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Locating the ancient port of Muziris: fresh findings from Pattanam
... The ports other than Muziris on the South-western Coast as per the Periplus Maris Erythraei are Tindis, Nelcynda, and Becare which are yet to be identified on the ground. Periplus Maris Erythraei is one of the oldest navigational guides by an anonymous author, for sailors and merchants from the Red Sea to Indian Ocean ports and speaks of the maritime exchanges that existed as circuitous routes or mid-ocean routes [2,3]. These routes functioned as "mobile bazaars", probably initially for the supply of essential goods and during the peak phase between 100 BCE and 300 CE for luxury items. ...
Since 2006, Pattanam coastal village of the Ernakulam District in Kerala, India, has witnessed multi-disciplinary archaeological investigations in collaboration with leading research institutions across the world. The results confirm that the Pattanam site could be an integral part of the lost ancient port of Muziris, which, as per the material evidence from Pattanam and its contemporary sites, played an important role in the transoceanic exchanges between 100 BCE (Before Common Era) and 300 CE (Common Era). So far, the material evidence with direct provenance to the maritime exchanges related to ancient cultures of the Mediterranean, West Asian, Red Sea, African, and Asian regions have been identified at Pattanam. However, the genetic evidence supporting the impact of multiple cultures or their admixing is still missing for this important archaeological site of South India. Hence, in the current study, we tried to infer the genetic composition of the skeletal remains excavated from the site in a broader context of South Asian and worldwide maternal affinity. We applied the MassArray-based genotyping approach of mitochondrial makers and observed that ancient samples of Pattanam represent a mixed maternal ancestry pattern of both the West Eurasian ancestry and the South Asian ancestry. We observed a high frequency of West Eurasian haplogroups (T, JT, and HV) and South Asian-specific mitochondrial haplogroups (M2a, M3a, R5, and M6). The findings are consistent with the previously published and ongoing archaeological excavations, in which material remains from over three dozen of sites across the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean littoral regions have been unearthed. This study confirms that people belonging to multiple cultural and linguistic backgrounds have migrated, probably settled, and eventually died on the South-western coast of India.
... These routes functioned as "mobile bazaars" for the supply of essential items. The most important ports of ancient times on the southwest coast included Tindis, Muziris, Nelcynda and Becare [2]. Multiple ethnoreligious communities migrated and settled due to the presence of these coastal belts [3][4][5]. ...
Multi-disciplinary archaeological investigations have been conducted since 2006 at the Pattanam coastal village of Ernakulam District in Kerala. The archaeological investigations have confirmed that Pattanam is an integral part of the legendary port of Muziris aka Muciri Pattinam, which played an important role in the transoceanic exchanges between 100 BCE and 300 CE. So far the material evidence with direct provenance to the maritime exchange related to ancient migrations like Romans, Jews, traders of the Middle East and Catholics have been identified at Pattanam. However, the genetic evidence supporting the impact of multiple cultures or their admixing is still missing for this important archaeological site of South India. Hence, in the current study, we made the first attempt to infer the genetic composition of the skeletal remains excavated from the site in a broader context of South Asian and worldwide maternal affinity. We applied the MassArray-based genotyping approach of mitochondrial makers and observed that ancient samples of Pattanam represent a mixed ancestry pattern as both the West Eurasian ancestry and the South Asian ancestry can be seen in the final analysis. A high occurrence of West Eurasian (T, JT and HV) haplogroups and South Asian-specific mitochondrial haplogroups (M2a, M3a, R5 and M6) was found. The findings are consistent with the previously published archaeological findings, in which a mixture of multiple cultural and linguistic groups migrated, settled, and eventually died on the Southwestern coast of India.
... Exchange between the two cultures has been seen as a positive factor for the emergence of the Harrapan civilization in Pakistan and the northwestern part of India (Dales, 1977;Fuller, 2006;Khol, 2007). On the Kerala coast, the first signs of Muziris, an ancient seaport and urban center believed to have been located close to Pattanam (10°N 76°E) (Gurukkal and Whittaker, 2001;Shajan et al., 2004), starts from early 5 ky BP, when Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian merchants sailed to the Malabar Coast in search for spices (Kunnappilly, 2018). In the Levant and Mesopotamia, abrupt drops in humidity have been advocated at 5.2 ky BP ( Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 2011;Weiss, 2000). ...
