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Tablets as Artefacts, Scribes as Artisans
Abstract
This article aims to capture some major trends in the study of tablets as artifacts and provides examples from the collections of the British Museum. It provides insights into the study of clay tablets as objects with their own story, focusing on Mesopotamian cuneiform. It describes how the ready availability of high-quality images of the objects and a holistic approach integrating study of inscriptions with that of the vehicles of their textual expression have opened the way to a deeper understanding of cuneiform culture.
... El corpus de documentos 2 mesopotámicos es heterogéneo en cuanto a su contenido temático, así como también en relación a los géneros discursivos, a las lenguas que emplearon el sistema de escritura cuneiforme 3 , al tipo de material sobre el que se desplegaron los signos, a las variaciones epigráficas y/o paleográficas de estos, entre otras características (Taylor, 2011). Por consiguiente, cuando se hace referencia a la evidencia documental de Mesopotamia, es necesario considerar, en principio, la clasificación tipológica de la misma y, de este modo, reconocer el "grado de alfabetización" de cada escriba (sensu Veldhuis, 2011). ...
... De este modo, la reactivación del paisaje social a partir del análisis de las tablillas p i s a ĝ -dub-ba implica reflexionar sobre la reintegración de la documentación a su universo inicial de significación, el cual se habría quebrado a partir de la separación entre texto y contexto, devenido esto en la disociación disciplinar entre Filología/Historia, por un lado, y Arqueología, por otro. El reensamblaje social de todo documento a su contexto inicial implica, también, la comprensión de toda composición escritural como parte del universo de las cosas e, incluso, entender a la escritura como un objeto (discusión en Rede, 1996;Taylor, 2011;Cabrera, 2019). En el caso de las p i s a ĝ -d u b -ba, su aspecto contextual las ubica en la esfera del archivado de documentos y, por tal motivo, en la etapa final del proceso de semiosis, activado primeramente con el ingreso de un bien en una oficina menor y su posterior destino a otra oficina menor o a una mayor. ...
In this article, we propose an approach to the administrative texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur in Mesopotamia (c. 2110-2003 BCE) – in particular, of the pisaĝ-dub-ba tablets – from a theoretical-methodological perspective that we will call Landscape Epigraphy. On the one hand, its importance lies in understanding documents in the same contexts of production, circulation, and storage, considering their semantic-internal and syntactic-structural components. On the other, it enables the understanding and recognition, based on a rigorous approach to administrative documentation, of (i) agents (human and non-human) along with their practices, (ii) objects/things (material culture), and (iii) places involved in shaping a social landscape. In the case of Lower Mesopotamia, the social landscape was composed of several provincial archives, which were subdivided into smaller and larger offices as regulators of different economic and political spheres of this period. Finally, the outlined theoretical-methodological perspective will contribute to the analysis of the Neo-Sumerian bureaucratic system, which would have been expressed through the messages contained in the documentary record and, in this way, it reinforced the legitimate voice of the center over local powers.
... For over three millennia, clay tablets were by far the most common media for conveying information in the ancient Near East. Among the many shapes of the extant clay documents [21] (pp. 9-10), the most frequent are square or rectangular pillow-shaped clay artifacts, generally covered with cuneiform signs impressed on the wet clay with a stylus. ...
In the current panorama of 3D digital documentation, the survey of tiny artifacts with micrometric details is strongly influenced by two factors: firstly, the still high cost of the instruments and technologies (active sensors) required to achieve the necessary level of accuracy and resolution; secondly, the needed professional skills for the macro-photogrammetric approach. In this context, this research aims to meet the demand for a digital survey and 3D representation of small objects with complex surfaces and sub-millimeter morphological characteristics using a low-cost configuration (passive sensors) for an image-based approach. The experiments concerned cuneiform tablets , which are challenging due to their morphological and geometrical characteristics. The digital replica of these unique artefacts can be helpful for their study and interpretation and many innovative applications: access and sharing, a collaborative interdisciplinary study among several experts, experimentation with machine learning for automatic character recognition, and linguistic studies. The micrometric surveying system described proves to be an efficient and reliable solution for cuneiform tablet digitization and documentation.
