Simulation games and the study of the past: Classroom guidelines

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his goal is just so that people have fun playing the scenario. See also
http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=111105
[http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=111105] and
http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=111488
[http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=111488] from the same thread for a
discussion by the modding community on the “Historiography of Civilization.”
[#N15kptr1]
16.IfoneisusinganLMS(learningmanagementsystem)suchasWebCTorMoodle,
thereisapluginthatwillprovidethesesortsofmetricsautomaticallyondiscussion
board posts. See “SNA Diagrams,” Social Networks in Action, accessed July 31,
2012, http://research.uow.edu.au/learningnetworks/seeing/snapp/index.html
[http://research.uow.edu.au/learningnetworks/seeing/snapp/index.html]. [#N16kptr1]
17. Steven Borgatti, accessed July 31, 2012, http://www.analytictech.com
[http://www.analytictech.com]. [#N17kptr1]
18. The Year of the Four Emperors, accessed July 31, 2012,
http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=171164
[http://forums.civfanatics.com/showthread.php?t=171164].[#N18kptr1]
19. See Kee and Graham in this volume, chapter 13
[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/dh/12544152.0001.001/pastplayteachingandlearning
historywithtechnology?g=dculture;trgt=div2_ch13;view=fulltext;xc=1].[#N19kptr1]
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11.SimulationGamesandtheStudyofthePast:
ClassroomGuidelines
JeremiahMcCall[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/dh/12544152.0001.001/pastplay
teachingandlearninghistorywithtechnology?
g=dculture;trgt=p_McCall;view=fulltext;xc=1#p_McCall]
Whatdoesaneffectiveuseofasimulationgameinahistoryclasslooklike?Fortoo
many interested in the games and learning field, it is not entirely clear. While the
theory delineating the potential of games as learning tools is growing steadily, [1]
[#N1l] disciplinespecific practical applications are still too few and far between.

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Developing practical uses of games as learningtoolsrequires two components: the
formulation of disciplinespecific theoriesand classroomspecific implementations.
As anearly offeringin the areaof practicaluses for games,this chapter proposes a
theory for effectively using simulation games in the history classroom, a theory
developed through my training as a historian and experiences as a high school
history teacherwho usessimulationgames. Subsequently,this theory is translated
intopracticalguidelinesforusingsimulationsinahistoryclass.
TheImportanceofTakingRisks
The practicalguidelines offered here haveemergedfroma cyclical process over the
last five years of designing, implementing, refining, and even sometimes wholly
rejecting lessons involving simulation games. While simulation games offer
compelling learning opportunities, they come with significant challenges. Success
using simulationbased learning in these early stages of the medium progresses
equally as much from learning what not to do as what to do. Philosophically,
teachers learning to use simulation games as learning tools need to be willing to
engageinplay.Wemusttakerisks,
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wadingintothechaos,navigatingthemess,andimplementingasense oforderand
meaning that helps students learn how to study the past. We must be willing to
makemistakes and acceptfailures,forlearning from mistakesenablesusto design
evermorecompellingandeffectivelessonsaboutthestudyofthepast.
How does this work in practice? Accepting several important principles can help
empower teachers to experiment, take risks, and make mistakes. First, teachers
must come to see themselves as the expert guides rather than the sources of all
worthwhileinformationandarbitersofwhatistrueorfalse.Second,historymustbe
approached as a discipline that embodies a set of core skills, not solely or even
primarilyasetofcontent.Amongtheseskillsaretheabilitytoanalyzeandevaluate
evidence,sequenceideas,andformcompellingwrittenandoralarguments.Third,a
maingoalofhistoryteachersistocreatelearningenvironmentswherestudentscan
enga ge interesting source materials, analyze them, and construct formal responses
to theminwritten, oral, and digital media. In thiscontext, so longasstudents are
engagedandtaskedtohonetheseskills,asimulationbasedlessonwillnottrulybea
failureevenwhenthereisroomforimprovement.

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TheAdvantagesofSimulationGames
Thereisgoodreasontotakeriskswheresimulationsareinvolved.Simulationgames
provide educators powerful tools that offer particular strengths for teaching the
authentic skills of a historian, not to mention familiarity with twentyfirstcentury
media.Quitesimply,theadvantagesofsimulationgamesforpromotingmeaningful
study of the past demand concrete and effective classroom applications. The first
step to developing this argument is to ground the key terms. At its broadest, a
simulationisadynamicand,tosome necessaryextent, simplifiedrepresentation of
one ormorerealworldprocessesorsystems.Intothiscategory fall agreatnumber
of analog and digital models of biological, physical, and chemical processes and
systems. There are also interactive trainers, whose primary function is to prepare
participantsto functioneffectivelyin realworldtasks:flight simulations,airtraffic
controlsimulations,andbusinesssimulationsaresomeofthebestknownexamples
in thiscategory. [2] [# N2l] A game, on the other hand, to paraphrase the definition of
KatieSalenandEricZimmerman,isarulebasedsysteminwhichplayersundergoa
conflictorcompetitioninanattempttoachieveaquantifiablegoal,suchaswinning
orlosing. [3][#N3l]So,asimulationgameisagamethatfunctionsasadynamicmodel
of one or more aspects of the real world. A number of commercial and nonprofit
computergamesfallinto
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thiscategory, strategy gamesthat place the player in historical roles, ranging from
traders and subsistence farmers, to rulers and generals. The commercial game
Civilization, for example, tasks players with exploring and colonizing a digitally
rendered landscape, while the free, browserbased Ayiti challenges players to
manage a family’s economy in an impoverished country. These games, indeed all
simulationgames,inviteplayerstoexploreandmanipulatedigitalworldsdefinedby
representationsofrealworldgeography,structures,institutions,andinhabitants.
The educational advantages historical simulation games can offer may best be
thoughtofasadvantagesofimmersionandprovocation.Whenplayingasimulation,
asopposedtousingotherformsofinstruction,alearnercanbecomeimmersedina
virtualrepresentationofthepastand,indoingso,beprovokedtoconsiderhowand
why humanslived,madechoices, and actedthewaytheydidinthepast.Theseare
insights about the systemic contexts in which people lived, which is really just
another wayofsaying thenetworksofobligations,necessities,anddesiresthatlink

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individualstotheenvironmentandtotherestofhumansociety.Itisalltooeasyfor
students and teachers to forget the fundamental realities of the past that shaped
decisions and actions. People of the past acted in physical and spatial contexts,
securingfood, walking places, and working toobtaintheir basicneeds and, ideally,
gainsomecomforts.Tolookatitanotherway,theylivedand acted,asdoweall,as
parts of systems. These past people were both influenced by and influenced the
systems in which they lived and operated. When thestudy of the pastistreated as
simplyasetofestablishedfactsandinterpretationstobelearned,itbecomesfartoo
easytodivorcethepeopleofthepastfromtheirphysical,spatial,andsocialsystems
andfromreasonableconsiderationsofcauseandeffect.
Simulationgamescanhelpbridgethisconceptual dividebetweenhumansandtheir
systemic contexts because the games themselves are interactive systems. The
principle is straightforward: to analyze a system, use a roughly analogous, but
simplified,modelofthesystem,whichisjustwhatasimulationgameis.Themoving
parts, as it were,ofthe game bearacloseranalogy to the moving partsofthe past
than other representations of the past, whether speech, text, videos, images, or
discussion.Thesesimulationsplacestudentplayersintodynamicmodelsofthepast
where problems must besolved and challenges overcome. [4] [# N4l] Th e player s must
make choices based on limited information and experience the effect of those
choices onthegameworldandtheir assumedpersonainit. Such simulationgames
provide a virtual systemic context, a source of experience that provides learners a
rich frame of reference when considering the motives and actions of people in the
past.Theyprovidestudentswithvisual,interactivemodelsandexperiences,
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however vicarious, of how theirown decisionsinfluenced, for example, thesuccess
ofatrade,thedevelopmentofaculture,thecreationofanempire,ortheoutcomeof
abattle.
Perhaps because simulations provide the opportunity to study systems from the
inside as an active participant, theyare also abletoprovoke students to raisedeep
and meaningful historical questions. Though no firm conclusions can be drawn
without formal research, important considerations suggest simulation games may
actually inspire more students to ask a variety of deep historical questions better
than other forms of media. Why might this be the case? Consider that research