The rise and fall of human cultures are strongly modulated by the strong environmental changes taking place during the Holocene. Here, we use the
sedimentological and geochemical records of a core taken in the Arabian Sea, west of Kerala, to identify potential factors that may reflect on-land
history of local civilizations, in particular the Harappan culture which appeared and collapsed in the Indus Valley during the early and middle Bronze
Age. The 14C record highlights a fourfold increase in sedimentation rate at ~5380 cal. yr BP. The short duration of this event (~220 years) suggests
a steep regional increase in erosion at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Factor analysis of downcore changes in geochemistry identified two distinct
detrital components dominated by silt and clay, respectively, and a component characteristic of chemical erosion. This interpretation is consistent with
sediment mineralogy. Comparison with the known climatic record indicates that increased erosion rate at 5380 cal. yr BP around the Arabian Sea is because of the advent of farming. The development of tillage associated with both wheat and barley crops and animal husbandry was favored by trade between Mesopotamia and India. Human activities, therefore, were the trigger of major changes in the sedimentological and geochemical records at sea at the onset of the Bronze Age.
... Exchange between the two cultures has been seen as a positive factor for the emergence of the Harrapan civilization in Pakistan and the northwestern part of India (Dales, 1977;Fuller, 2006;Khol, 2007). On the Kerala coast, the first signs of Muziris, an ancient seaport and urban center believed to have been located close to Pattanam (10°N 76°E) (Gurukkal and Whittaker, 2001;Shajan et al., 2004), starts from early 5 ky BP, when Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian merchants sailed to the Malabar Coast in search for spices (Kunnappilly, 2018). In the Levant and Mesopotamia, abrupt drops in humidity have been advocated at 5.2 ky BP ( Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 2011;Weiss, 2000). ...
The rise and fall of human cultures are strongly modulated by the strong environmental changes taking place during the Holocene. Here, we use the sedimentological and geochemical records of a core taken in the Arabian Sea, west of Kerala, to identify potential factors that may reflect on-land history of local civilizations, in particular the Harappan culture which appeared and collapsed in the Indus Valley during the early and middle Bronze Age. The ¹⁴ C record highlights a fourfold increase in sedimentation rate at ~5380 cal. yr BP. The short duration of this event (~220 years) suggests a steep regional increase in erosion at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Factor analysis of downcore changes in geochemistry identified two distinct detrital components dominated by silt and clay, respectively, and a component characteristic of chemical erosion. This interpretation is consistent with sediment mineralogy. Comparison with the known climatic record indicates that increased erosion rate at 5380 cal. yr BP around the Arabian Sea is because of the advent of farming. The development of tillage associated with both wheat and barley crops and animal husbandry was favored by trade between Mesopotamia and India. Human activities, therefore, were the trigger of major changes in the sedimentological and geochemical records at sea at the onset of the Bronze Age.
... Ports and harbours can be effectively and strategically located in the estuaries and backbeach areas of rivers, which in turn provide crucial conduits for the inland movement of cargo using riverine craft (Salway 2004). These backbeach or backwater environments represented excellent locations for founding a port town and viable fishing, farming and foraging communities, and were widely exploited in Europe (most Roman cities were located on floodplains), and also in South and Southeast Asia, at sites such as Pattanam (Kerala, southern India), believed to be the ancient port of Muziris (Shajan et al. 2004;Cherian et al. 2009;Selvakumar et al. 2009). Rivers are also sought-after locations for settlement and trade as the estuarine areas encompass many different littoral environments and represent one end of a riparian corridor that might penetrate many hundreds (or seasonally thousands) of kilometres inland, connecting markets located up the navigable river. ...
