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African American Families in Diversity: Gay Men and Lesbians as Participants in Family Networks
Abstract
Although recent research on African American families has focused on the roles of extended family members and fictive kin (i.e., non-biological members), the participation of openly gay-identified men and women within African American family systems has received little attention. The study examines gay men's and lesbians' disclosure of sexual orientation to immediate and distant kin. Questionnaires assessing disclosure and demographic backgrounds were completed by African American lesbians (n=506) and gay men (n=673), recruited nationally. Results indicate that most had disclosed their sexual orientation to immediate family (i.e., mothers, fathers and siblings) but fewer to other relatives. There was a clear preference for disclosure to females in the immediate family. Significant positive predictors of disclosure for both immediate and more distant family members were being older and reporting initiating homosexual sexual activity at a younger age. Self-reported HIV infection among men predicted immediate family awareness of the individual's homosexuality, but not awareness by the extended family. Apparently over time, individuals disclose homosexuality to those within the close family network. Results are discussed within the context of African American family networks.
... In four qualitative studies, cis-gender African American men who have sex with men (MSM) participants discussed the fear of family rejection as a salient factor in selecting whom to disclose their sexual identity. Moreover, participants across the four qualitative studies indicated being open about their sexual identity with LGBTQ affirming communities and not within their families of origin or broader African American community (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2014;Kubicek et al., 2013;Levitt et al., 2015;Mays, Tiers, Cochran, & Mackness, 1998). ...
... In four qualitative studies, participants routinely discussed HIV stigma in relation to rejection from their families of origin (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2014;Horne et al., 2015;Levitt et al., 2015;Mays, Chatters, Cochran, & Mackness, 1998). Participants reported instances in which families members would use HIV/AIDS stigmatized language as either a deterrent from embracing a healthy LGBTQ identity (i.e., 'Don't be gay … You're going to get AIDS') or use an imagined HIV-related financial burden as a justification family rejection Mays et al., 1998). The implications for this particular type of familial rejection had a lasting impact. ...
... Social support Across 13 studies, participants reported receiving significant social support from their chosen and created families (Arnold & Bailey, 2009;Dickson-Gomez et al., 2014;Holloway, Schrager, Wong, Dunlap, & Kipke, 2014;Horne et al., 2015;Levitt et al., 2015;Lemos et al., 2015;Kubicek et al., 2013, Kubicek et al., 2013Mays et al., 1998;Weston, 1991;Wong, Schrager, Holloway, Meyer, & Kipke, 2014;Young et al., 2017;Zarwell & Robinson, 2018). Participants routinely highlighted the benefit of having a network of people who understood their sexual and gender experiences, and who also understood the experience of being rejected from their families of origin. ...
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) youth are at an increased risk for social isolation and family rejection. This is particularly true in African American communities where there is an increased lack of social support and acceptance for LGBTQ youth from their biological families, communities, churches, schools and healthcare systems. To counteract the social isolation and develop a sense of community, African American LGBTQ youth often form chosen or created families, with peers and older LGBTQ persons that mimic nuclear family structures, to cope with rejection at home and in their communities. These resilient social networks are created with varying sets of rules and relationship dynamics that may directly impact the social determinants of health among this community. The purpose of this manuscript is to systematically review the literature on African American LGBTQ youth and created families and identify patterns about the unique experiences of African LGBTQ youth who participate in these systems.
... These characteristics were not assessed in the current study. Fifth, we used a general social support measure and did not specifically assess the source of the support and an individual's satisfaction with the support within the context of HIV stigma [46,51]. This may be particularly relevant for individuals with intersecting marginalized identities (e.g., Black men who have sex with men) who may seek out different sources of social support that are not tied to rejection of their HIV status and/or sexuality [46,51,52]. ...
... Fifth, we used a general social support measure and did not specifically assess the source of the support and an individual's satisfaction with the support within the context of HIV stigma [46,51]. This may be particularly relevant for individuals with intersecting marginalized identities (e.g., Black men who have sex with men) who may seek out different sources of social support that are not tied to rejection of their HIV status and/or sexuality [46,51,52]. Lastly, HIV care engagement and viral load results were self-reported and not confirmed with other supporting or clinical data that may have resulted in social desirability bias in the responses. ...