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clearly suggests students alltoo easily accept what they read in texts at face value.
Thisis especiallytrue when reading from atextbook. Atthehighschoollevel,even
the beststudentreadersoften havea tendency to read without offering the levelof
challengeandcriticismrequiredforahistorian.Toputitanotherway,theyreadfor
informationratherthantodiscernapointofview. [5][#N5l] Thishabitcancontinueto
beaproblemwithcollegereaders.Withoutahighlevelofcommitmenttoanalyzing
theinformationreceivedanditssource,itisexceedinglydifficulttoraisesubstantial
questions about a text and its implications. If it is quite normal for students to
accept most texts they read at face value, will they actively critique the ideas
presented by their teachers in class? A simulation, on the other hand, may simply
notbeperceivedasquiteasauthoritativeasourceofinformation.Attheveryleastit
is harder to treat a simulation as a text that must simply be read for facts. It may
alsobethecasethat,becausesimulationgamesprovideimmersive,richaudiovisual
and tactile experiences with numerous opportunities for students to play and
process at their own pace—including sidetracks—there may simply be more going
on, for lack of a better phrase, to provoke questions in the time spent playing a
simulation game than during a comparable amount of time reading a text or
listeningtoalecture.Perhaps,too,beingputintheroleofadecisionmakercausesa
playertobemoreawareandmore engagedinthe historicalenvironmentpresented
bythegame,andthisleadstotheformationofdeepquestions.Again,itwillrequire
substantialresearchtotesttheseimplications,buttheyareworthnoting.Atthevery
least, it can be said that simulations can be harnessed to inspire deep historical
questioning.
It is worth noting that nowhere in this chapter is the use of simulation games
advocated because they are fun. This is quite purposeful, but deserves an
explanation. Certainly, simulations can be incredibly engaging, it is a good feeling
whenstudentsareenjoyingalesson,andcreatinganeducationalatmospherewhere
studentswanttocometoclassisaworthygoal.Nevertheless,thereareseriousflaws
with using the idea of fun as a criterion for effective lessons, particularly lessons
involvingsimulationgames.First,funisboth
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relative and broad in scope. Suppose a student was asked if her sessions playing,
observing, and intensively critiquing asimulation game werefun. Whatshouldthe
student useforcomparisonwhenanswering?Spendingtimewithfriendsoutsideof
school? Ridinga rollercoaster?Watching amovie? Theseallcanbeconsideredfun

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and arguably more fun than having tocritique a game. Really, by thestandards of
fun playing a game without being required to take notes and present a critique is
generallysuperior.Thesecondproblemisthatfunisnotequivalenttoeducationally
valuable. Teachers know this. Exercises for developing effective analytical writing
skills, for example, or researching arguments and advancing them in a logically
compellingorder,arehighlyvaluable,yetnoteacher—atleastnoneIknowof—asks
their students if they would enjoy writing a paper, or whether they found the
experience of writing a paper to be fun; it is simply beside the point. Finally, and
thisis aparticularlyimportant point,byno meansdoeseverystudentlook forward
to the idea of playing and critiquing a simulation game. Some find it highly
intimidating;othersprefer the lecture wheretheycanmore easily“checkout”than
in a simulation exercise. Certainly, simulation games can engage. They can hold
attention, create intriguing and interesting situations, and provoke interesting
questionsandideas.Whereengagementisadesirablefeatureofasuccessfullesson,
however,funisnot.Teacherswhochoosetousesimulationgamesprimarilybecause
they are fun and expect to find all their students enthralled are both setting
themselves up for disappointment and missing the point. Simulation games have
compellingfeaturesaseducationaltools;whethertheyarefunisnotatissue.
TheQualitiesofEffectiveSimulationGames
Despite the great potential of simulation games in history education, there is a
significant caveat teachers must remember. Many of the most viable simulation
games are commercial products designed to entertain, not teach, and this shapes
their presentation of the past. [6] [#N6l] Those that are not designed primarily for
commercial purposes, on the other hand, may be particularly polemical in
promoting their point of view. The teacher considering a game for classroom use
needs to consider the characteristics that qualify a historically themed game as a
simulation beforeusing agame inclass.Ultimately,though,theteachermust table
thethorniertheoreticalissuesofwhatfeatures constituteasimulationandconsider
not whether a certain game is a simulation game, but how effective a simulation
gameitis.
Bytheirverynature,simulation gameswillyield differentoutcomeseachtimethey
areplayed.Consequently,theyshouldnotbeemployedasstatic
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descriptors of factualdetails about the past. Validsimulation gamesneed not, and
indeed cannot, represent each and every detail of the past accurately. There are
better tools available for such a task. Text or image, for example, is often better
suitedtoillustrating,say,howa specific Romancitylooked atonespecificmoment
intime.Thesimulationgameoffers,ontheotherhand,amoreorlessbroadmodel
of how that Roman city functioned. Choose the learning tool based on the desired
learning outcome. One cannot expect a simulation of a war to yield the same
outcomeasthewaritselforacitybuildertolimiturbanplansonlytothosefoundin
the past. Broadly speaking, for the outcometobe the sameas that in thepast, the
causes, includingthe decisionsmade, mustbe the same.Ifasimulation gameisto
allow players choice at all, there must be the possibility for outcomes that did not
occurinthepast.
So if it is not an exact digital reconstruction of the past, which incidentally is a
physicalandphilosophicalimpossibility, what exactlymakesavideo game validfor
classroom use as a simulation? Primarily this: its core gameplay must offer
defensible explanations of historical causes and systems. The idea of a defensible
explanation is important when handling simulations. Arguments accepted by one
historianorgenerationofhistoriansareoftenrejectedbythenext.Whenitcomesto
thecriticalelementsofhistory,whyandhowthingshappen,therearenofacts,only
conventions.Conventions,inturn,arenothingmorethanargumentsthathaveheld
uptocriticismduetothestrengthoftheirexplanatorypowerandthestrengthofthe
supporting evidence. There is always room for a historical convention to be
undermined; indeed it is a timehonored tradition in history to challenge
conventions.Ifthis is trueof the bestarguments of historians,itis equally trueof
the interpretations of the past embedded in video games. To be considered a
hist orical simulation, then, a game does not need to offer an interpretation that is
perfect,whateverthatmightmean,butonethatisreasonablybasedontheavailable
evidence. Focusing on defensible arguments rather than correct arguments
promotes the idea so critical for training flexible, creative thinkers, that when it
comes to humans interpreting andmakingmeaningofthe past,there arefarmore
shades of gray and maybes than certainties. Students need to be encouraged,
therefore,toconsider whichmodelsin asimulationcanandcannotbesustainedby
historical evidence. So long as a game has enough historical merit in its core
explanations that students will be challenged to critique its validity, it is worth
consideration for classroom use. Indeed, inaccuracies in the game serve a useful
function:theygive students anopportunitytochallenge, just astheaccuraciesgive
themachancetosupport.

