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Will Ngorongoro Conservation Area remain a world heritage site amidst increasing human footprint?
... The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Northern Tanzania is a designated United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) World Heritage Site for exceptional natural and cultural values (UNESCO, 2010). It is part of the world's largest intact savannah systems, the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem, which includes the Serengeti National Park and the Maasai Mara, where one of Africa's largest animal migrations takes place (Masao et al., 2015;Swanson, 2007). The NCA also supports the largest population of the critically endangered Eastern Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis michaeli in Tanzania (Amiyo, 2006;Goddard, 1968;Mills et al., 2006). ...
... Land cover changes in the NCA are driven by a combination of local and global drivers (Homewood et al., 2001;Masao et al., 2015;Niboye, 2010). Firstly, the Maasai community within the NCA increased from roughly 8000 in 1959 to almost 100 000 in 2018, with an accompanying livestock population of approximately 800 000 in 2018 (Lyimo et al., 2020;Manzano & Yamat, 2018). ...
... Population growth has led to the expansion of settlements, livestock bomas and demand for water resources (TAWIRI & NCAA, 2020). In addition, tourism, grazing pressure, climate change and management decisions also seem to be contributors to change (Homewood et al., 2001;Masao et al., 2015;Niboye, 2010). Many of these changes have led to the decline in habitat quality (Amiyo, 2006;Estes et al., 2006;Niboye, 2010). ...
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) of Tanzania, is globally significant for biodiversity conservation due to the presence of iconic fauna, and, since 1959 has been managed as a unique multiple land‐use areas to mutually benefit wildlife and indigenous residents. Understating vegetation dynamics and ongoing land cover change processes in protected areas is important to protect biodiversity and ensure sustainable development. However, land cover changes in savannahs are especially difficult, as changes are often long‐term and subtle. Here, we demonstrate a Landsat‐based monitoring strategy incorporating (i) regression‐based unmixing for the accurate mapping of the fraction of the different land cover types, and (ii) a combination of linear regression and the BFAST trend break analysis technique for mapping and quantifying land cover changes. Using Google Earth Pro and the EnMap‐Box software, the fractional cover of the main land cover types of the NCA were accurately mapped for the first time, namely bareland, bushland, cropland, forest, grassland, montane heath, shrubland, water and woodland. Our results show that the main changes occurring in the NCA are the degradation of upland forests into bushland: we exemplify this with a case study in the Lerai Forest; and found declines in grassland and co‐incident increases in shrubland in the Serengeti Plains, suggesting woody encroachment. These changes threaten the wellbeing of livestock, the livelihoods of resident pastoralists and of the wildlife dependent on these grazing areas. Some of the land cover changes may be occurring naturally and caused by herbivory, rainfall patterns and vegetation succession, but many are linked to human activity, specifically, management policies, tourism development and the increase in human population and livestock. Our study provides for the first time much needed and highly accurate information on long‐term land cover changes in the NCA that can support the sustainable management and conservation of this unique UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is globally important for biodiversity conservation due to the presence of iconic megafauna. For decades now, the NCA is experiencing a number of notoriously difficult to address challenges; understanding its land cover dynamics is therefore increasingly important to improve habitat monitoring, preserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable development. We used multi‐temporal Landsat data spanning 35 years and a combination of regression‐based unmixing, linear regression and a trend break analysis to map and quantify the land cover dynamics in the area. We found a decrease in forest and grassland cover as well as a significant amount of woody encroachment which is often linked to land degradation in African savannahs. These changes are consistent with other savannah ecosystems and pose a threat to the wellbeing of livestock, the livelihoods of the pastoralist communities, and the wildlife of the NCA.
... The area is surrounded by watersheds covering an area of about 33,452 km 2 from latitude 2.2°to 4.5°S and longitude 34.0°to 36.7°E ( Fig. 1 ). The NCA is characterized by moist and misty conditions, where temperatures in the semi-arid zone can fall as low as 2°C in June/July, and often rises to 35°C in February ( Masao et al., 2015 ). Rainfall in this area is seasonal and highly variable, ranging from 400 to 600 mm/year over the arid lowland plains in the west and from 1000 to1200 mm/year over the highland forested areas in the east ( Lawuo et al., 2014 ). ...