IntroductionHIV-related stigma continues to serve as a major barrier to HIV care. HIV stigma reduction interventions are urgently needed to promote and protect the health of persons living with HIV (PLWH). Resilience has been identified as a potential leverage to mitigate the impact of HIV-related stigma among PLWH.Methods
We examined whether two resilience measures (i.e., social support and resilience assets and resources [RAR]) moderated the relationship between experienced HIV stigma and the HIV care continuum as well as how they moderated the relationship between the consequences of experienced HIV stigma (CES) and the HIV care continuum among 300 PLWH in Louisiana. Separate bootstrapping analyses were conducted to test for evidence of moderated moderation.ResultsMost participants were Black (79%) and had been living with HIV for 10 years or more. A relatively high sample of men who have sex with men (MSM) were enrolled (37%). The most common CES were depression (67%). The most common manifestation of experienced HIV stigma was being gossiped about (53%). Participants reported moderate levels of social support. In terms of RAR, most participants (71%) reported that they knew of groups that could support them in responding to experienced HIV stigma. After adjusting for potential covariates, social support and RAR both significantly moderated the relationship between experienced HIV stigma and length of time since their last HIV care visit, B(SE) = .003(.001), p = .03. At high levels of RAR and high levels of social support, those with higher levels of experienced HIV stigma reported a longer length of time since their last HIV care visit than those who reported lower levels of experienced HIV stigma (B(SE) = .17(.04), p < .001). RAR moderated the relationship between social support and HIV care, B(SE) = .01(.004), p < .001. Those who experienced greater CES reported a longer length of time since their last doctor’s visit B(SE) = .04(.02), p < .05. Experienced HIV stigma was not significantly associated with viral load results. However, social support significantly moderated the relationship between experienced stigma and viral load results. At higher levels of social support, those who experienced lower levels of stigma were more likely to report an undetectable viral load than those who had higher levels of stigma, B(SE) = − .13(.03), p < .001. Finally, both RAR and social support moderated the relationship between CES and viral load results. Those who reported higher levels of RAR B(SE) = − .07(.02), p < .001, and social support, B(SE) = − .02(.01), p < .05, also reported having an undetectable viral load at most recent HIV care visit. CES was not significantly related to reporting an undetectable viral load (p = .61).Conclusions
Enrolled PLWH already have some level of resilience which plays an important protective role within the context of the HIV care continuum up to a certain extent. Interventions to enhance the RAR and social support components may be useful especially among MSM and persons who have been living with HIV for a shorter period of time.
... Partners are sometimes the only source of validation, especially for Black same-sex couples (Glass & Few-Demo, 2013). Scholars have found that when gay and lesbian couples lack emotional support from extended family, partners turn to each other for support (Mays et al., 1998), creating a "two-against-the-world" stance (Slater & Mencher, 1991, p. 378) to shield them against familial nonacceptance. Within this stance, Black lesbian couples often built a symbolic boundary around their relationship to shield themselves from homophobia and negativity (Glass & Few-Demo, 2013). ...
Black sexual minority women (SMW), the largest racial group among the sexual minority community, often report high psychological distress and decreased psychological health and social well-being. Strong, positive, social relationships positive within group identities, and support networks are a key component in coping with minority stressors and promoting overall well-being. This study explored the association between minority stressors, social support, and Black SMW’s social well-being and psychological distress. Participants consisted of individuals identifying as Black (including biracial identities, n = 48) cisgender women (N = 149) who responded to the Generations Study’s initial round of surveys collected in 2016–2017. Participants were between the ages of 18–60, with a mean of 29.3 years old. Descriptive and bivariate correlations were conducted for lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) stigma, internalized homophobia, gender presentation, ethnic identity affiliation, LGB community connectedness, and social support. Multiple regression models were conducted to analyze correlates of social well-being and psychological distress, controlling for age and education level. LGB stigma and internalized homophobia were significant predictors of social well-being and psychological distress. Low internalized homophobia, distress, and stigma were associated with higher social well-being as were high connection to LGB and ethnic communities. Implications for therapy are discussed.
... BSMM and BTW experience both racism, homophobia and a unique intersection of the two that is not experienced by black heterosexual men or sexual/gender minorities of other racial groups. 21 This stigma may include families of BSMM and BTW having negative attitudes towards same-sex relationships, 22 and people of colour being excluded from the majority of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning (LGBTQ) communities and social networks, with black LGBTQ people forming their own networks. 23 Hence, the negative effects of incarceration on social support could be exacerbated among BSMM and BTW who may already be at risk of reduced support. ...
Objective
To examine longitudinal associations between recent incarceration and subsequent social support among black sexual minority men and transgender women, and whether associations differed between those who did and did not have support prior to incarceration.
Design
A secondary analysis in 2020 of data from the HIV Prevention Trials Network 061, a cohort study of black sexual minority men and transgender women recruited in 2009–2010 and followed for 12 months.
Setting
Six US cities (Atlanta, Boston, Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco and Washington DC).