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Onceagameisselectedforclassthathasthecoredefensiblemodels,thenextstepis
tobeginconsideringthehistoricalproblemsposedbythe
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gameinordertoanticipatethetypesofresourcesandsupportstudentswillneedto
analyzethegame.Thesefallintotwocategories.Thefirstcategoryencompassesthe
hist orical issues modeled by gameplay itself. These are the problems agents in the
pastfacedthatarepartofthesimulation’scoreplay.Theycorrespondtothecontent
ofahistorycourse.Themostimportantoftheseisgenerallyhowtoassessandmake
tradeoffs. A tradeoff exists whenever there are multiple decisions the player can
make,thedecisionscannotallbesatisfiedsimultaneously,andthereis noclearcut
correct priority, but rather a variety of priorities that can shift depending on the
goalsoftheplayer.Simulationgamestendtorevolvearoundthismechanic.
The second kind of problem is one of interpretation. These are the metalevel
problems that must be considered when using simulation games effectively. If
students are not asked to reflect on the accuracy of the models in the simulations
theyplay,theteacherhassimplyreplacedoneauthoritariansourceoftruth,whether
a textbook, film, primary source, or the teacher, with another: the game. This will
not do.The greatstrength of a foundation in history is that it imparts theskillsto
critique and question claims to the truth, not to accept others’ claims without
substantiation.Hence,teachersshouldencouragestudentstoconsidertheproblems
ofinterpretationinagame,notjusttheproblemsofcontent.
Identifyingagame’sinterpretationofthepastisnomoreanaturalexerciseformost
students than unearthing the bias of a primary source or the underlying
assumptions of a modern author. Concrete guidelines, therefore, are needed to
scaffold students as they examine a simulation’s interpretation. The following
questionsareatthecoreofuncoveringanysimulation’spointofview:
Whatis the roleofthe player in the gameworld andwhat are thechallenges the
gameworldpresentstotheplayer?
What actions can the player take or not take to overcome the challenges? What
resourcesdoestheplayerhavewithwhichtoovercomechallenges?

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Whatare thetradeoffsin thegamewhen itcomestoactionsand thespendingof
resources?
What strategies or actions lead to success or failure and how are success and
failuremeasuredinthegame?
Agame reveals its designer’svisionof the past byexpressingsuccessandfailurein
certain terms—a number ofvotes,anamountofmoney,a certain population size—
anddictatingthetypesofactionstheplayer’shistoricalpersonacantake.
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FromTheorytoPractice:AClassroomCaseStudy
Now that the theoretical value of simulation games as interpretations has been
surveyed, it is time to demonstrate the theory by illustrating the practical steps
needed to design and implement simulationbased lessons. In particular, the
essentialstepscanbereducedtosix:
1.Selectagamewithdefensiblecoregameplay.
2.Select resources and design supplemental lessons that correspond to the
historicalproblemsposedbythegame.
3.Allocatetimetotrainstudentstoplay.
4.Arrangestudentsandstructuretimetoallowforobservationnotes.
5.Provideopportunitiesforanalyticalexercisesinvolvingthegame.
6.Cap the experience with opportunities for reflection and for critique of the
simulation.
The success of these steps requires that the teacher serves as an expert guide,
activelymonitoring students’progress, posingquestions,andoffering assistanceas
needed. [7][#N7l]
The stepsoutlinedabovewillbeillustratedthrough referencetocurrentpracticein

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a 2010 unit on Roman history studied by two ninthgrade classes from Cincinnati
Country Day School. As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the practices
currently employed in these classes have emerged from several years of design,
implementation, amixtureofsuccesses and failures,andrefinement.Thesteps are
reasonably well tested and provide an effective starting structure for lessons
involvingsimulations.Theparticulargameswillchange,butthebasicstructurewill
remainserviceableforsometime.Still,thesestepsarebynomeansthelastwordon
the subject; more effective strategies will emerge in response to further classroom
practice.
Theyear2010markedthe fifthyearimplementingsimulationbasedlessonsforthe
ninthgrade Romanhistory unit.Thegoal ofthis iterationwastobuild on smaller
scale past simulation game experiences and develop a more substantial
implementation. Previous simulation game exercises in the class had served as
supplementalcriticalthinkingexercises.ThestudentsplayedtheBattleoftheTrebia
in the gameRome: Total War, forexample, readthe accountsofthe battle passed
on by the ancient historians Polybius and Livy, and wrotecritiques of the accuracy
ofthegamebasedonthesesources.By2009thishad developedtothepointwhere
students could choose to play either Rome: Total War or CivCity: Rome and
research and write a critical essay. While these were worthwhile exercises in
historical methodology, theyseemed to beonly loosely connectedtotherest ofthe
unitonRoman
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history. The Hannibalic Wars were referenced in the class but, due to time
constraints,notstudiedinanydepth;thesamecouldbesaidforRomanwarfareand
Roman city life. Essentially, students were exercising their skills as historians but
notfocusingonatopicthatwasinanywayintegraltothisparticularunitonRoman
history.Thegoalofthe2010implementation,then,wastointegratethesimulations
morecompletelyinto theunit. In other words, the unitwas redesigned so that the
topics in the simulation games were made central. This way the advantages of
simulations toteachsystemswouldbeintegraltotheunitofstudy.Therearemany
games available on Roman history, but not a great breadth of topics. Essentially,
therearegamesthatfocusonRomanwarfareandimperialism,andgamesthatfocus
on Roman cities and the economy. Out of these, two games in particular were
selectedto serveas thecore classroomsimulations:Rome:Total War and CivCity:
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Weretheselegitimate to use as classroom simulations? To determine thisrequires
considering the coregameplay of each,the firststep in designinganylesson based
on simulation games. The Creative Assembly’s R ome: Total War is a hybrid turn
based and realtime strategygame that runsonWindowsbasedPCs. [8] [#N8 l] In the
turnbased campaign mode, the player assumes leadership over one of three
aristocratic Roman factions: the Brutii, Julii, or Scipii—it is possible to play non
Romanfactions,butthisoptionwasnotextendedtostudentsfor theclass exercise.
EachfactionstartsincontroloftwoItaliancities.Theplayermustmanagethecities
under her control,constructing buildings thatadd to the economy, happiness, and
growthofthe settlement.Additionalbuildingsdeterminethetypesofmilitaryunits
that can be levied in the city. Using these cities as bases, the player conducts
diplomacy with, and campaigns against, any number of ancient powers as she
chooses.Campaignsare carried outon astylized topographical map of theancient
Mediterranean world, where armies, spies, and diplomats are each represented as
individual figures. The Senate of Rome, a faction controlled by the computer, also
issues missions to the player; these missions consist of military actions, ranging
from blockading ports to sacking enemy cities. When the player successfully
completes missions in the time allotted, her family’s reputation within the Senate
increasesandfamilymemberscanwin key politicaloffices. Iftheplayerignoresor
failstocompletetheSenate’smissions,shemaybebranded arebelandforcedinto
civilwaragainsttheRomanSenate.
Whenanarmyattemptstoenteraspaceoccupiedbyanenemyarmyorcity,abattle
ensues. These are conducted in realtime mode. In a pitched battle, the player
beginsbydeployinghistroopsononesideofabattlefieldwithterrainrangingfrom
desertstotreesandmountains.Inasiegethe
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deployment takesplacearounda settlement. Either way,the player knowsnothing
about the placements of the enemy army except that they will be deployed
somewhereonthe opposite sideofthemap. Afterdeployment, the positionsofthe
unitsinbotharmiesarerevealed,andthebattlebegins.Usinghismouse,theplayer
issuesorderstoindividualunitsofinfantry,cavalry,missiletroops,andskirmishers.
Units may march, wheel, change the depth and facing of their formations, attack,
and retreat. Orders are not carried out instantaneously; for a unit to change
formation, for example,the individual soldier models in the unit(ranging from40
to 240 models per unit) must shuffle from their current positions into the new