... Writing is also material-it concerns the making of marks on, and using, actual physical objects such as paper, clay, stone, vellum, reed styli, pens, quills and so forth. The materiality of writing has been a topic of increasing discussion in recent years (Balke & Tsouparopoulou 2016;Ellison 2002;Pearce 2010;Piquette & Whitehouse 2013a,b;Taylor 2011;Whitley 2017), but often these discussions are relatively self-contained, focusing on the act of making the marks itself. Much less attention is generally paid to the wider material relationships of inscribed objects-how they relate to and derive meaning from other, uninscribed things which have traditionally been the province of archaeologists rather than epigraphists; or to inscribed objects' longer-term material context: how the use and meaning of these artefacts changes over time in different physical and cultural environments. ...
Writing is a social practice, and as such is fundamentally entwined with a wide array of other forms of human activity, professional categories and aspects of cultural life. However, this is often not fully reflected in scholarly approaches to writing practices, which tend to focus almost exclusively on the act of inscription itself, and on the practices of literates alone. Taking as its case study the Late Bronze Age Syrian polity of Ugarit and focusing on the social and cultural aspects of the procurement of raw materials for writing, this article aims to explore some of the ways in which groups of people beyond the urban, literate elite facilitated, contributed to and shaped the nature of writing practices.
... v 13-17 referring to the sealed MVN 16 1567 (seeEnglund 2003, §15).19 For several references to both sealed and unsealed "blanks" from the late third-and early second millennium, seeTaylor 2011, 8. 20 See Widell 2006. It is to be hoped that new technologies for the digital capture of seal impressions will provide more data on this important aspect of the sealing practices in the different Ur III cities and administrative centres (seeDahl et al. 2018). ...
The purpose of this article is to investigate how well our current understanding of the administration and record keeping of the Ur III state correlates with the general attributes and characteristics of the clay used in the cuneiform tablets. How could (and could not) clay tablets serve the administrative needs of the extensive Ur III bureaucracy? How would the unique properties of clay tablets influence the daily operations of the ancient scribes (dub-sar) and archivists (ša13-dub-ba) of the period? Based on a set of simple practical experiments focused on the nature of clay and drying rates under specific circumstances and conditions, I hope to shed further light on some of these questions, and the overall administrative and archival practices of the Ur III period (ca. 2112–2004 BC).
... Emberling and Yoffee (1999: 277) have pointed out this flaw in Özgüç's much repeated statement, formulating in no uncertain terms that '[w]ithout reading a single line of a text one can say, from the style of the artifact, that hundreds of Old Assyrians lived in Kültepe.' It is only in recent years that ancient Middle Eastern scholarship has begun to pay closer attention to clay tablets as material culture (Matthews 2013;Taylor 2011). The adoption of this view into Old Assyrian scholarship is reflected in Larsen's (2015: 7) reminder that 'it is essential that the texts be understood as archaeological artefacts, because only then can they be placed in meaningful contexts and interact with the other elements of material culture.' ...
This article offers a historiographical examination of how 20th-century ideas of assimilation and cultural purity have shaped our understanding of Bronze Age Anatolia, focusing on the canonical narrative of Assyrian presence at the site of Kültepe-Kaneš. According to this narrative, Old Assyrian merchants who lived and conducted business at Kaneš from the early 20th to the late 18th century BC left no trace in the archaeological record except for cuneiform tablets and cylinder seals, assimilating to local culture to such a degree that Kültepe’s archaeological record is entirely of Anatolian character. The accuracy of this view has met increasing circumspection in recent years. What remains to be articulated is why it remained unchallenged for so long, from its initial formulation in 1948 until the late 2000s, during which time it was widely repeated and reiterated. It is proposed here that the persistence and longevity of what is essentially a misconstrued notion of foreign (in)visibility in Kültepe’s material record can be explained by treating it as a ‘factoid’. The article first historicises the factoid’s formulation and subsequent development. This is followed by a critical evaluation of the evidentiary bases of the factoid to show how disciplinary tendencies to privilege certain categories of evidence over others have created artificial gaps in the data. Ultimately, the article seeks to highlight the epistemological implications of how one of the key sites of Bronze Age Anatolia came to represent a perceived rather than an observed case of indigenous cultural purity.