Participants
Individuals ≥18 years of age who identified as black, reported being male or assigned male at birth, reported ≥1 unprotected anal intercourse event with a male partner in the past 6 months, and reported on incarceration at the 6-month follow-up visit.
Exposure
Having spent ≥1 night in jail/prison in the past 6 months reported at the 6-month follow-up visit.
Outcome
Social support measured using a six-item scale assessing frequency of emotional/informational, affectionate and tangible support (range 6–30); and dichotomous indicators of low support for each item (ie, receiving that form of support none/little of the time).
Results
Among participants who returned for the 6-month visit (N=1169), 14% had experienced incarceration in the past 6 months. Mean support score was 20.9; 18.9 among those with recent incarceration versus 21.2 among those without. Recent incarceration predicted lower support (adjusted β −2.40, 95% CI −3.94 to –0.85). Those recently incarcerated had increased risk of lacking emotional/informational (eg, no one to talk to adjusted risk ratio (aRR) 1.55, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.13) and affectionate (aRR 1.51, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.04) but not tangible support. Effects appeared somewhat stronger among those who had support at baseline.
Conclusions
Incarceration may reduce support on re-entry among black sexual minority men and transgender women, populations unequally targeted for incarceration and at risk for low support.
... This may therefore result in ruminative identity exploration, which is characterized as hesitation and indecisiveness stemming from ongoing exploration and not having the intrapersonal space necessary to make commitments (Luyckx et al., 2005). Furthermore, LGBTQ-POC may find themselves engaging in the concealment of their sexual orientation in order to maintain close ties to and avoid conflict with families of origins (Mays, Chatters, Cochran, & Mackness, 1998). ...
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people of colour (LGBTQ-POC) are confronted with daily, subtle racist and heterosexist microaggressions, which have been linked to stress and increased likelihood of mental health problems. The current study applied an intersectional framework to understand the role that intersectional microaggressions play in predicting psychological distress among LGBTQ-POC. Furthermore, rather than merely investigating risk, the current study integrated a resiliency perspective to understand how individual- and community-level promotive factors compensate for and protect against psychological distress in the face of intersectional microaggressions. A racially diverse sample of 200 LGBTQ emerging adults of colour (ages 18-29) participated in an online study that assessed psychological distress, three types of microaggressions (racial, heterosexist, and intersectional), social identity, and community connectedness. Results indicated that although heterosexist and racial microaggressions predicted psychological distress, when considered together, intersectional microaggressions accounted for the majority of the relationship and were a better predictor of psychological distress. Additionally, although social identity was not protective, connectedness with each of the three communities (LGBTQ, POC, LGBTQ-POC) had a direct compensatory effect on psychological distress. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
... In addition to parenting their own biological, foster, and adopted children, many queer people provide financial and emotional support to siblings, nieces and nephews, and grandchildren and to other children within their racial and ethnic communities (Mays, Chatters, Cochran, & Mackness, 1998;Moore, 2011a). Black same-sex couples are more than twice as likely as White same-sex couples to be parenting at least one nonbiological child, including children of relatives (Moore & Stambolis-Ruhstorfer, 2013). ...
LGBTQ people of color in North America are raising children in significant numbers and are more likely than are White LGBTQ people to have children under 18 living in their homes. Emerging data point as well to significant numbers of queer parents globally, including many queer people who are raising children in the Global South and who are often left out of the discourse about LGBTQ-parent families. Rather than simply adding such families to existing models, scholars need to radically rethink the assumptions and models that we have built based on narrow samples of White, North American lesbian and gay parents. This chapter highlights theoretical insights and themes from a growing body of work on LGBTQ parenting in US communities of color and in global and transnational contexts. We explore demographic characteristics, structural inequalities, pathways to parenthood, and the rich variation in ways that heteronormative definitions of family are constructed and contested in and beyond North America. The studies we review recognize race, ethnicity, citizenship, and colonial legacies as central to the possibilities for queer family formation and to the daily lives of LGBTQ parents and their children.
This article examines how the recent controversy about the College Board's A.P. African American Studies course has implications for studies on Black families. In relegating Black feminism and Black queer theory as optional research topics in the course, the College Board failed to recognize the importance of theorizing intersectional blackness in research in Black Studies in general and research on Black families in particular. The College Board failed to recognize how race, gender, sexuality, and other social forces converge to provide a richer picture of Black lives. In utilizing a theoretical lens of intersectional blackness as a foundation, I use both the Florida Board of Education's position regarding the “merits” of the A.P. course and the College Board's decision to fringe certain topics as examples of how both Black families and Black Studies are maligned by framing both as inferior and lacking.