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positions. Individual units will fight so long as their level of morale remains high
enough.Ifsubjectedtoenoughcasualties,harassment,ordanger—realorperceived
—a unit willrout and flee the field. Once all of the player’s or computer’sunitsare
dest royed or in flight, the battle is over and the army with units remaining on the
fieldisthewinner.
There are certainly problems with the game’s accuracy, but this is true of all
simulation games: being too simplistic in places, incorporating inaccurate details,
andallowingtheplayeranextremelevelofcontrolthatarealRomangeneralwould
havetradedhisfavoritewarhorsetopossess. [9][#N9l] Yetmanyofthecoremechanics
in the game, while not flawless, are historically defensible. The campaign mode
illustrates in broad brushstrokes the historical constraints on Roman imperialism.
Communication and travel are slow, too slow given the length of game time
encompassedineachturn.Theimportantpartisthattravelclearlytakestimeinthe
gameasitshouldinthepreindustrialworld, particularly when theterrainisrough.
Diplomatsmustjourneytothecitiesofthe player’s rivalsto negotiatedeals,orvice
versa, reinforcing theidea that, in the ancient world, communication took place at
thespeedahumanoranimalwalked.Playingthecampaignmode,onegetsthesense
thatafair amountoffinancialmanagementandplanningwasnecessaryto support
Roman military campaigns—complementary to the historical reality that armies
wereexpensiveandrequiredtheflowoftaxmoney.
The game also has a solid model of ancient battle. The unit types available are
generally historically accurate, consisting of various formsofinfantry,cavalry, and
missiletroops.Theformationsoflightinfantryandheavyinfantrydiffer,asdothose
of light and heavy cavalry. As an added touch of realism, units move as groups of
individuals,and it takesa fair amount of shufflingfor aunit,once commanded, to
changeformation.Theinclusionofmoraleasacriticalfactoronthebattlefieldisan
especiallynicetouch.Eachunithasamoralelevelandisrenderedinoperativewhen
that level dips too low. The idea that morale, not casualties, was the most critical
factorin
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theoutcomeofancientbattlesisanimportantcomponentofunderstandingancient
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CivCity:RomecomplementsthemilitaryandimperialfocusofRome:TotalWarby
concentrating on managing and supporting the lives of Roman citydwellers.
CivCity: Rome is a game of systems. [10] [#N10l] As governor and city planner, the
playermanagesanddevelopsaRomancity.Foodproduction,trade,watersupplies,
entertainment, defense, taxation,and anumberof otheraspects ofurbanlife must
be carefullymanagedto builda profitable, growing city.Essentially,thekeytask is
to create a net revenue stream through trade and property taxes. Both require a
sizeable and happy population, which in turn requires desirable housing within
walking distanceofavarietyofgoodsandservices. Housesbeginasshacksandcan
evolve into villas when their inhabitants have nearby access to necessities and
luxuries ranging from water and meat, to clothing, education, and entertainment.
Access to water is provided by constructing a nearby well or cistern. All other
productsareprovidedbyshops,eachsellingonetypeofgood. Asahouse evolvesit
providesgreatertaxrevenues.
The underlying economy of the game functions using what is sometimes called a
daisychainmodel:twoormorebuildingsworkinconjunctiontoproduceafinished
foodproductoritemfromrawmaterials.So,forexample,wheatisgrownonawheat
farm , ground into flour by a mill, and baked into bread. The digital inhabitants of
houseswithinwalkingdistanceof thebakerywillgettheir food there;accesstothe
bakery,inturn,isoneofthelowerlevelrequirementsfordesirablehousing.Surplus
bread is stored in the city’s granaries and becomes part of the general food supply
forthecity.Treesfromforests,togiveasecondexample,areturnedintolumberby
lumber camps. Bed makers and cabinet makers construct theirrespectiveproducts
fromthelumberandsellthemtothepopulace.Surplusgoodsofthissortarestored
in the city’s warehouses. Trade occurs when the player constructs the necessary
building chains to create, store, and trade goods abroad through a trade center or
dockyard.
Noneoftheseendeavorswillsucceed,however,ifthegeneralpopulationisnotkept
happy,aseparateissuefromcatering tothedesiresofindividualpropertydwellers.
Measured on a scale from 100 to 100, the happiness of the population increases
whenenoughinhabitantshaveaccesstosufficientfood,housing,jobs,services,and
amenities.Conversely,alackoftheselowershappiness.Whenthelevelofhappiness
is positive, the city will attract immigrants; negative happiness causes citizens to
abandonthecity.
CivCity hasitsshareofflaws. [11] [#N11l] Themost egregiousofthese is the command

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economy.Asonemightexpectfromacitybuildinggame,theplayerhastheultimate
decisionsaboutwhatisconstructed,whatisproduced,and
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what is sold. Certainly, emperors and governors worked to secure grain supplies,
provide entertainment, and maintain infrastructures for urban populations, but
there was a sizeable market element at work in the economics of ancient cities. A
second problem, though one more easily overlooked, is that buildings are
constructed instantaneouslywithout laboror supplies,thoughthey do costmoney.
On a more general level, though, the core models are defensible. The idea, for
example, that Roman cities were filled with consumers whose needs had to be
satisfiedtoacertainlevelinorderforthecitytothriveisreasonable.
The g eneral s upply mo dels are  also rea sonable . The pri nciple t hat inha bitants  in a
citywalked orusedanimalstotransport goodsis well reflected.Resources mustbe
provided within walking distance of a house for the house’s inhabitants to benefit
from it. Roads speed travel, making it easier for traders and consumers to obtain
moregoodsmorequickly.Furthermore,theprinciplethatallproductsundergoaset
of steps from raw material to finished good is also well represented. Overall, the
illustrationthattheneedsandwantsofRomanurbaniteshadtobemetforacityto
bepeacefulandprosperousissound.
Both of these games contain some defensible explanations of human activity and,
thus,wereessentiallysuitablefortheninthgradeclass.Thisallsoundsverygoodon
paper,butsomeeducators examiningthesegames mightreasonably objectthatthe
criteriaappliedherearetooforgiving.Inasense,onemightconcede,CivCity:Rome
has a defensible economic model in that consumers’ needs are met by businesses
that gain their products from manufacturers who extract raw materials from the
environment,butonlyinasense.Thisisageneralmodelatbest,somewillsay,and
outweighed by the sense of a command economy presented by the game. Or, one
mightobject,Rome:TotalWar hasareasonablebattlefieldmodel, butthefactthat
players can create hodgepodge armies composed of troop types from the republic
fightingalongsidetrooptypesoftheempireandplayerscanpersonallygoverncities
as a family faction leader, not an agent of the government, is taking too many
liberties.

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Twoconsiderationsare criticalinthe rationaleforusinggamessuchasthese.First,
history itself is not a static, perfected representation of the past. It is a set of
meaningful and defensible interpretations. History students, therefore, are taught
bestwhentheyaretaughttheskillsandmethodsofthehistorian,notsaturatedwith
alistofevents,causes,and effectsalreadyestablishedbytheauthorities.Theflaws
in a game cannot be overlooked. Quite the contrary: largescale flaws in a game
provideexcellentopportunitiesforstudentstopracticetheirskillsofcriticism.Ifthe
only flaws in a game are subtle minutiae, students will not have any reasonable
opportunitytooffer
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critiques, the core of the historian’s practice. Better still, one person’s flaw is
another person’s accurate portrayal. So, for example, while one student analyzing
the game concluded that the command economy in CivCity: Rome is a
fundamentallyflawedmodelfortheearlyempire,anotherfocusingonthelatethird
century notedthatDiocletianfixedpricesand even mandatedthatsonsfollowtheir
fathersinthesameprofessions.Second,theteachermustserveasthecoreresource
and facilitator to make sure that the necessary kinds of criticism take place. If
students do not, on their own, notice the command economy in the game or the
unhistorical units, the teacher must pose questions and provide opportunities for
studentstoengageinthenecessarycritiques.
Havingestablishedthatthesesimulationgamesweresuitableforclassroomuse,the
nextstep was to determinethe sortsofproblems they pose. This would dictate the
kinds of documentary evidence, support materials, and related learning activities
thatneededtobearranged.ProblemsofcontentinRome:TotalWarinclude:
howtoovercomechallengesposedbygeography,limitedresources,andpersonnel
todevelopalastingempire;
how to weigheconomic, political, and militaryalternatives in the development of
anempireandchoosebetweencompetinggoals;
how to deploy and employ different troop types in battle to take advantage of
terrain,maximizemorale,andachievemilitaryvictories.

