturity of the “oil window”. The good quantity of organic matter and determined level of thermal maturity for the study area define oil-gas and gas generation potential of Stefanets Member (Etropole Fm.).
Key words: South Moesian platform margin, Stefanets Member, Rock Eval, source rock
Two prominent, and apparently globally distributed, δ13C excursions have been documented from the Upper Ordovician, namely the early Katian Guttenberg isotope carbon excursion (GICE) and the latest Ordovician Hirnantian isotope carbon excursion (HICE). The former excursion, which has lower δ13C values than the HICE, is now recorded from dozens of localities in North America and Baltoscandia, and it appears to be present also in China. In North America the GICE ranges from the uppermost Phragmodus undatus Midcontinent Conodont Zone to near the top of the Plectodina tenuis Midcontinent Conodont Zone, an interval corresponding to the lower part of the Diplacanthograptus caudatus Global Graptolite Zone. The base of the GICE lies somewhat above the Millbrig K-bentonite. In Baltoscandia the GICE occurs in the upper Diplograptus foliaceus through the lower Dicranograptus clingani Graptolite Zones, and in the upper Amorphognathus tvaerensis Conodont Zone. Its base is a few meters above the widespread Kinnekulle K-bentonite. In Baltoscandia and in Oklahoma the GICE ranges through a part of the Spinachitina cervicornis Chitinozoan Zone. In North America the GICE is regionally in a transgressive-regressive succession. The bathymetric conditions in the GICE interval in Baltoscandia were somewhat complex and have been the subject of different interpretations, but there is no obvious correlation between the GICE and apparent sea level changes. A review of the relations between the GICE and potential climatic and water temperature indicators, such as lithofacies, faunas, and 18O geochemistry, does not suggest a close correlation to specific environmental conditions. The cause of formation of the GICE is enigmatic, but there is no direct evidence that it was coeval with a period of extensive glaciation in the Gondwana. The GICE is a powerful chemostratigraphic tool that is useful for detailed local and even transatlantic correlations.
This study investigates the calcareous nannofossil assemblage and composition of 62 field samples collected from a calcareous sedimentary sequence exposed in Mamburao, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines. The sequence consisting of foraminifera-rich, alternating beds of mudstones and fine- to medium-grained sandstones was subjected to stratigraphic logging and detailed calcareous nannofossil analysis. The nannofossils were used to interpret the biostratigraphic assignment of the sequence relative to the identified formations in the study area. Index calcareous nannofossil species reveal a Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene age (~1.67 to 4.13 Ma) of the sequence, which suggests it was formed from continuous sedimentation after the Miocene collision of the Palawan-Mindoro Block with the Philippine Mobile Belt. Based on its lithologic description and age, the sequence represents the northwest extension of the Balanga Formation, a sedimentary unit reported to be extensively distributed in southeast Mindoro.
Ojamaa kaevandus asub Eesti põlevkivimaardla keskosas, sellest põhja suunda jääb suletud Aidu karjäär ja Kohtla kaevandus. Ida-ja kagupool asetsevad suletud Sompa ja Viru kaevanduse. Põlevkivikihind koosneb kihtidest. Geoloogiliselt on antud igale kihile täht või tähtede ja numbri kombinatsioon vahemikus A – H. Mäenduses on kasutusel tootuskihi termin, kiht mida on võimalik ja kasulik kaevandada. Ojamaa tootuskihind on teatud mõttes anomaalne, sest kohati puudub C/D vahekiht ehk lubjakivikiht [2, 6]. Kaevandamine on mõnevõrra keerukam, sest kohati puuduvad kihtide selged piirid. Antud töös on peamise probleemina vaadeldud põlevkivi tükilisuse probleemi, kuna selle osakaalu tõstmine tagab suurema õli tootlikuse. Kuna Ojamaa kaevandus on kõige kaasaegsem, siin lahendab peaaegu kogu transpordi elektril töötav konveiertransport [20]. Põlevkivi transportiv konveier pole küll maailma pikim konveier, kuid oma pöörangute rohkuse tõttu on see Baltikumis üks omapärasemaid. Lintkonveier suudab transportida 700 tonni kaevist tunnis. Tooraine [14] teekond õlivabrikusse suundub kaevanduse tehnoalalt ligi 13 km pikkusel lõigul (Joonis 19-1) Kohtla-Järve õlivabrikusse [5]. Konveieril liikuv materjal peab olema õlivabriku jaoks sobiva tükisuurusega [8].