Introduction
The Outness Inventory (OI) is the most commonly used measure for assessing an individual’s level of outness, or openness about sexual identity. However, data on the validity of the OI factor structure across diverse populations is limited. The present study aimed to test the factor structure of the OI in a population-based sample of Black and White young adult women.
Method
Participants included 319 lesbian and bisexual women drawn from the Pittsburgh Girls Study (PGS), a large longitudinal study of 5- to 8-year-old girls (53% Black) oversampled from low-income neighborhoods and followed through adulthood. Participants completed the 11-item OI at ages 20-23 years. Confirmatory factor analyses evaluated measurement invariance of the OI across race and suggested significant differences in factor structure between Black and White sexual minority women. Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) were conducted separately by race.
Results
An EFA revealed three factors for the Black subsample: Family, Straight Friends, and Work/Strangers. Three factors also emerged for the White subsample, representing Familiar Acquaintances, Less Familiar Acquaintances, and Work.
Conclusion
Additional research is needed to investigate potential culturally-based differences in domains of disclosure, which may help to better understand how specific contexts of outness relate to mental health.
Background and Objectives: Understanding the influence of social resources on health is crucial in gerontological research. However, access to social resources may differ by one’s particular LGBT identity and the intersection of LGBT identity with other sociodemographic characteristics, including age.
Research Design and Methods: Using 2010 data from Caring and Aging With Pride (N = 2,536), this study examined how access to social resources varied by LGBT identity and whether the effect of LGBT identity was modified by additional sociodemographic characteristics among LGBT adults aged 50 to 95.
Results: Lesbian respondents had larger social networks than gay male respondents, and gay male respondents had smaller networks than transgender respondents. Lesbian respondents reported more social support and community belonging than other identity groups. Bisexual male respondents and transgender respondents had less support than gay male respondents, and bisexual male respondents reported less community belonging than gay male respondents. Age and education moderated the association between LGBT identity and social support.
Discussion and Implications: This study demonstrated differences in access to social resources according to environmental circumstances that can intersect and govern access to social resources. Findings highlight the importance of considering social support separately from social network size; thus, large social networks do not necessarily provide ample social support. LGBT older adults had different perceptions of social support than their middle-aged counterparts. Health and human service professionals should not only consider the sexual and gender identity of their LGBT clients, but also education and age when assessing access to social resources.
In this chapter, we consider the methodological needs of the field of LGBTQ-parent families. Our goal with this chapter is to engage in a transparent discussion of the methods used in LGBTQ-parent research—a discussion often reduced to a few sentences in journal publications. Currently, the field has two main methodological-related endeavors. The first is the dedication to the further inclusion of underrepresented populations in LGBTQ-parent research. The second is the need for more nationally representative research. In this chapter, we put forward ideas for improving measurement, thoroughly discuss methods and recruitment strategies that hold promise for including traditionally underrepresented populations in LGBTQ-parent research, and discuss pros and cons of different sampling methods in studying LGBTQ-parent families. We end the chapter with recommendations for future methodological endeavors from LGBTQ-parent scholars and a summary of the practical implications of methodological issues.
Demographic correlates of familial and nonfamilial sources of emergency assistance among blacks were examined with data from a national probability sample (Panel Study of Income Dynamics--1980). Both family and non-kin were found to be important sources of emergency assistance. Multivariate analyses revealed age, gender, marital status, and urban/rural differences in the source of emergency assistance. The findings highlighted the critical importance of the parent-child bond across the life course. The article concludes with a discussion of the practice implications of the findings.
This research examines th relationship between household composition and sources of household income among Hispanics, blacks, and non-Hispanic whites. Specifically, we investigate the extent to which extended living arrangements help buffer the effect of labor market disadvantages faced by minority household heads. Results of logit and regression analyses indicate that differences in the prevalence of extented family households reflect primarily group-specific differences in the propensity to extend, but that this demographic mechanism may also serve as a compensatory strategy for supplementing the temporarily or chronically low earnings of minority household heads. In black and Hispanic households, nonnuclear members contribute significantly to total household income, although their relative contributions are approximately similar for poor and nonpoor households. Nonnuclear members in non-Hispanic white households appear not to participate significantly in the generation of household income.
The impact of familial and demographic factors on the receipt of support from family members was examined among a sample of blacks (National Survey of Black Americans). The findings indicated that income, age, family contact, subjective family closeness, and proximity of relatives were determinants of receiving support. In addition, an interaction was revealed between age and the presence of a child in determining support from family members. The findings substantiate the importance of adult children in the informal social support networks of elderly blacks. The use of multivariate analyses extends previous work in this area and suggests that these relationships are more complex than originally thought.