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CivCity:Romepresentsitsownsetofhistoricalproblems,including:
how to organize city development so that city inhabitants receive the necessary
suppliesandmaterialstocarryouttheirlivesandprofessions;
howtosatisfythesubsistenceneeds,andhigherleveldesiresofcityinhabitantsin
economicallyeffectiveways;
how to foster an effective manufacturing, trade, and supply network using
preindustrialformsofproduction,transport,andcommunication.
Asfarastheproblemsofinterpretation,theyarenearlylimitless.Anyelementofthe
gamescanbesubjectedtoscrutiny.
Tosupportthestudyofthesecontentproblems,asetofsupplementallectures,core
readings,andother supportingmedia shouldbepreparedcorrespondingto thekey
content areas in the simulations. In the case of these two simulations the lecture
topicsselectedwereanoverviewofRomanhistory,the constitution oftherepublic,
thealliancesystem,aristocraticcompetition,urbanplanning,anddailylifeincities.
Excerptsofmodern
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secondary source readings provided additional detail on each of these topics. In
addition, a set of relevant ancient primary and secondary source excerpts was
collected: the writings of Polybius and Livy, the letters of the governor Pliny,
epitaphs for working women in cities, and the like. It is beyond the scope of this
chaptertogointothedetailsofgatheringtheseresources,butitisworthnotingthat
the Internet contains many if not all the original source materials needed for
anything short of a professionallevel analysis of these topics. Above all, students
needtoengageavarietyofrichsourcesofevidenceastheyplay.Althoughachapter
like this understandably focuses on the games, the time that should be spent
studyingthesesourcesofevidenceisacriticalpartofanysimulationlesson.
With the content problems and supporting resources relatively set, the remaining
learningobjectivesneededtobedeterminedandtheappropriatelessonsdesignedto
achieve those objectives. In the case of the Roman history unit, these learning

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objectives focused on several core skills critical to the discipline of history and, in
somecases,futureprofessionalsuccessintheworld:
practicingcollaborationtosolveproblems;
developingwritingfluencythroughregularpracticeofwrittenexpression;
forming meaningfulhistoricalquestionsaboutRomanhistory; thinking aboutthe
worldoftheRomansandhowtheybehavedinit;
conductingresearchbasedonthehistoricalquestionsposed;
composing a formal essay evaluating the accuracy of the interpretations in the
simulations;checkingtheinformationinmultiplesourcesagainsteachother.
These are far from the only things of value students can learn while studying
historicalsimulations,buttheyareacoresetofhighlyimportantskills.
Learning objectives established, the next step was to plan for productive play and
observation sessions that would lay the foundation for later research exercises.
Thereareseveralbasicstepsinplanningeffectivesimulationexperiences.Thefirst,
alreadymentioned,isselectingrichsourcesofevidenceandsupplementalresources.
Theothersare:
trainingstudentstoplaythegame;
formingplayandobservationteams;
promotingandfacilitatingobservation;
fosteringreflectionandanalysis.
It is important to trace the progression of experiments and reasoning that led to
thesesteps,particularlytheimperativetobeginbytrainingstudentswell
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to play the game. Since the ultimate goal of history teachers is to get students to
analyze,synthesize,andevaluate,itcanbeverytemptingtorushstudentslearninga
game and move them quickly into analysis. While I assumed, in my first uses of
simulation gamesin the classroom,thatstudents wouldneedsometime tobecome
familiarwith the game,I greatly underestimatedthe actualamountoftimeneeded
and triedto jump quickly into analysis—say,afterfortyfiveminutesofexposureto
the game. Time has demonstrated that rushing students through this training can
undermine the effectivenessof the whole lesson. Resisting the temptation to hurry
on to the analysis is critical. Students must be taught to play the game and given
sufficient opportunity to do so before they are asked to analyze and evaluate the
game’s models. The overall quality of the learning experience can be diminished
greatly byshortchanging thetimespentlearningtoplay thesimulation.Itisalltoo
often assumed that students under the age of, say, 25 are naturally disposed to
playingvideogames.Thisisasuspectassumptionatbest,butcertainlynotthecase
withhistoricalstrategygames,thecoregenreforsimulations.Somestudentssimply
donotplayvideogames,andskillmanipulatingacellphone,navigatingawebpage,
or communicating through Facebook is not the same thing. Many do play video
games, but they are console games like Left 4 Dead and Modern Warfare, which
emphasize fast reflexes, superior handeye coordination, and quick tactics rather
than the slowerpaced, managerial and strategic skills required by a historical
strategygame.
Perhaps most importantly, it is decidedly not the case that students will be
categoricallysooverjoyedtoplayasimulationgamethattheywillthrowthemselves
wholeheartedlyintothetaskoflearningtoplay.Thiswillbetrueofsomestudentsat
least. Some students would simply rather not play a simulation—though the same
could be said about writing a paper. They find the experience offers unsettling
challenges, requiringthemtoexercisea levelofindependenceandproblemsolving
to which they are unaccustomed, all the while concerned about how this activity
translatesintothegradestheywillearninclass.Thisismostoftenthecasewiththe
strongest traditional learners. Many, though hardly all, would rather sit through a
traditional lecture because they knowhowtoscore well ontestsandpapers in that
environment; conversely, a simulation game would challenge them to think in
different ways. This is a major reason why they should play simulation games: to
learntothinkflexibly.Indeed,oneofthevaluesofahistoryeducationistolearnto
challenge assumptions—others’ and one’s own; that includes assumptions about
what forms of media can be subjected to historical analysis. Expect, however, that
not all students will be enthusiastic. Under ordinary circumstances, though, how
regularly does or evenshouldateacher ask for the consensus of the classonevery

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singletopicofstudyand
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assessment?Simulationgamesarewellworthincludingintheclassroom.Iftheyare
incorporated primarily for entertainment reasons, however, rather than for their
relevantstrengthsaslearningtools,theteacherisinforadisappointment.
Since the potential appeal of simulations does not guarantee students will
wholeheartedly and easily learn to play, like any other skill in a class, playing a
particulargamemustbetaught.Althoughsomevideogameshaveexcellent builtin
tutorials, it is sometimes more effective to bypass the tutorials and devote one or
two classes to training students how to play directly. The scope of the tutorial
relative to the gameplay the teacher wants to emphasize, the available class time,
andthemotivationofstudentstolearnarethekeyfactorswhendecidingwhetherto
go with a game’s preexisting tutorials or to create a more tailored training
experience. The tutorial in Rome: Total War, for example, spends a great deal of
timefocusingontheparticularsofcommandingarmiesinbattles.Iftheemphasisin
class will be on the higher strategic level of play, the tutorial may effectively be
replacedby the teacher’sinstruction. Ifthe focusis on battlefield dynamics,on the
otherhand,thetutorialisagreattooltohelplearnthegame.Thebasicprinciplesof
CivCity: Rome, on the other hand, can probably be relayed more efficiently by a
teac her than by the game’s own tutorial. The bottom line, though, is that students
needtolearnthegamefairlywelltobeabletocritiqueit.
This principle has developed from the experiences of numerous classroom
implementations, including the most recent lessons using Rome: Total War and
CivCity:Rome.Forvariousreasons—asI recall,the lastminute disappearanceof a
projectorthatwould allowme toleadstudents byexamplethroughtheearlystages
of the game—the studentslearnedto play Rome:TotalWarthroughthetutorial. A
numberbecameboggeddownbythebattlefieldcomponent.Sincetheywerenotable
to save theirprogress inthe middle ofthe battletutorial,these students effectively
had tospend more than oneclasscompletingwhat ideallymighthavebeena forty
fiveminutetutorial.Ultimately,Ihadtoprovideafairamountofadditionalsupport
tohelpstudentsbecomecomfortablewithplayingthegame,supportthatmightwell
havebeenunnecessaryhadIdirectlytrainedstudents.Incontrast,studentsreceived
direct training in CivC ity: Rome and were clearly far more comfortable with that
game. Therewere assuredly otherfactors at work—there always are—but erring on