... The NCA is a highly diverse ecosystem and is broadly categorized into five different zones: the Crater Highlands, the Salei Plains, the Gol Mountains, the Serengeti Plains, and the Kakesio Mountain ( Masao et al., 2015 ). The area is covered with a complex vegetation structure ranging from montane forest and tussock grassland in the highlands to semi-arid woodlands and short grasslands in the lowlands ( Masao et al., 2015 ). ...
... The NCA is a highly diverse ecosystem and is broadly categorized into five different zones: the Crater Highlands, the Salei Plains, the Gol Mountains, the Serengeti Plains, and the Kakesio Mountain ( Masao et al., 2015 ). The area is covered with a complex vegetation structure ranging from montane forest and tussock grassland in the highlands to semi-arid woodlands and short grasslands in the lowlands ( Masao et al., 2015 ). The geology of the area is influenced by volcanism and tectonic movements, which are the active processes from the north-south of the East African Rift Valley system. ...
Considering the high vulnerability of Northern Tanzania to climate change, an in-depth assessment at the local scale is required urgently to formulate sustainable adaptations measures. Therefore, this study analyzed the future (2021-2050) changes in rainfall and temperature under the representative concentration pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for the watersheds surrounding the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) at a spatio-temporal scale relative to the observed historical (1982-2011) period. The climate change analysis was performed at monthly and annual scale using outputs from a multi-model ensemble of Regional Climate Models (RCMs) and statistically downscaled Global Climate Models (GCMs). The performance of the RCMs were evaluated, and the downscaling of the GCMs were performed using Statistical Downscaling System Model (SDSM) and LARS-WG, with all the models indicating a higher accuracy at monthly scale when evaluated using statistical indicators such as correlation (r), Nash-Sutcliff Efficiency (NSE) and percentage bias (PBIAS). The results show an increase in the mean annual rainfall and temperature in both RCPs. The percentage change in rainfall indicated an increase relative to historical data for all seasons under both RCPs, except for the June, July, August and September (JJAS) season, which showed a decrease in rainfall. Spatially, rainfall would increase over the entire basin under both RCPs with higher increase under RCP4.5. Similar spatial increase results are also projected for temperature under both RCPs. The results of this study provide vital information for the planning and management of the studied watershed under changing climatic conditions.
... We predict that the elephant population in NC is numerically dominated by male elephants as a result of high human activity in NC (Kioko et al. 2013). Human activities such as cultivation, human settlement and pastoralism has put pressure on the wildlife and their habitats in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) (Boone et al. 2006;Masao at al. 2015). We also predict that female and male elephant groups use the available habitats differently because of the variable energy demands and sex-specific responses to anthropogenic impacts, and natural predation risk. ...
... Ngorongoro Crater (centred at 2°30′ S to 3°30′ S, 34°50′ E to 35°55′ E) is located within the East African Great Rift and is part of the NCA, in northern Tanzania (Figure 1). The NCA is a multiple use area that is managed for wildlife conservation and pastoralism (Niboye 2010;Masao et al. 2015). The NCA is a Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme and a world heritage site (UNESCO 2017) and part of the greater Serengeti ecosystem, which is known for high wildlife concentrations (Niboye 2010). ...
... The dominance of male elephants in NC and the rest of the NCA (among eight groups sighted outside NC, only one was a female group [JK, pers. obs.]), can be attributed to the relatively high levels of human activities in NCA associated with human settlements and livestock keeping (Masao et al. 2015). ...
We studied the distribution and abundance of African elephants in Ngorongoro Crater (NC), northern Tanzania to test whether male and female elephants select different habitats and to assess whether elephant abundance was related to monthly precipitation. From 2016 to 2017, we conducted thirteen total counts in the dry and wet seasons and collected data on elephant age, sex, social structure, and habitat use. Most elephants encountered in NC were male-only groups (70%). Elephant numbers were significantly greater in the wet season, compared with the dry season evidenced by a significant and positive linear relationship between elephant abundance and monthly rainfall. Elephants in the NC showed distinct sex segregation, with males preferring open habitats (swamps and grasslands) and female groups preferring closed habitats (bush-shrubland and Vachellia xanthophloea woodland). This study advances our understanding of elephant grouping patterns and sex-specific habitat usage in savannah ecosystems.
... However, few studies have been conducted for monitoring the current and future land use/cover patterns in Tanzania. Notably, the world heritage Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) and its surrounding region are mostly undocumented (Masao et al., 2015;Estes et al., 2006), which is considered as the study area of this research. Created in 1959 as East Africa's first multiple-use protected area, the NCA is intended to conserve the wildlife and other natural resources for safeguarding the interests of the resident pastoral Masai communities (Estes et al., 2006). ...