... The seven categories or dimensions of change in the system of writing include lexicography, dictionary-like compilations of words; organisation, the layout of words upon the surfaces of writing materials; syntax, the ways in which characters, words and phrases are arranged to reflect language; orthography, conventionalisations of signs and sign combinations; applications, the purposes to which writing and scripts are applied; curriculum, the systemisation of training; and language, the degree to which the language expressed is identifiable. The data were sourced from Bramanti (2015), Cooper (1996Cooper ( , 2004, Englund (1998), Hyman (2006, Krispijn (2012), Schmandt-Besserat (1992), Taylor (2011Taylor ( , 2015 and Veldhuis (2011Veldhuis ( , 2012Veldhuis ( , 2014. Updated version of the graph originally published as fig. ...
Complex systems like literacy and numeracy emerge through multigenerational interactions of brains, behaviors, and material forms. In such systems, material forms – writing for language and notations for numbers – become increasingly refined to elicit specific behavioral and psychological responses in newly indoctrinated individuals. These material forms, however, differ fundamentally in things like semiotic function: language signifies, while numbers instantiate. This makes writing for language able to represent the meanings and sounds of particular languages, while notations for numbers are semantically meaningful without phonetic specification. This representational distinction is associated with neurofunctional and behavioral differences in what neural activity and behaviors like handwriting contribute to literacy and numeracy. In turn, neurofunctional and behavioral differences place written representations for language and numbers under different pressures that influence the forms they take and how those forms change over time as they are transmitted across languages and cultures. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 785793.
... Source: The data were sourced from Bramanti (2015), Cooper (1996Cooper ( , 2004, Englund (1998), Hyman (2006, Krispijn (2012), Schmandt-Besserat (1992), Taylor (2011Taylor ( , 2015, and Veldhuis (2011Veldhuis ( , 2012Veldhuis ( , 2014. ...
Humans leverage material forms for unique cognitive purposes: We recruit and incorporate them into our cognitive system, exploit them to accumulate and distribute cognitive effort, and use them to recreate phenotypic change in new individuals and generations. These purposes are exemplified by writing, a relatively recent tool that has become highly adept at eliciting specific psychological and behavioral responses in its users, capability it achieved by changing in ways that facilitated, accumulated, and distributed incremental behavioral and psychological change between individuals and generations. Writing is described here as a self-organizing system whose design features reflect points of maximal usefulness that emerged under sustained collective use of the tool. Such self-organization may hold insights applicable to human cognitive evolution and tool use more generally. Accordingly, this article examines the emergence of the ability to leverage material forms for cognitive purposes, using the tool-using behaviors and lithic technologies of ancestral species and contemporary non-human primates as proxies for matters like collective use, generational sustainment, and the non-teleological emergence of design features. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 785793.
... At its most fundamental the term materiality has been used in anglophone archaeological and cultural anthropological discussions to spotlight the role of material things (objects) in constituting social life and social beings (persons). Crucially, this 1 Olsen 2003, 87. 2 See in this regard Hilgert 2010;Taylor 2011. is meant to showcase more than simply the fact that things are made of materials: materiality is not synonymous with material or matter. ...
... The importance of materiality and technology is also recognised within cuneiform studies. Jonathon Taylor (2011) has recently presented a survey of material aspects of cuneiform clay tablets. While sign morphology may be the primary vehicle of meaning expression, it can also be bound up with other material aspects, such as types of clay, their preparation and use as tablet cores or the sheets of finer clay wrapped around them, overall tablet shape, surface formatting, stylus shape and the techniques of incision or impression. ...
... 7 For the main concepts see Messerschmidt 1906;id. 1907;Biggs 1973;Edzard 1980;Powell 1981;Sallaberger 1989;Marzahn 2003;Streck 2009;van Soldt 2009;Taylor 2011;Cammarosano 2014;Bramanti 2015; Taylor in press. Among other topics to be discussed are various non-language elements employed to define the writing space and studied thoroughly with respect to diplomatics of the Amarna tablets. ...
... This is evidence of different scribal hands, which can be individually identified. Most rulings were probably made with a stylus, but some could have been made with a string (Taylor 2011, 15). On some tablets there are double rulings. ...