In reviewing the effects of having a gay or lesbian member in the family of origin, one is repeatedly drawn to the central role played by the social stigma surrounding homosexuality. The resent paper suggests that social stereotypes and prejudices toward homosexuals create an image of homosexuality as incompatible with the family, and that the family's reactions having a homosexual member depend upon their acceptance or rejection of these prejudices. When homosexual family members are discovered, heterosexual family members experience a conflict between their conceptions of homosexual persons and the familiar family role of the homosexual member. The origin and nature of this conflict, and differences among family members in their reactions are reviewed. Long-term resolution and possible models of positive and negative outcome are also described. It is suggested that the conflict experienced by family members is in many ways similar to the "coming out" process of homosexual identity acquisition, and that this similarity may reflect common mechanisms for coming to grips with a pejorative, negatively labeled social identity.
Being married has generally been associated with better mental health for adult females, in part because of the social support derived from a primary network relationship. Without the benefit of a spouse, it would be expected that nonmarried adult females would have fewer sources of social support and concomitantly lower levels of psychological well-being. Focusing on selected network characteristics, this study analyzes the differences in social support available to a sample of 91 married and 183 nonmarried Black females residing in a metropolitan area. Results indicate that having a spouse has little influence on the number of socially supportive relationships or the most important sources of assistance with financial problems. A marital partner is a source of emotional support for married Black females, but only for less than one-third. Family members and extended kin are major sources of social support for Black females, irrespective of marital status.
The number of informal helpers who are utilized during a serious personal problem was examined among a national sample of black adults. Kin were more prevalent in the helper network than nonkin. Multivariate analysis indicated that network size was predicted by age, gender, income, familial contact, and type of problem. An interaction between age and having a child substantiated the importance of adult children in maintaining the informal support networks of older adults. The discussion highlights the significance of the informal network in providing assistance during a personal crisis.
The literature on black families from the past decade is reviewed. An overview of topics and issues of importance to black families considers (a) black families in relation to their age, gender, and family roles, (b) substantive issues of relevance to black American families, including social support and psychological well-being, and (c) an examination of recent demographic trends in black family structure. The conclusion provides comments on research on black families and recommendations for future efforts.
Attitudes toward sexuality differ within the diverse ethnic and racial communities that exist in the U.S., and the cultural values and beliefs surrounding sexuality play a major role in determining how individuals behave within their sociological context. The family unit is the domain where such values and beliefs are nurtured and developed. An individual's value system is shaped and reinforced within the family context which usually reflects the broader community norms. Disclosure of a gay or lesbian sexual preference and lifestyle by a family member presents challenges to ethnic minority families who tend not to discuss sexuality issues and presume a heterosexual orientation. For ethnic minority gays and lesbians the "coming out" process presents challenges in their identity formation processes and in their loyalties to one community over another. Ethnic gay men and lesbians need to live within three rigidly defined and strongly independent communities: the gay and lesbian community, the ethnic minority community, and the society at large. While each community provides fundamental needs, serious consequences emerge if such communities were to be visibly integrated and merged. It requires a constant effort to maintain oneself in three different worlds, each of which fails to support significant aspects of a person's life. The complications that arise may inhibit one's ability to adapt and to maximize personal potentials. The purpose of this paper is to examine the interaction and processes between ethnic minority communities and their gay and lesbian family members. A framework for understanding the process of change, that occurs for the gay or lesbian person as they attempt to resolve conflicts of dual minority membership, is presented. Implications for the practitioner is also discussed.
Explores kin-based support networks, and demographic and family network characteristics as determinants of specific assistance types (financial, emotional, child care) among African American mothers. The authors studied a representative sample of 620 single and married mothers aged 18 and over. Special attention is given to the role of marital status in kin support networks, by focusing on the diversity within the single category (never married, divorced or separated, widowed). Region, age, household structure, proximity to family, and kin affinity were studied and found to be significant predictors of assistance from extended kin. Significant contrasts were found between never married and married mothers (financial assistance), as well as never married and widowed mothers (emotional assistance). The authors studied poverty status, and found interaction effects between marital status and poverty ratio. Proximity to immediate family marital status were also found to be related. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present review summarizes what is known about reactions of family members to disclosure of homosexual identity, both within the family of origin and in families where the disclosing member is a spouse or parent. It is suggested that the traumatic nature of family member reaction consists of two related processes: (a) the application of negative values about homosexuality to the disclosing member, and (b) a perception that homosexual identity negates or violates previous family roles. Future research in this complex and understudied area could reveal much about the nature of both homosexual identity and family relationships.