... The wet season start from October to December and March to May; the short dry season is observed from January to February and from June to September. The area is very diverse ecologically and categorized into five different zones namely the 1) Crater highlands, 2) Salei plains, 3) Gol Mountains, 4) Serengeti plains, and 5) Kakesio/Eyasi Mountain (Masao et al., 2015). ...
... The accuracy was assessed using 90 pixels per category and was based on visual interpretation and ground truth data. The reference data for ground-truthing was obtained from a highresolution Google Earth and field visit using GPS (Larbi et al., 2019) and previously classified Land use/cover (Masao et al., 2015). A cross-tabulation was achieved between the class values and the ground truth, and the results were as an error matrix. ...
... The main output in the executed study were; This spectacular concentration of wildlife in a stunning setting constitutes one of the greatest natural wonders of the planet. The area also includes the Empakaai Crater, Olmoti crater, Laetoli and Oldupai Gorge, famous for their geology and associated palaeontological studies (Masao et al., 2015). where forest cover plays a great role in maintaining the existence of wildlife. ...
... The extensive grasslands and bushland are rich in nutrients and support large animal populations. The NCA is also in the highlands with moist and misty conditions where temperatures in the semi-arid plains can fall as low as 2°C, and often rise to 35°C (Masao et al., 2015). The annual precipitation falls between November and April and varies from 500 mm on the arid plains in the West to 1,700 mm on the forested slopes in the east increasing with altitude (Masao et al., 2015). ...
... The NCA is also in the highlands with moist and misty conditions where temperatures in the semi-arid plains can fall as low as 2°C, and often rise to 35°C (Masao et al., 2015). The annual precipitation falls between November and April and varies from 500 mm on the arid plains in the West to 1,700 mm on the forested slopes in the east increasing with altitude (Masao et al., 2015). ...
Extensive or nomadic livestock production system contributes a significant proportion
of national revenues and food security in Tanzania, with over 90% of livestock
contribution to National GDP. However, rangelands are increasingly over-exploited
leading to physical degradation of landscape and loss of diversity and richness
of herbaceous plant species, which could also be the case in the Ngorongoro
Conservation Area (NCA).
In the past 20 years, rangelands in NCA experienced dramatic change of livestock
population, with preference towards small stock (sheep and goat) among pastoralists.
In the 1960’s, the ratio of cattle to small stock was 2:1, but by 2018 the ratio had
shifted to 1:3 respectively. The shift in composition of livestock has been driven
by the effect of climate change mainly due to prolonged drought and associated
diseases. Small stock are relatively resistant to severe drought because of small
body size and also have fewer diseases, hence, high survival rate during bad years.
The current study was conducted to assess and establish on the impact of small
stock on NCA rangelands quality to enable the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Authority (NCAA) manage the ecosystem sustainably based on quantification of
several indicators of rangeland quality. The study involved some interface areas
including the Loliondo Game Controlled Area (LGCA), areas bordering the Serengeti
National Park (SENAPA), Maswa Game Reserve (MGR) and Makao Wildlife
Management Area (WMA). In addition to vegetation survey and soil analysis, the
study was complemented by administering questionnaires to pastoral communities
to understand their knowledge, attitude and practices related to domestication of
small stock and their impacts to rangelands quality. The survey was conducted
on eleven geo-referenced transects which were selected based on habitat and
vegetation structure of each study zone. During data collection, each transect line
was tracked by using hand held GPS equipment.
Vegetation and soil samples were analysed in the laboratory by following standard
protocols and the results were reported in international standards and units of
measurements. Data analysis employed various statistical tests and models to answer
research questions. For example, Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the
questionnaire response data and chi-square analysis was performed to determine
the differences in the independent variables that explain knowledge about impacts
of small stocks to the environment. All calculations were done in Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS version 24, NY, USA).
Results of vegetation attributes indicated high variance in terms of plant types and
their desirability. Seemingly, forb species dominated the rangelands in NCA while
sedge species were of low frequency. Generally, the distribution of desirable and
undesirable plant species are nearly the same within rangelands. However, very
small proportion of grass species was highly undesirable while the opposite was
true for forb species. Among plant species encountered, 40% were grass, 54%
were forb, 2% were sedges, shrubs and tree saplings respectively. Proportionally,
about 10% were highly desirable plant species, 34% were desirable, 23% were
less desirable and 33% were undesirable plant species. Among grass species
encountered, 9% were highly desirable, 19% desirable, 11% less desirable and 1%
undesirable. Considering forb species, 1% was highly desirable forb species, 12%
were desirable, 10% were less desirable and 31% were undesirable.