The Red Sea region is unfavourable for long-shore nautical activity as it lacks natural topographic features that could be used as harbours; there are only a few suitable bays for landing along its coasts, where wadi mouths allow for a break in the reef. However, experiencing seasonally variable winds and currents, parts of the Red Sea constituted favourable marine environments for sea voyaging, contact and trade for millennia. This paper focuses on the influence that the local environmental and climatic context (including land- and sea-scape), had on the location, development, and ultimate success or decline of key Classical (Greco-Roman) ports of trade on the Red Sea coast, most pertinently those involved in exchange on the Spice, Incense and Maritime Silk Routes. The importance of changes in geomorphological, climatic, landscape and sea level configurations that led to the alternation of these human-adapted landscapes will be discussed within the new theoretical framework of ‘Parameters of Attractiveness’ developed whilst focusing on a case study, the Greco-Roman port town of Berenike Troglodytica on the southern Red Sea coast of Egypt. These parameters—grouped into 4 main categories: Sea, Land, Resources, and Socio-Economic and Political—were designed in order to statistically quantify the attractiveness of particular sites along the rims of the Red Sea for use as trade ports.
... Until the discovery of this site, the port of ancient Muziris was considered to be at Kodungallur. The identification of the site through the initial surveys of K.P.Shajan and later joint work by the authors (Shajan et al 2004, Selvakumar et al. 2005) highlighted then importance of the site. The excavations conducted at the site by KCHR from 2007 have brought out very important finds from the site (). ...
Project Supervisor for Magnetometric Survey at Pattanam: Researched, planned, and conducted a magnetometric survey, identifying sub-surface features and mapping the Indo-Roman maritime landscape of Pattanam. Processed data in Digital Archaeology Computing Laboratory, UoS. Established a standard practice for future archaeology in India. Assisted in project excavation, geoarchaeological survey, and ceramic analysis, providing comparative data for interpreting the port’s heritage. Project artifacts exhibited at Unearthing Pattanam: Histories, Cultures, Crossings (National Museum, New Dehli). Geophysical Research Report Section: "The geophysical studies conducted by Ms. Carmen Obied, (Southampton University) consisted of magnetometric survey of select areas of the Pattanam site. The primary aim was to identify sub-surface features such as brick walls, hearths, kilns and dumps in order to map the ancient maritime landscape of Pattanam. Magnetometry is highly effective in archaeology since it can detect human processes and interventions that affect the magnetic properties of the soil. The magnetometric surveys have greater significance in Pattanam since they are particularly effective in waterlogged areas. At Pattanam, besides the water logged areas, the locations with possible sub-surface features were scanned using a dual sensor fluxgate gradiometer. The data will be processed at the Digital Archaeology Computing Laboratory at the University of Southampton and contextualized on the topographic survey maps of the Pattanam area. If the Pattanam survey generates positive results, it could become a standard practice for locating potential archaeological spots elsewhere in India."
... 19 For concentrations of wealth, see Jongman 2007. 20 For the distribution of Italian wine amphorae in India, see Suresh 2004, 99-100, 182-83;Sidebotham 2011, 191, 233, n. 119;Tomber 2007, 972-73, 979;2009, 43;Cherian et al. 2009;Shajan et al. 2004;Selvakumar et al. 2009;Agarwala 1985, 5;Slane 1991, 212;Thapar 1997, 13;Williams 2004;Williams and Peacock 2005. For an overview, see Cobb 2011, 204-05. ...
This paper examines the evidence for the time taken for a circuitous flow of goods between Italy and India to occur. It is argued that the distinct nature of the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trading spheres meant that it was often not possible for this circuit to be completed within one year. In particular, a comparison of papyrological, epigraphic and literary sources indicates that a variety of natural and manmade factors greatly impacted on these schedules. Consequently the goods which were traded between these two economic zones fluctuated in volume, nature and the prices for which they were sold.
... On the Malabar coast the Early Historic site at Pattanam, tentatively identified with ancient Muziris (Shajan et al. 2004), has yielded approximately seven sherds from torpedo jars, a number of turquoise glazed sherds (mostly undiagnostic body sherds) as well as Early Roman amphorae. These finds come primarily from surface collection, although two of the torpedo sherds are from excavated layers thought to belong to the Early Historic period (Selvakumar et al. 2005: 61-2). ...
Ever since Wheeler's triumphant discovery of Roman pottery at Arikamedu in the 1940s, it has been appreciated that the east coast of India was in reach of the Roman Empire. Tracking down the finds of Roman pottery on the Indian sub-continent reported since then, the author discovered that many of the supposed Roman amphorae were actually 'torpedo jars' from Mesopotamia. Here the areas of influence of these two great imports, probably of wine, are mapped for the first time.