Mining 15,000 cuneiform inscribed clay documents, albeit with about 10 lines of text each, this article discusses elements appearing on these tablets beyond text which accentuated in a visual way the structure of the documents and usually aided or, in some instances, obscured their reading and subsequent interpretation. These paratextual markers and graphic devices are left-edge inscriptions, rulings, blank spaces, and sealings that added information not available from the text alone.
The science of pedagogy in Babylonia in the early second millennium BCE was based on a two-part curriculum: students began their study of Sumerian by copying and memorizing lists of signs and words, and then progressed to copying connected texts. All surviving manuscripts (in the form of cuneiform tablets) of Sumerian literary compositions from that time are school copies produced by students following the second part of the curriculum. This contribution examines how the editing of these compositions and the representation of individual text witnesses and their variants have evolved in the eight decades since the first scientific edition of a Sumerian literary composition in 1937, and defines what a reconstructed and edited Sumerian composition actually represents.
This is a book about numbers – what they are as concepts and how and why they originate – as viewed through the material devices used to represent and manipulate them. Fingers, tallies, tokens, and written notations, invented in both ancestral and contemporary societies, explain what numbers are, why they are the way they are, and how we get them. Overmann is the first to explore how material devices contribute to numerical thinking, initially by helping us to visualize and manipulate the perceptual experience of quantity that we share with other species. She explores how and why numbers are conceptualized and then elaborated, as well as the central role that material objects play in both processes. Overmann's volume thus offers a view of numerical cognition that is based on an alternative set of assumptions about numbers, their material component, and the nature of the human mind and thinking.
Ancient Middle Eastern clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform writing have traditionally been studied more as textual documents than as archaeological objects per se. In contrast to previous analytical studies which, with few exceptions, focused on provenance and palaeo-environmental reconstruction, the current study aims to describe the tablet makers’ technological choices, to understand whether a specific series of steps or chaîne opératoire was followed to produce these important documents. Twenty cuneiform tablets found at the sites of Nineveh, Nimrud (Iraq) and Tell Halaf (Syria), and curated in the British Museum collection, were analysed by optical microscopy of minero-petrographic thin sections and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDX). Six of these tablets were also analysed by X-ray computed tomography (CT), to investigate the potential for this non-invasive technique to address the technological questions and to select objects for invasive analyses. The results show that the tablets were made following similar steps to pottery making, either carefully levigating calcareous clays, or adding plant matter to make the clay less plastic. Petrographic and CT analyses are readily comparable and CT results permit a more targeted approach to invasive sampling.
El objetivo de este trabajo es demostrar que los soportes habituales de las escrituras paleohispánicas fueron realizados con materiales orgánicos. Las inscripciones fueron una parte menor de la producción escrita, pero la única susceptible de conservarse por emplear materiales no orgánicos, como son la piedra y los metales. Esto significa que se ha perdido irremediablemente la gran mayoría de la producción escrita de estas sociedades, pues es posible afirmar, gracias a la presencia de instrumentos como cretulae, tinteros y estilos, que se usaron materiales de escritura como el papiro y las tablillas enceradas en la escritura cotidiana.
Este artigo objetiva compreender a relação entre a materialidade da escrita e a escrita cuneiforme na antiga Mesopotâmia. Inicialmente, discutimos como as abordagens tradicionais aplicadas a textos, a partir do “modelo linguístico” e suas derivações, contribuíram para a desmaterialização da escrita ao priorizar a mensagem escrita em detrimento do material inscrito. Em seguida, debatemos os conceitos de material e materialidade, levando em conta tanto as condições de existência e as propriedades materiais do suporte/objeto, como as relações
materiais que fazem com que a escrita se concretize. Por fim, apresentamos dois estudos de caso que consideram a relação entre sujeitos, objetos e ambientes dentro do contexto em que circulam, partindo de abordagens analíticas mais recentes, aplicadas aos estudos de cultura material, que conferem à materialidade um papel ativo nas relações sociais. O primeiro estudo de caso apresenta os tabletes de argila em um contexto preciso de relações administrativas, problematizando a visão de que seriam suportes ou veículos para uma mensagem. Já no segundo, trazemos as possíveis compreensões da relação entre materialidade, texto e imagem em relevos parietais palacianos.