Redescription of the gastropod Euomphalus undiferus Schmidt, 1858 from the Upper Llandovery Rumba Formation of Estonia requires reinvestigation of the hitherto monotypic genus Kiaeromphalus Peel & Yochelson, 1976, originally described from the Rytteråker Formation of the Oslo Region. The Estonian K. undiferus and the Norwegian type species occur in similar depositional facies of Early Silurian age within the sedgwickii Graptolite Zone. The redescribed type specimen of Horologium kokeni Perner, 1907 from the late Silurian (Ludlow) of Bohemia shows strong morphological convergence with the two Baltic species, but Kiaeromphalus is distinguished by its lower rate of whorl expansion and less oblique aperture. Both genera were adapted to a sessile life, possibly on a soft substratum.
The revision of ostracodes originally established by Aurel Krause is continued and finished with the description of the following species: Primitia distans, P. elongata, P. cincta, P. excavata, P. papillata, P. plicata, P. schmidtii, Strepula limbata, S. simplex, Entomis obliqua, E. plicata, E. sigma, E. sigma ornata, E. simplex, E. trilobata, Beyrichia erratica, B. erratica granulosa, B. erratica acuta, B. harpa, and B. marchica lata. Three of these species are younger primary homonyms. For Beyrichia erratica granulosa Krause, 1891 a respective decision of the ICZN according to art. 23.9.5 is presently unnecessary, because it has an older synonym (Beyrichia grewingkii Bock, 1867), and Primitia excavata Krause, 1892 has a younger synonym (Laccochilina paucigranosa Jaanusson, 1957). The third homonym, Beyrichia marchica lata Krause, 1891, is considered as a nomen protectum. Entomis sigma ornata, and E. plicata are presently considered as nomina dubia. Since the type material of the three species P. distans, E. sigma, and E. simplex is apparently lost, neotypes are designated.
doi:10.1002/mmng.201300007
Abstract: This article describes the occurrence, bulk geochemistry and phenocryst compositions
of Caledonian volcanic ash beds (bentonites) in the sedimentary sections of the Palaeozoic Baltic
sedimentary basin. Four periods of volcanism are recognized in the eastern Baltic region: (a) Late
Sandbian with sources derived from the convergent margin between Avalonia and Baltica; (b) Late
Katian with sources from the margin of the Iapetus Ocean (Norwegian Caledonides); (c) Aeronian
(with extension into Telychian and Sheinwoodian) with sources in the Central European Caledonides;
and (d) Telychian to Early Ludlow with sources derived from the convergent margin
between Laurentia and Baltica (Norwegian Caledonides). Trace element compositions in bentonites
indicate mostly evolved source magmas of rhyolitic and dacitic composition. The volcanism
in the Aeronian is characterized by less evolved basaltic and trachyandesitic compositions. Sanidine
compositions indicate the existence of potassium-dominated (over sodium) source magmas
in Late Sandbian and from the late Homerian to Early Ludlow. During other periods both potassium-
and sodium-dominated source magmas occur. The presence of sodium-rich sanidine in many
bentonites combined with the scarcity of biotite suggests that the source magmas were waterundersaturated.
Biotite phenocrysts are mostly Mg-rich, but Fe-rich varieties occur in the Late
Sandbian and Early Telychian.
The established denudation chronology for south Derbyshire is questioned in the light of recent field and borehole evidence. It is argued that existing surfaces of faint relief are unlikely to be the direct result of early Pleistocene planation since they frequently occur on variable thicknesses of glacial drift. Furthermore, the subjacent bedrock floor is often irregular, bearing little or no relationship to the surface morphology. It is suggested that the level surface forms were produced in response to late-Pleistocene (Devensian) periglacial activity, and that their progressive declination towards the modern valley floors is merely indicative of the contemporary topography at the time of their formation. These views also imply that the previously held concept of a pre-glacial landscape that remained little changed until the present day is no longer tenable.
The objective of this study was to examine the possible natural sources of fluorides and boron in Silurian– Ordovician (S–O) aquifer system, as the anomaly of these elements has been distinguished in groundwater of western Estonia. Water–rock interactions, such as dissolution and leaching of the host rock, are considered to be the main source of high fluoride and boron concentrations in groundwater. Altogether 91 rock samples were analysed to determine if high F -and B levels in groundwater could be attributed to certain aquifer forming rock types. Fluorine and boron contents in limestones and dolomites vary from 100 to 500 mg/kg and 5 to 20 mg/kg, reaching up to 1,000 and 150 mg/kg in marlstones, respectively. K-bentonites, altered volcanic ash beds, are rich in fluorine (400– 4,500 mg/kg) and boron (50–1,000 mg/kg). Thus, clay-rich sediments, providing ion-exchange and adsorption sites for F -and B, are the probable sources of both elements in S–O aquifer system in western Estonia.
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