... Arguably the most important Indian site excavated after Arikamedu is Pattanam, generally identified with the port of Muziris, mentioned in Roman as well as Tamil literary sources (Shajan et al. 2004). The Kerala Council for Historical Research has excavated at Pattanam since 2007. ...
In the millennium after 300 BC, the western Indian Ocean emerged as a main hub of Old World exchange. Study of this commerce long depended on separate regional archaeologies and a handful of literary sources with Western/Roman bias. A recent surge in scholarly interest has led to a vast increase in data that has fostered a more balanced understanding of the commercial, human, and material aspects of ancient Indian Ocean trade. This review summarizes recent research on the topic and assesses its significance to wider scholarly debates on scale, organization, connectivity, agency, and social cohesion in ancient trade and exchange.
... As in other parts of the tropics, the southwestern coast of India was also affected significantly by climate and sea level changes during the Late Quaternary. Recent advances in archaeological investigations in Central Kerala (southwest India) gave indications of shifts in human settlements in accordance with changing climates and/or sea level positions (Shajan et al., 2004;Nair et al., 2004). Therefore, investigations on the Late Quaternary sediments that are developed profusely in the coastal lowlands of Central Kerala are not only useful in strengthening our knowledge on palaeoclimate and sea level changes of the area, but also could be used for understanding on how ancient human civilization responded to these millennial scale climate changes. ...
Holocene climate and sea level changes have significant bearing on the geomorphic evolution of the coastal environments. A better understanding of the chronologic events of these changes is essential not only for ensuring accuracy of the climate/sea level prediction systems developed essentially from instrumental measurements but is also important for planning developmental initiatives in coastal and near shore environments. The present study is confined to the sedimentological, palynological and stable isotopic (δ13C and δ15N) evidence of palaeoclimate and sea level records in the Holocene sedimentary archives of the coastal lowlands of Periyar – Chalakudy river systems of Central Kerala, which host one of the fast developing urban – industrial centres in south India, Kochi City. The Holocene deposit in the study area is composed mainly of sand and clay dominant sediments that fall within an age range between 5390 ± 140 yrs BP and 10,110 ± 80 yrs BP. The palynological and non - pollen palynomorphs in the sediments together with the textural and geochemical attributes indicate that Holocene sedimentation took place in the area under fluctuating environmental conditions with marked changes of climate and sea level. The northern part of the study area near Pattanam revealed multiple lines of evidence of human habitation which were subsequently buried under fluvio-marine sediments in the Late Holocene.
... On the other hand, early evidence for contact with the Arabian Peninsula or Persian Gulf is equally lacking, and this does seem at odds with what is described in the Periplus. Perhaps tellingly, the recent discovery of another once elusive Periplus site—Muziris on the southwestern coast of India (Cherian et al. 2009; Shajan et al. 2004 Shajan et al. , 2008)—demonstrates how difficult it can be to trace even large trading ports with rich remains in the fertile tropics. The much smallerscale and less intensive trade on the East African coast, which involved exchange with small-scale, stateless, and potentially semi-sedentary or quite mobile societies (of either early farmers or, as seems increasingly possible, foraging and fishing groups) is unlikely to have left any significant remains. ...
The Indian Ocean has long been a forum for contact, trade and the transfer of goods, technologies and ideas between geographically distant groups of people. Another, less studied, outcome of expanding maritime connectivity in the region is the translocation of a range of species of plants and animals, both domestic and wild. A significant number of these translocations can now be seen to involve Africa, either providing or receiving species, suggesting that Africa's role in the emergence of an increasingly connected Indian Ocean world deserves more systematic consideration. While the earliest international contacts with the East African coast remain poorly understood, in part due to a paucity of archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies, some evidence for early African coastal activity is provided by the discovery of early hunter-gatherer sites on offshore islands, and, possibly, by the translocation of wild animals among these islands, and between them and the mainland. From the seventh century, however, clear evidence for participation in the Indian Ocean world emerges, in the form of a range of introduced species, including commensal and domestic animals, and agricultural crops. New genetic studies demonstrate that the flow of species to the coast is complex, with more than one source frequently indicated. The East African coast and Madagascar appear to have been significant centres of genetic admixture, drawing upon Southeast Asian, South Asian and Middle Eastern genetic varieties, and sometimes yielding unique hybrid species. The biological patterns reflect a deeply networked trade and contact situation, and support East Africa's key role in the events and transformations of the early Indian Ocean world.