The extraction of raw clay for the manufacture of mudbricks, pottery, tablets and figurines is rarely described in the cuneiform record. Nevertheless, an examination of the sources reveals that the people of ancient Mesopotamia selected the raw material according to their needs from ‘clay pits’ (clay deposits) or other locations. Ritual texts in particular identify the origin of the clay used for the creation of magical figurines. When an exorcist was instructed to take clay from a clay pit, he first had to ritually appease and compensate the pit for its subsequent exploitation. The origin of clay for mudbricks and tablets is given in specific instances; that of potter’s clay can only be deduced from archaeological and anthropological observations.
This article examines 15 cuneiform tablets from the late 3rd millennium BC from southern Mesopotamia. As administrative tools of the Ur III state bureaucracy, the texts are primarily concerned with the administrative and economic affairs of the central authority, but they also offer important information on the individuals living in the Ur III state and their different roles within the state's bureaucratic structures.
The present article offers an edition of the cuneiform tablet BM 103395 from the British Museum in London, which has been published only in a copy so far. This document is a so called amulet shaped or formed tablet, which contains a Middle Assyrian administrative text. In this article, it is sustained that the very damaged record is probably an inheritance division. The physical features of the artifact allow that it was hung, therefore displayed and made visible. The format and function of the tablet are also discussed and another designation, concerning such artifact, “tablet with handle” is proposed. Furthermore, evidence from the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, for this kind of tablets, will be discussed.
In this book, Lauren Ristvet rethinks the narratives of state formation by investigating the interconnections between ritual, performance, and politics in the ancient Near East. She draws on a wide range of archaeological, iconographic, and cuneiform sources to show how ritual performance was not set apart from the real practice of politics; it was politics. Rituals provided an opportunity for elites and ordinary people to negotiate political authority. Descriptions of rituals from three periods explore the networks of signification that informed different societies. From circa 2600 to 2200 BC, pilgrimage made kingdoms out of previously isolated villages. Similarly, from circa 1900 to 1700 BC, commemorative ceremonies legitimated new political dynasties by connecting them to a shared past. Finally, in the Hellenistic period, the traditional Babylonian Akitu festival was an occasion for Greek-speaking kings to show that they were Babylonian and for Babylonian priests to gain significant power.
The circulation of books was the motor of classical civilisation. But books were both expensive and rare, and so libraries - private and public, royal and civic - played key roles in articulating intellectual life. This collection, written by an international team of scholars, presents a fundamental reassessment of how ancient libraries came into being, how they were organised and how they were used. Drawing on papyrology and archaeology, and on accounts written by those who read and wrote in them, it presents new research on reading cultures, on book collecting and on the origins of monumental library buildings. Many of the traditional stories told about ancient libraries are challenged. Few were really enormous, none was designed as a research centre and occasional conflagrations do not explain the loss of most ancient texts. But the central place of libraries inGreco-Roman culture emerges more clearly than ever.
Similar artifact function and conformism to social norms are two models commonly proposed to explain why ancient people shared a particular form of material culture. We propose an additional model for explaining such similarity, production bias, which focuses on interactions between raw materials and the production of material culture. By way of modern replication experiments and a survey of ancient examples, we use dice to exemplify production bias and discuss how it can be recognized in the archae- ological record. Although there are 15 possible configurations for cubic dice, all of equal function, only three are common in the archaeological record. Replication experiments show that one is the result of production bias, and is differentially produced by novice dice-makers. The other two are the byproduct of conformist cultural transmission processes. A similar result holds for dot patterns, or how dots are placed with respect to one another to represent a particular number.
Theories of writing and mind have proposed that the uses of literacy give rise to a distinct repertoire of cognitive skills, attitudes, and concepts. This paper reconsiders the earliest lexical lists of the Ancient Near East as one type of evidence on writing and mind. Past and present conceptions of the lists are briefly reviewed. Early views cast the lists as reflecting a Sumerian mentality or a uniquely literate mode of thought, while recent accounts suggest they may simply be routine scribal exercises. A view from the philosophy of science, on which lists are considered a sub-type of ordering system, suggests a way of aligning a scribal practice account with aspects of earlier views by articulating the nature of list entries and the intentions of the list makers. On this account, the Ancient Near Eastern lists can be seen both as uniquely literate and as uniquely informative on the role of writing in mind.