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thesideofprovidingformaltraining,whilenotalwaysessential,willtendtoproduce
themostconsistentresults.
Whatdoesformaltraininglooklikeinpractice?Thenumberofstudents,theirages,
theirabilities,andtheirlevelsofmotivationwilldeterminethefeeloftheclassroom.
It is best, however, to err on the side of creating a highly structured training
environment;thiswillhelpkeepmorerambunctious
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studentsontaskwhilealsoprovidingextrasupportforthosewhoneedreassurance.
Firs t, run the game on a computer that has a projected display. Start the game on
the easiest setting and provide explicit instructions for playing the game. While it
can be helpful to have students observe the game and take notes before playing
along, most will not begin to learn how to play until they actually have to do so
themselves. This can be accomplished in a structured fashion by having students
followalong ontheirowncomputersandcarry outtheinstructionsexecutedbythe
teacher.
These instructions will vary from game to game and class to class, but there are
somecommonelements.First,introducestudentstothebasicgoalsofthegame.In
Rome: Total War, the general goal is to complete the missions assigned by the
Senate and, in general, expand one’s empire by capturing enemy territories. In
CivCity: Rome, on the other hand, the general mission is to build a city that
generates a positive revenue stream. It is not always immediately apparent to
students what they should be doing in a game. Providing general goals keeps
students focused on gameplay and enables them to play more independently.
Second,instructstudentsinbasicgamemechanicsandprovidesimplestrategiesfor
asuccessful starttothegame.InRome:Total Warthismeans surveyingthe basics
of building up cities, recruiting soldiers, maneuvering armies, and conducting
sieges. In CivCity: Rome this means training students to identify and create the
variousdaisychainsthatsupporttheeconomyandprovidenecessitiestodeveloping
residential areas. Third, provide students with general problemsolving strategies
and resources.Theseincludetheirpeers,webforumsdevotedto the game,andthe
game manual. If available, it can be particularly helpful to set up an online
discussionforumusingMoodleorsomeotheronlinecontentmanagementsystemso
thatstudentscanaskandanswerquestionsinaformatthatthewholeclasscansee.
Dependingonthemotivationofstudents,itdoesnothurttoincentivizeorexplicitly

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requirepostingquestionsandanswersontheforum.Theamountoftimedevotedto
training will vary. With games of moderate complexity like Rome: Total War a nd
CivCity: Rome, plan for about two hours of training. This can be portioned in
differentamountsofclassandoutofclasstime,astimeandresourcesallow.
After students learn the basics of the game, they should shift into the observation
phase. The goalof this phase is to create alablike environment in which students
canobservehowthesimulationworksandmakenotesaccordingly.Tothisend,itis
oftenagoodideatoformteams ofthreefortheobservationphaseratherthanhave
studentsplaythegameindividually,atleastwhenplaytakesplaceduringclasstime.
In this kind of grouping one student plays the game while the other two take
observation notes;aftera certain amountofplaytime, the team members exchange
tasks.Thiskind
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of setup encourages the taking of effective notes and prevents an individual from
gettingtooengrossedintheplaytoreflect;itisthemethodthatwasusedmostoften
in the Roman history unit. With most students,itis agood ideato stop classroom
gameplay every twenty to thirty minutes and spend five minutes catching up on
notes. Children and adults alikecaneasilygettoo engrossedina game to stop and
makenoteswithoutprompting.Thepointofthewholesimulationexercise,however,
isnotforstudentstobeentertained;itisforthemtolearn.
Providingguidelinescanenhancethequalityofobservations.Sometimesthisisjust
amatterofintroducing the leading topics students should use to focustheir notes.
Somegeneralexamplessuitedformostsimulationgamesinclude:
the role of the player in the game world and the challenges the game world
presents;
theactionstheplayertakestoovercomethechallenges;
the tradeoffs in the game between competing actions and the spending of finite
resources;
the strategies and actions thatlead to successor failure and themeasurement of

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successandfailureinthegame.
Certain games, especially short webbased games, lend themselves to a system
where the player records the choices she makes every turn, rationales for each
choice, and the results of the choices. Rome: Total War and CivCity: Rome are
complex enough, however, to justify taking regular pauses from the game even
thoughstudentsweregenerallyarrangedintrios ofoneplayerandtwonotetakers.
Thesepausesemphasizetheneedtoobserveandrecordtheplayexperience.
Afterloggingsufficientobservations,moreanalyticaltaskscanbeintroduced.These
can include problembased learning style exercises inspired by student questions,
explicit teacher instructions, or both. When analyzing Rome: Total War, for
example,somestudentsattemptedtodeterminehowfarRomanarmiescouldtravel
inasixmonthgameturn.Theyneeded todevelopproblemsolvingstrategies todo
so. Witha bit ofSocratic questioning on the teacher’spart, studentsbegan looking
at online maps, making rough calculations of distances and times, and comparing
themto historicaldataontroop marches. Otherstudentswereconcerned with how
winteraffectedtheRomanarmy.Theyengagedinaseriesofexperiments,lookingat
the supplycostsforthearmiesinspring andinwinter. Theseexperiments allarose
from students’ primary research questions and so only the students researching
travel,forexample,rantravelexperimentsinthegame.
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EncouragedbythesightofstudentsconductingexperimentswithRome:TotalWar,
however, inspired me to assign to the whole class some explicit analytical tasks
concerningthegamemodelsinCivCity:Rome.Forexample:
Diagramthreefoodsupplysystemsandproductsupplysystems.Includeeachstep
inthechain.
Duringplay,youreceivethemessage,“Sir,yourgranaryisempty.”Whatdoesthis
mean?Whatstepsmustyoutaketothoroughlydiagnosetheproblem?Drawaflow
charttoindicatethepotentialproblemsandsolutions.
The abilityofsimulationgamestoserveasfoundationsforproblembasedlearning
(PBL) exercises is one of the more promising areas in need of development.

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ExcellentPBLsessionscanbe createdbyposing inquirytasksthatrequire students
to develop problemsolving plans. In future uses of these games, for example,
studentscouldbechargedto:
determine the scale of the city map in CivCity: Rome and based on this scale
compare and evaluate the amount of farmland compared to the amount of civic
space;
determinetheratioof farmstopeople inthegame and compare this to historical
evidenceforpeasantsocieties;
determine the scale of armies in RTW and, based on this scale, determine the
accuracyofthemapandthespeedatwhicharmiescantravelinthegame.
Exercises like these can hone problemsolving skills, increase students’ familiarity
withgamemodels,andgeneratesomeinsightsintothepastatthesametime.
Throughout the observation and analysis phases, students should study historical
evidence and reflect regularly on their experiences in the game. The Country Day
studentsused ablog to recordobservation notes, enterreflectionsontheirgaming
experiences, and pose questions about the interpretations of the games. The
advantageoftheblogsystemisitpromotedtheideathatthestudentsarealearning
communityandthattheycanshareandlearnfromoneanother. [12][#N12l]
Once the observation, analysis, and reflection components are completed, the
historicalresourcesstudied,andlecturesheard,itwastimetoundertakesomeform
offormalresearchandwrittencritique. Inaccordancewiththegreatimportanceof
developingstudents’criticalwritingskills,myninthgradersweretaskedtoresearch
andwriteaformalcriticalessay
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about some aspect of the game. This was an exercise in forming meaningful
questions, understanding how the game answers the questions, studying evidence,
and constructing a formal analysis. First, students posted two or three historical
questions raised by the game and discussed these in class. The questions ran an
impressivegamut.ForRome:TotalWar:

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HowdidtheRomanstreatcapturedcities?
WhatwerethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheRomanalliancesysteminItaly?
How did distance and geography affect communications between the Senate and
armiesinthefield?Howdidthesefactorsaffectdiplomacywithotherpeoples?
DidtheRomansacquireanempireinselfdefenseorthroughactiveaggression?
Howweresiegesconducted?
Whatwastheroleofmoraleinbattlefieldvictories andhowdidtheRomansraise
andmaintainmorale?
CivCity:Romeevokedthesequestions:
How extensive was trade between private citizens in the Empire as opposed to
governmentsponsoredtrade?
Towhatextentwastheeconomyofthecitycontrolledbythegovernment?
How important were public gardens, fountains, and other amenities to the
happinessofanancientcity’sinhabitants?
To what extent was the happiness of Roman citizens really a high priority for
governmentofficials?
WhereandhowdidRomansobtaintheirsuppliesforconstructingcities,especially
whensuitableresourceswerenotnearby?
HowcriticalaproblemwasfireinancientcitiesandhowdidtheRomansdealwith
firefighting?
Interestingly enough, one of the most common sources of frustration and most
common historical questions raised by the game concerned the distances the
inhabitants of CivCity: Rome w ere will ing to wa lk to sat isfy the ir needs. Many felt