... One can point now not only to the dissemination of Buddhism and other major cultural projects, but also to an increasingly well-documented record of material connections, from beads and pottery to plants and people (e.g. Cherian et al. 2009;Ray 1999Ray , 2003Shajan et al. 2004;Stern et al. 2008;Tomber 201 O;Tripathi 1993;see Champakalakshmi [1989] and Hanlon [2009] for discussion of textual evidence). This explosion of research into the Early Historic archaeological record, as much as it has expanded our understanding of the external and especially ocean-going links of the peninsula, has not, however, been matched by an equal focus on the interior. ...
http://www.lcoastpress.com/book.php?id=411
... 10° 09′ 434″; E Long 76° 12′ 587″). 41 A lay resident of Pattanam, Mr. Vinodhan, gave the information about the site at Pattanam to K. P. Shajan, who made preliminary investigations there. Based on these findings and the research undertaken by a team, it was hypothesized that Pattanam could be the location of the ancient Muziris. ...
The article introduces the papers presented at the Ninth Seminar on Armenian and Christian Eastern Art of the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. These studies provide a broad overview of the art of the South Caucasus and beyond; from Christian Art (the furnishings of the Basilica of the Nativity; the so-called crosses of St. Thomas; the illustrations of the apocryphal Gospels in Armenian manuscripts of the Vaspurakan School) to the transmigration of iconographic and symbolic themes between Persia and Armenia, to the travel narrative ( Itinerarium ) of Friar William Rubruk, to the Iron Age archaeological site of Taštepe (Iran), and concluding with the different architectural phases of the House of Creativity on Lake Sevan during the Soviet period. The volume restores the richness of themes and possible research perspectives in Eastern Christian Art, highlighting the important role of inscriptions as a possible leading thread.
Scholarship on the ancient Indian Ocean, which stretches deep into the previous century, is available from an array of academic disciplines including but not limited to history, archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, art history, and materials science. It spans from prehistory to the present era and includes evidence ranging from the Mediterranean to East Asia. What binds together the world of Indian Ocean research is an enduring interest in the complex maritime-based links crosscutting this space and—for archaeologists—the movements of cultural elements (objects, ideas, people, etc.) that have left behind some material trace. Recent field projects and materials science studies have greatly expanded this material database, refining (and sometimes challenging) traditional interpretations about Indian Ocean maritime relations. This review presents a streamlined perspective, focusing on recent archaeological contributions about long-distance interregional connections across the Indian Ocean from 500 bce to 1000 ce.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Anthropology, Volume 52 is October 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The paper focuses on archaeological finds of glass vessels along the routes of the maritime trade between the Red Sea, India, and China. The maritime trade in the period of the last centuries BC and the early centuries AD is thought to follow the practice of a segmentation of the maritime routes. In addition to the well known Mediterranean glass vessels, which travelled as far as China, special attention is given to a group of glass vessels, which apparently were produced in Guangxi in southern China in the Han period. A very similar fragmentary glass vessel found at Arikamedu in south-eastern India and other recent finds contribute to the picture of a rather active and direct trade between southern China and India along the Maritime Silk Road including a crossing of the Kra Isthmus.
Over the last decade, excavations at the archaeological site at Pattanam in Kerala, India, have produced a range of material data related to South India’s involvement in early Indian Ocean exchange networks. One such category is glass beads, an assemblage that now numbers over 100,000 beads. By far the most common type of glass bead from Pattanam is the Indo-Pacific bead, a small monochrome drawn bead that was likely produced in South Indian or Sri Lankan glass bead workshops. But along with Indo-Pacific beads are a variety of other distinct glass bead types, most of which were not made by the drawing method and whose production sites are less certain. A number of them have parallels from other sites in South Asia and elsewhere along the Indian Ocean littoral. These bead categories include gold glass beads; large faceted types that may imitate beryl gemstone beads; polychrome ‘zone’ beads that mimic banded agate beads; large drawn barrel beads and terracotta disc beads. This chapter focuses on the glass bead assemblages from the 2007, 2008 and 2009 excavation seasons. Each bead type is briefly described in terms of their typology and known regional/chronological distributions, as a first step towards understanding Pattanam’s position within a complex suite of inland and maritime exchange networks.