The Hittite cult inventories constitute a corpus of ca. 550 fragments dating to the Late Empire period, dealing with local offerings and festivals in provincial towns. They are commonly viewed against the background of an assumed reorganization of local cults promoted by Tudhaliya IV.Within such an extensive operation, local festivals would have been restyled and standardized to some degree.The paper aims at casting doubts on these assumptions, presenting a reappraisal of the questions concerning the dating of the texts and a minimalist interpretation of Tudhaliya's 'cult reorganization'. It also provides an overview of the extant Middle Hittite fragments and on restorations of local cults pre-dating Tudhaliya IV. The main conclusions are that (1) the arguments behind the assumption that the majority of the surviving fragments should be dated to Tudhaliya IV are debatable; (2) the measures taken by Tudhaliya reflect practices that are attested from at least the Middle Hittite period, without any substantial innovation; and (3) despite their stylistic similarities, the texts tend to treat the local festivals, the origins of which in all likelihood go back to ancestral times, in a faithful way.
Our oldest archival records originate from the Near East. Systems of archival record-keeping developed over several millennia in Mesopotamia before spreading to Egypt, the Mycenean world, and the Persian empire, and continuing through the Hellenistic and Seleucid periods. Yet we know little about the way archival practices were established, transmitted, modified, and adapted by other civilizations. This interdisciplinary volume offers a systematic approach to archival documents and to the societies which created them, addressing questions of formal aspects of creating, writing, and storing ancient documents, and showing how archival systems were copied and adapted across a wide geographical area and an extensive period of time.
Our oldest archival records originate from the Near East. Systems of archival record-keeping developed over several millennia in Mesopotamia before spreading to Egypt, the Mycenean world, and the Persian empire, and continuing through the Hellenistic and Seleucid periods. Yet we know little about the way archival practices were established, transmitted, modified, and adapted by other civilizations. This interdisciplinary volume offers a systematic approach to archival documents and to the societies which created them, addressing questions of formal aspects of creating, writing, and storing ancient documents, and showing how archival systems were copied and adapted across a wide geographical area and an extensive period of time.
In this article, collations of the 13 Graeco-Babyloniaca texts presently in the British Museum, as well as photographs of nine of these, are offered; the cultural Sitz im Leben of the Graeco-Babyloniaca is examined; a phonological analysis of Akkadian and Sumerian in Greek transcription is attempted; and M. Geller's thesis of a survival of the cuneiform tradition into the third century A. D. is critically discussed. Thus, the debate about these texts in this journal is continued.
Stratigraphie de Mari: remarques préliminaries sur les premières couches du sondage stratigraphique (Chantier A)
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The Organization of Power: Aspects of Bureaucracy in the Ancient
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Anhang: Mineralzusammensetzung altbabylonischer linsenförmigen Tafeln
- U Glasmacher
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The relation between format and content of Neo-Assyrian texts
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The archives of Nimrud
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Chemical characterization of tablets, sealing clays, and clay sources from Tell Leilan, Syria
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Une pratique administrative méconnue
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Of Pots and Plans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria, Presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday
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Subartu: dimensions de l'expérience humaine au Proche-Orient ancien: volume d'hommage offert à Jean-Claude Margueron
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Die Grabung in UE XVIII 1
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A compendium of gall-bladder omens extant in Middle Babylonian, Nineveh and Selecuid versions
- U Jeyes
‘Glossen’ in von Soden
- J Krecher
Nabû hymns on cylinders
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Wedge Order. Available at: www.cdp.bham.ac.uk/Other_research/wedge_order.htm
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Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente, Centro per le Antichità e la Storia dell'Arte del Vicino Oriente
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Creating Economic Order: Record-keeping, Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East
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Land in ancient Mesopotamia: that which remains undocumented does not exist
- G Van Driel
From the Banks of the Euphrates: Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky
- R Wallenfels
The Sargonic royal seal: a consideration of sealing in Mesopotamia
- R Zettler