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the radius thedigital inhabitants werewilling to travel was simply too limitedand
raised the question: how far could or would inhabitants of a Roman city have to
traveltoobtainthegoodsandservicestheywantedandneeded?
The significance of these questions should not be underestimated. The students
essentiallycameupwiththeirownmeaningful,highlevelhistorical
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questions. Perhaps most striking, all of these questions have been the subjects of
researchandwriting byprofessionalhistorians;whenpresented with agame,these
students were able to pose the kinds of questions that experts in the field do. [13]
[#N13l] Rather than be assigned a research question, every student was able to
formulateameaningfulquestionforresearch.
The s tudents then presented the questions in class that they wanted to investigate
fortheirpapers.Iofferedsuggestions,asnecessary,foravenuesofinvestigationand
sources of evidence. To promote the legitimacy of their authentic historical
questions and encourage a spirit of collaboration, students were able to switch
ques tions an d pursue  differe nt lines  of inqui ry if a cl assmate  present ed a ques tion
they found more intriguing. Subsequently, they researched and wrote persuasive,
evidencebased essays arguing how accurately the simulation portrayed the issues
they chose to investigate. Google Books was the assigned research tool, though
studentswere also encouraged to use primary and secondarysource excerpts from
their class readings. Google Books offers considerable advantages as a tool for
teaching basic research. While the system does reduce the need to pore through
librarystacks,arguablythatisnotthecoreofresearchanyway.Withlargenumbers
of book excerpts available, students can pursue virtually any topic raised by the
simulation. Nor are the students’ obligations to read and consider the evidence
negated by the search tool. Any search can return large numbers of texts. This
meansstudents mustpractice scanning workstofind thosethat are actually useful
for the argument they are making—a coreresearchskill.Thisalso requires them to
makesuretheyunderstandenoughofthecontextsurroundingtheevidence,toavoid
misrepresentingevidence.
Thesepapersservedastheprimaryformofassessmentforthesimulationunits.The
effectiveness of the exercise can only be demonstrated anecdotally, but several

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aspects of the papers the students wrote stood out from the typical ninthgrade
persuasive essay assignments I have assigned over the decade. First, as noted
earlier, the great variety of highquality topics that the students pursued was
impressive. Thiswasboth afunction ofthe simulations’ ability to raisea variety of
questions and the flexibilityofthe available research tools. Formost of us, getting
studentstoexploreauthentic,highquality questionsand constructformalanswers
based on historical research is a difficult task, indeed. One common solution is to
get students to form their own questions. Asking students to form their own
questionswithoutsufficientgroundinginthepossibilities, however, can sometimes
leadtothewritingofreportsratherthanarguments,orthetacklingofquestionstoo
largeortoogeneralto beappropriateforaclasspaper.Assigning asingle question
tothewholeclass,ontheotherhand,canensurethatthetaskstudentsundertakeis
viable.Butthiskindofstandardizationhasits
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costs; it removes the opportunity for students to form their own questions and
pursue their own lines of inquiry. This has certainly been my experience over the
years.Thesesimulationpapersweresomethingdifferentfromthe norm.Theywere
varied and original. Indeed, somestudents choseto pursue the samequestion, but
conducted their research and argumentation in strikingly different ways. In short,
these papers were excellent models of the kind of work historians and history
teachersshouldvalue.
At no point should it be understood that the use of simulation games in the
classroom has reached anything approaching a pinnacle of effectiveness. There are
many areas where further experimentation, in addition to formal research, is
needed. Thegoal ofusingsimulationgamesasatoolforstudying, researching, and
critiquing historical models was generally successful in this most recent
implementation. Still thereare importantareastoexpandonin the future. Two in
particular stand out. First, exercises should be developed that require students to
explore andlearnthe generalcontentofthegamesmoreclosely.Itis critical tothe
use ofhistoricalsimulation gamesto take them asinterpretationsandthusinneed
ofcorroborationfromhistoricalsources. Forpracticalpurposes,however,there are
areas of wellestablished historical convention within these and other simulation
gamesthattheteachercanidentify for students tolearn whilestillmaintainingthe
standardthatthegamesareinterpretations,notsourcesoftruth.Forexample,itis
reasonable for students to review, record, and be assessed on elements of content

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containedinthegamessuchas,forexample:
WhatwerethekeycomponentsofaRomanarmyandtheirequipment?
What were the different types of housing in a Roman city and how can each be
accuratelycharacterized?
What are the geographic locations of the Romans, Greeks, Macedonians, Gauls,
Carthaginians, and the like? What are the main topographical features of the
regionseachcultureoccupied?
WhatwereprimaryformsofentertainmentinaRomancity?
Obtaining purely factual knowledge by itself, as opposed to honing higherorder
analysis and evaluation skills, is an insufficient reason to justify the time and
potentialexpenseofasimulation.Itdoesnotfollow,however, that teachers should
pass up obvious opportunities to get students to learn core information as they
engageinthesimulation.Ofcourse,caremustbetakenbytheteachertomakesure
that students are guided through the more and less accurate aspects of game
content.
Thesecondareaforexpansionistodiscussinmorequantifiabletermswithstudents
thecoremechanicsthatareatworkinthegamesthemselves.
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Theorists on the role of games in learning and popular culture increasingly stress
theimportanceofproceduralliteracy:thatthosewhowishtotreatsimulationgames
critically must be aware of the procedures—the algorithms and routines—that
underlie them. [14] [#N14l] The implementation outlined above treated the games as
texts, which they certainly are, and focused on discussing the interpretations of
thesetexts.Thediscussions,however,didnotreallyaddressthefactthatthegames
havequiteprecise,althoughsometimessimplistic,mathematicalmodelsunderlying
them  and those models themselves are inherently subject to human bias, let alone
miscalculation. Introducing the idea that these games contain quantifiable models
that are, despite their quantification, far from perfectly accurate, is an important
stepalong the way tolearning totreattechnology as atool, not adeity.Topics like

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this could readily be addressed through general discussions of variables and their
relations at a level reasonable for those with a basic knowledge of algebra. So, for
example,studentscouldoutlinewhatthemainvariableslikely areinthebattlefield
modelof Rome:TotalWarandhowthosevariableslikely interrelate, orsomething
similarforthedeterminationofpropertyvaluesinCivCity:Rome.
In closing, it is worth considering once again why many teachers, even those who
have  kept reading up to this point, still feel uncomfortable or outright skeptical of
theideaofexperimentingwithsimulations.Thisisprobablyparticularlythecasefor
those who teachpublicschool curriculadictated by school boards, statestandards,
and highstakes tests. Educators in these situations—and there are many—may
rightly feelthat they havelittleroomtoimprovise,innovate, and experiment, little
roomtodeviate inany significant way fromtraditionalmethods ofinstruction and
the prescribed curriculum. To be fair, teaching in an independent school has
provided me, like so many independent school teachers, with greater discretion in
settingclassroomcurriculaandpedagogicalapproachesthanteachershaveinmany
schools.Still,thereareways for teachers with lessflexible curricula to incorporate
simulation games effectively in the classroom. The options for simulations extend
far beyondRome:Total WarandCivCity:Rome. Therearesimulations addressing
a wide variety of topics and periods. There are also a host of freely available web
basedsimulationsthataddresscontemporaryissuesandrequirenomorethanahalf
hourtoplay. Thosewho cannot spenddays away froma mandatedcurriculumcan
use these smallerscale games to engage in more economically chunked critical
thinkingexercises.
Withsomanyoptions,largeandsmall,let’sturnthisprimaryobjectiononitshead.
The real question is, what are we teaching our students if we never improvise,
innovate, and experiment; never deviate in any significant way from traditional
methodsofinstructionandtheprescribedcurriculum?
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How can history teachers effectively prepare their students for the twentyfirst
century bysuggestingthatteachersarethesolesourceofauthority;thatlearningis
something that is received through oral and written texts alone; that historical
interpretationscanonlybecapturedinletters,neverinimageandcode?Simulation
games can play an integral role in teaching history as a twentyfirstcentury
discipline,whentheyaretreatedassomeofthemanyformsofinterpretationofthe