The state of Kerala in southwest India is a geologically important narrow strip of land located on the western flank of southern Western Ghats. The region constitutes a part of the Peninsular craton and is characterized by unique physiographic, geologic, and geomorphologic settings. The present investigation aims to decode the evolution of coastal wetlands in southern Kerala between Kazhakuttom and Kaniyapuram, using textural, mineralogical, and geochemical characteristics of two borehole cores and surface sediment samples collected from the coastal lands of the Kazhakuttom–Kaniyapuram belt. The coastal wetlands of the study area have been evolved due to Holocene sea-level fluctuations. The heavy rainfall and river discharges during the early–middle-Holocene together with sea-level rise of ∼6000 yrs BP might have aggravated deposition of alluvial sediments at the river confluence of Kulathur thodu. Later, the lowering of sea level in the beginning of the Meghalayan time might have exposed many elevated areas in the form of ridges and runnels of the present strandlines. The process of formation of the Kadinamkulam lagoon dates back to middle–late-Holocene period. The present geomorphic configuration is the outcome of interplay of late Quaternary climatic and sea-level changes, especially during the later phases of the Last Glacial Maximum.
Kochi is a versatile city. An emerging bustling cosmopolitan and commercial capital of Kerala, it also has a deep history, variety of ethnic communities and an old-world charm. Kochi has a style statement that distinguishes it from the rest of the state, in terms of lifestyle, dressing, diversity, market and opportunities. A travelogue describes Kochi as ‘magical without any trace of trickery’. It is among the 100 Indian cities selected to be transformed into a smart city. The population of the city region is expected to reach 2.27 million by 2031. This drastic increase calls for an urgent examination of several key aspects of the city infrastructure in order to ensure that Kochi is able to live up to the standard of a smart city. It is important to ensure the quality of urban development by studying the city's location at the junction of several ecosystems. Further, this paper looks beyond the smart city vision to making Kochi a creative city as well. Kochi has a unique mixture of ethnicity, culture, architecture and cuisine owing to the influence of traders from around the world as well as various parts of India. Thus, Kochi possesses the potential to push creative, knowledge-based economic activities. Strategies should be developed to encourage education and employment generation such that a creative class of people and occupations can flourish in the city.
People-to-People Partnership (PPP) is an important and inevitable mode of interactions in the sphere of international relations. In any kind of developmental, diplomatic and cultural interactions and relationships, the interests of the people are important. The AAGC is a strategic attempt in the area of South-South Cooperation. The conventional approaches in the study of history have focussed only on some parts of the world, while ignoring the history of Africa and many regions of Asia. For example, a survey of the history syllabi of the academic programmes across many Asian regions would reveal that there is more focus on other parts of the world, mainly the Western World, while completely ignoring Africa. The historical and cultural linkages between Africa and Asia have been very old and vibrant; but these connections have been forgotten because of the limitations of perceptions and outlook. This paper briefly outlines the historical linkages in the regions of Asia and Africa and offers some thoughts for positive People-to-People Partnership as part of AAGC.
Cambridge Core - Archaeology of Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and The Pacific - The Worlds of the Indian Ocean - by Philippe Beaujard
This paper deals with the references to Indian emporia contained in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well as in related sources (Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy). Indian emporia were ruled by several political entities that were located inland. These entities controlled the emporia to have direct access to imported products and to tax commercial transactions.
Like other parts of the tropical and sub-tropical coasts, the southwest coast of India also witnessed exceptional climate and sea level changes during the Late Quaternary period. The south west coast has a fairly thick deposit (50-60m) of Late Quaternary sediments in the South Kerala Sedimentary Basin (SKSB) and adjoining coastal lowlands. For the present study, the sedimentary archives in the coastal lands between Pallikkal River in the north and Ayroor River in the south have been chosen for decoding the palaeoclimatic and sea level records. In the study area, the Late Quaternary sediments rest over the Neogene deposits (Quilon and Warkalli Formations) and/or the Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks. The Late Quaternary deposits are represented by alluvial clays, sandy clays, peat and coastal sands. The borehole cores collected from the river confluence zones are composed of silty clay and sand. The older coastal plains are covered generally by fine to very fine quartzose sands whose base is marked either by laterite or by weathered crystalline rocks. The study reveals that the Early-Middle Holocene period was characterised by heavy rainfall and excessive input of terrigenous matters into the coastal wetlands. Marine transgression that affected the study area attained its peak at 6 - 5 kyrs BP. The climatic and sea level conditions of the Early Holocene were favourable for the development of Bay Head Deltas in the landward side of the estuarine basins while Flood Tide Deltas in their seaward side. The study shows that progradation of alluvial sediments and river meandering over its own deposits during the Early-Middle Holocene were instrumental in the cut-off of some of the prominent arms of the Pre-Holocene basins into separate wetlands like Sasthamkotta lake and Chelupola and Chittumalachira in Ashtamudi basin, Kotta kayal and Polachira in Paravur basin and, Poovankal wetland in the Nadayara basin. In short, the present configuration of the wetlands and the associated landform features of the Kollam coast are the outcome of the combined effects of sea level and climate changes to which the coast has been subjected during Holocene epoch.
The concept of trade in ancient India was quite different from modern times. In olden day’s mariners, artisans, traders, Buddhist monks and religious leaders used to set sail together and this trend continued till the advent of modern shipping. The representation of art on the walls of the caves, stupas and temples enlighten us regarding their joint ventures, experiences and problems faced during the sea voyages. The finding of varieties of pottery, punch marked and Roman coins, Brahmi and Kharoshti inscriptions along the ports, trade centres and Buddhist settlements suggest the role played by them in maritime trade during the early historical period and later. Mariners of India were aware of the monsoon wind and currents for more than two thousand years if not earlier. Furthermore, the study shows that the maritime contact with Southeast Asian countries was seasonal and no changes of Southwest and Northeast monsoon have been noticed since then. This paper details the types of pottery, beads, cargo found at ports, trade routes and Buddhist settlements along the east coast of India and the role of monsoons in maritime trade. The impact of Buddhism on trade and society of the region are also discussed.
The Holocene epoch, all over the world, has witnessed exceptional climate and sea level changes. Although the south-west coast of India has a fairly thick deposit of Holocene sediments of 50-60 m in the South Kerala Sedimentary Basin (SKSB) and its adjoining coastal lowlands (see inset in Fig. 13.1), not much focus has been given to unfold its palaeo-climatic and palaeo-environmental potential till the beginning of the present century (Joseph and Thrivikramji, 2002; Nair and Padmalal, 2003; Nair et al., 2006; Kumaran et al., 2005; Limaye et al., 2007). South-west coast of India was affected significantly by sea level and climate changes which in turn had a strong bearing on human settlements/migration in the area. Recent advances in archaeological investigations in the Pattanam-Kodungallur stretch in Central Kerala (Shajan et al., 2004; Abraham, 2006) gave indications of shifts in human settlements in accordance with changing climates and/or sea level positions.
There has been a continuing debate about the extent to which the Roman Empire suffered an economic imbalance in its trade with India (and more broadly the East), that is to say whether in volume or value the Roman Empire imported more than it exported. This imbalance is often thought to be manifested in the export of Roman gold and silver to India and the connected notion that other goods from the Roman Empire were seen as merely items of ballast. It is the intention of this article to place this debate in a practical context by demonstrating not only the physical need for mixed cargoes on ships sailing to India, but also the negligible amount of space taken up by the gold and silver. It is argued that in terms of volume (if not value) goods in kind were far more significant.
In this paper recent archaeological evidence from the port city of Dibba in the United Arab Emirates is presented. Finds of both ceramics and elite objects detail the extensive maritime trade network that connected this part of Arabia with the broader Indian Ocean World.
When considering the South Asian diaspora in Britain, attention is more often than not drawn to migration and settlement patterns in the country from the mid-twentieth century. A more extended scope has been provided in terms of considering movements between the two regions in the colonial period, particularly from the nineteenth century with a couple of studies focusing on the period since the 1600s. This article considers a frame further back in time when European cities like London first became a site of ‘ancient cosmopolitanism’ open to migration from regions including South Asia during the period of the Roman Empire. The approach adopted in this article is critical of colonial, regional and nationalist blinkers on the tracts of history, and enables a means of considering ancient connections between Europe and South Asia as well as other modes of interpretation of the cultural and material legacy of the Roman era.