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past, with special properties for representing the world, but no particular claim to
truth. In practice this requires allowing simulations to pose problems and inspire
authenticquestionsaboutthepastthatstudentscantackle.
Afinalthought:certainly,adopting this stance and pedagogy doesrequireteachers
with some confidence and skill in the methodologies of a historian. When a class
shifts from the transmission of information to openended problem solving, there
willbemanytimeswhentheteachersimplydoesnothavean answeron hand.This
isthepoint;studentsneedtolearn,overtimeofcourse,tofunctionasindependent
historians, not simply to rely on the closest source of authority for answers.
Adopting this principle has the potential to open up a teacher’s history classes to
engage in something far closer to the true inquiry of the professionals. There is
much  to be gai ned. In a  world wi th so man y compet ing clai ms to the  truth, where
vocal figures in politics, the media, entertainment, and religion offer versions of
realitythatareofteninconflictandinneedofcritique,aneducatedpersonmustbe
able to judge the validity not only of discrete facts, but of competing claims to
historical truth. Students who are taught more than the chronology, or even the
storyofhistory,andlearntodohistoryhavetheopportunitytoacquirecrucialskills
of critique, analysis, and interpretation of human events. Students who learn that
interpretations are not only ensconced in writing, but are embedded in videos,
podcasts, mashups, and, yes, video games, can gain valuable tools for negotiating
themodernworld.
Notes
1.TheseminalworkinthefieldcomesfromJamesPaulGee,andreadersinterested
in learning about general games and learning theory should start with his books,
What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy (New York:
PalgraveMacmillan,2003)andGood VideoGamesandGoodLearning(NewYork:
PeterLang,2007).SeealsoDavidWilliamson Shaffer, How Computer GamesHelp
Chil dren Learn (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). Important work has been
donein the journals,andthefollowingarticlesoffer goodpoints of introduction to
the field: Rosemary Garris, Robert Ahlers, and James E. Driskell, “Games,
Moti vation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model,” Simulation & Gaming
33 (2002): 441–67; Harold F. O’Neil, Richard Wainess, and Eva L. Baker,
“ClassificationofLearning
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Outcomes: Evidence from the Computer Games Literature,” The Curriculum
Journal 16 (2005): 455–74; Kurt Squire et al., “Design Principles of Next
GenerationDigitalGaming forEducation,”EducationalTechnology43(2003): 17–
23; Susan McLester,“Game Plan,” Technology and Learning 2 6 (2005): 18–26; S.
Tobias and J. Fletcher, “What Research Has to Say about Designing Computer
Games for Learning,” Educational Technology 47 (2007): 20–29. For a
counterpoint to these studies, see R. Clark, “Learning from Serious Games?
Arguments, Evidence, and Research Suggestions,” Educational Technology 47
(2007): 56–59. Be sure to read Squire’s response to Clark in K. Squire, “Games,
Learning,andSociety:BuildingaField,”EducationalTechnology47(2007):51–55.
[#N1lptr1]
2. For some definitions, see S. Tobias and J. Fletcher, “What Research Has to Say
about Designing Computer Games for Learning,” Educational Technology 47
(2007): 20–29; Christian Elverdam and Espen Aarseth, “Game Classification and
Game Design: Construction through Critical Analysis,” Games and Culture 2
(2007):3–22,accessedOctober12,2010,http://gac.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/2/1/3
[http://gac.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/2/1/3];KatieSalenandEricZimmerman,Rulesof
Play:GameDesignFundamentals(Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,2003),422–58.
[#N2lptr1]
3.SalenandZimmerman,80. [#N3lptr1]
4. This can be compared to the established use of microworlds in science and
mathematics education. On microworlds, see John Bransford et al., eds., How
People Learn (Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999); Shaffer, 67–71;
James M. Monaghan and John Clement, “Algorithms, Visualization, and Mental
Models: High School Students’ Interactions with a Relative Motion Simulation,”
JournalofScienceEducationandTechnology9(2006):311–25;BarbaraWhiteand
John R. Frederiksen, “Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science
Accessible to All Students,” Cognition and Instruction 16 (1998): 3–118; Leslie P.
Steffe and Heide G. Wiegel, “Cognitive Play and Mathematical Learning in
Computer Microworlds,” Educational Studies in Mathematics 26 (1994): 111–34;
RoxanaMorenoetal.,“TheCaseforSocialAgencyinComputerBasedTeaching:Do
Students Learn More Deeply When They Interact with Animated Pedagogical
Agents?”CognitionandInstruction19(2001):177–213;Maria Kordaki, “The Effect
ofToolsofaComputerMicroworldonStudents’StrategiesRegardingtheConceptof
Conservation of Area,” Educational Studies in Mathematics 52 (2003): 177–209.

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[#N4lptr1]
5. Samuel S. Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts
(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2001),63–88,detailsaseminalexperiment
in the difference between how students and professional historians read texts.
[#N5lptr1]
6.AsrecentlyashisinterviewforKotakuTalkRadioonMay5,2010,mp3interview
file, accessed July 31, 2012, http://kotaku.com/5531995/anhourofsidmeier
brillianceincludinghissurpriseguitarheroregret [http://kotaku.com/5531995/an
%C2%ADhour%C2%ADof%C2%ADsid%C2%ADmeier%C2%ADbrilliance
%C2%ADincluding%C2%ADhis%C2%ADsurprise%C2%ADguitar%C2%ADhero
%C2% ADregret] . Sid Meier, the creator of the Civilization series, noted once again
thatheandhisdesignteamsfocusedonmakinganentertainingandengaginggame
firstandaddedthehistoricalresearchafterthefact. [#N6lptr1]
7.RichardE.Mayer,“ShouldThere Bea ThreeStrikesRuleagainstPureDiscovery
Learning?” American Psychologist 59 (2004): 14–19, is an excellent study
suggestingthatinquirylearningismosteffectivewhentheteacherremainsanactive
presenceintheactivity. [#N7lptr1]
8.CurrentlyavailablethroughtheonlineservicesSteam(store.steampowered.com),
and Direct2Drive, accessed July 31, 2012, www.Direct2Drive.com
[http://www.Direct2Drive.com]; Amazon.comisanexcellent source for hard copies.
[#N8lptr1]
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9.These are not particularlycontroversial points inthe field, but for some support
ofthegeneraloutlineshere,onecouldexamineJohnRichandGrahamShipley,War
and Society in the Roman World (London: Routledge, 1993); William V. Harris,
War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 B.C. (New York: Oxford
UniversityPress,1979);JeremiahMcCall,TheCavalryoftheRomanRepublic(New
York:Routledge,2001);AdrianK.Goldsworthy,TheRomanArmyatWar,100BC–
AD200(Oxford:Clarendon,1996). [#N9lptr1]
10. Also available through the online services Steam (store.steampowered.com
[http://store.steampowered.com] ) and Direct2Drive (www.Direct2Drive.com

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[http://www.Direct2Drive.com]);Amazon.comisanexcellentsourceforhardcopies.
[#N10lptr1]
11.Thereadermightturntothefollowingbookstostartwhenconsideringtheissues
involving Roman cities: John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988); Pierre Grimal, Roman Cities, trans. G.
Michael Woloch (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983); Patricia Crone,
PreIndustrialSocieties(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1989). [#N11lptr1]
12. We used Ning, which has recently ended its free hosting of social networks.
Interested teachers will need to do some online research to find acceptable
substitutes. [#N12lptr1]
13. Entries in Rich and Shipley cover most of these subjects. The groundbreaking
works on communications between the Senate and field commanders and the
motives for imperialism, respectively,areArthur M.Eckstein, SenateandGeneral:
IndividualDecisionMakingandRomanForeignRelations264–194B.C.(Berkeley:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1987),andHarris. [#N13lptr1]
14. See, for example, Ian Bogost, Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of
Videogames(Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,2007). [#N14lptr1]
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