Phytoplankton has played a central role in mitigating and amplifying climate change in the past and may have contributed to stabilizing the climate by influencing the partitioning of climate-relevant gases between the ocean and atmosphere (Schlesinger, 2005). In modern day, phytoplankton can be used as excellent proxies for detecting changes in the water column as a result of anthropogenic activities (Moncheva et al., 2001).
Gaumukh is the snout of the Gangotri glacier located at an altitude of 4000 m in the Himalayas from where the snow and glacier-fed Bhagirathi River emerges. Snow, ice, river discharge and rainfall samples were collected for stable isotope (δ 18O) analysis along with other hydrometeorological data during the ablation period (May to October) in 2004 and 2005 at Bhojwasa, 3 km downstream of Gaumukh. The variation in river isotopic composition (δ 18O) with time shows the varied percentage of snow, glacier and rain contribution in the flow of the Bhagirathi River during the ablation period. The discharge of the Bhagirathi River shows positive correlation with temperature and negative correlation with the rain event. The enriched δ 18O values of river flow (-12 to -13.0‰) from May to June and its depletion afterwards reveal that snowmelt dominates the river discharge during May and June while ice/glacier melt dominates in the subsequent months of the ablation period. The contribution of rain was found maximum up to 40% of the total discharge of the river on the day of the rainfall. The complete hydrograph separated out for three rain events occurred in July and September 2005, revealed the rain contribution to the tune of 14-15% of the total river discharge. The contribution of the total rainfall which occurred during the ablation period was estimated to be only 3% of the total discharge. The results show that the melting rate of snow and glacier decreases due to decrease in temperature during the rainy period. This fact clearly explains the phenomenon of decrease in overall discharge of snow and glacier-fed rivers during the rainfall period at higher altitudes or near the snout.
Pattanam (10°09.434′N, 76°12.587′E; Ernakulam District, Kerala) has brought forth an early historic port town with archaeological evidence for mercantile contacts with the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Indian Ocean rims. Excavations by the Kerala Council for Historical Research in 2007 revealed maritime features, including a wharf with wooden posts/bollards of Tectona grandis, and a dugout canoe of Artocarpus hirsutus. The first-ever Iron Age habitation remains of Kerala were also unearthed. The AMS dating of charcoal samples from the Iron Age layer places the beginning of the Iron Age in the first half of the first millennium BC, and the wooden samples from the wharf context mark the maritime features of the site to the late first millennium BC to the early first millennium AD.
The Egyptian Red Sea site of Berenike has long been recognized as a port of foremost importance for the trade between Egypt, Arabia and India. Excavations undertaken at Berenike since have provided tangible archaeological evidence for Indo-Roman trade from a broad spectrum of artefacts, including ceramics, glass beads textiles, as well as archaeobotanical remains 1998: 311-19; and wood, and epigraphic evidence from a single Tamil-Brahmi graffito. This note concentrates on the pottery, in order to draw attention to the range and quantity of material recovered from Berenike with links to India or South Asia, and highlights the scope for future analytical work to refine the source areas of these vessels. The pottery is of interest not only for confirming contact between the two regions, but, in conjunction with other classes of artefacts, investigating the nature of this contact and the traders involved. Because of its context, in association with well-dated Roman material, it also complements the dating evidence from the Indian finds. Most, but certaintly not all, of the sherds come from early Roman deposits of either late Augustan or mid/late 1st-century AD date; those which occur in late Roman deposits are more difficult to judge since many of these contexts contain a high proportion of residual wares, but evidence from the beads indicates flourishing contact between Egypt and Sri Lanka during the late Roman period (Francis in press). More detailed descriptions of the Berenike sherds, particularly the fabrics, can be found elesewhere (Begley and Tomber 1999; Tomber and Begley in press). This note draws heavily on the evidence from Arikamedu, where both forms and fabrics are well published, although increasingly new evidence for many ceramic types and interaction between the regions is available from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.