Moreover, herbaceous plant species indicated highest diversity in NCA and lowest
in Maswa Game Reserve (MGR). The same was observed in Loliondo Game
Controlled Area (LGCA), southern Crater rim, SENAPA, Nainokanoka and Olbalbal
Higher grass richness was observed in Ngorongoro crater, Nainokanoka, southern
Crater rim and Olbalbal. However, most grass species in Nainokanoka and around
Ngorongoro crater rim were dominated by unpalatable buffalo grass (Eleusine
jaegeri);
Ecologically, rangelands experience serious decline of palatable grass species in
favour of unpalatable ones, thus diminishes its ecological limits of acceptable use
for herbivores. Indeed, the proportion of grass and herb within the study site was
highly heterogeneous which suggest high spatial variability of plant biomass. In
terms of grass biomass, Ngorongoro crater, Nainokanoka and Olbalbal had the
highest proportion of 33%, 17% and 13% respectively. For herbs biomass, Loliondo,
Nainokanoka, Ngorongoro crater and near crater rim had the highest herbs biomass
of 32%, 16%, 12% and 10% respectively.
Similarly, soil properties like soil pH, temperature, salinity, moisture content and
compaction indicated high variation across different landscapes. This is attributed
to dynamics of grazing pressure, annual rainfall, vegetation cover and topography.
Increasing pressure of small stock grazing in the NCA could have caused severe
soil degradation and loss of high quality vegetation cover in the natural rangelands.
This calls for multi-disciplinary approaches for attaining sustainable rangeland
management. Importantly, it should explore wide range of empirical scientific
knowledge that is backed up by local experiences of indigenous community.
Therefore, to address the observed challenges we recommend that: (i). Re-seeding
and establishment of high quality rangeland plants to improve the vegetation cover
in the heavily grazed area e.g. livestock dominated grazing in Nainokanoka and
Olbalbal areas concurrent with grazing ban; (ii). Rest-rotational grazing system
and defoliation management schemes based on sound scientific principles need
to be developed in the area; (iii). Uprooting of all unpalatable herbaceous and alien
invasive herbaceous plants such as Eleusine jaegeri and Guternbergia cordifolia
from all invaded areas should be applied; and (iv). Controlled grazing will be an
important means of rehabilitating the Ngorongoro Conservation Area rangelands.
... The lakes are bordered by the Ngorongoro, Longido, Monduli, Karatu, Meatu, and Babati districts ( Fig. 1(a-c)). The area is characterized by an arid and semi-arid climate, where temperatures typically drop to around 2 • C during June or July and commonly reach highs of 35 • C in February, September, and October [52,53]. The area has two distinct seasons: the rainy season starts in late October and ends in early May, and the dry season begins in June and lasts until early October. ...
... In the arid lowland plains, the rainfall ranges from 400 to 600 mm/year, whereas in the mountainous forested areas, the rainfall ranges from 1000 to 1200 mm/year [54]. The area is covered with a diverse array of vegetation, ranging from short grasslands and shrubs in the lowland plains to dense forests in the mountainous areas [53]. This diverse plant life creates homes for a wide range of wildlife and rare bird species. ...
This study employed Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems to explore the influence of environmental factors and human-induced land use/land cover changes on the chemistry of soda-saline lakes in Northern Tanzania. Satellite-based rainfall data were sourced from the Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) datasets, and temperature data were obtained from MERRA-2. Monthly precipitation, temperature, and drought conditions in lake watersheds were analyzed from 1981 to 2022, while land use and land cover changes were assessed for 2000, 2014, and 2023. Soil types were acquired from the FAO Digital Soil Map of the World, while geological characteristics were sourced from the US Geological Survey database. The findings revealed that the region's climate is ideal for enhancing evapotranspiration, leading to mineral precipitation, and altering the chemistry of soda-saline lakes. The Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index revealed increased drought events in the lake basins since 1987, with prolonged drought occurrence between 2000 and 2017. The results also showed that the region is characterized by a variety of soil types, including ferric acrisols, chromic cambisols, calcic cambisols, entisols, inceptisols, eutric fluvisols, distric nitisols, humic nitisols, mollic andosols, ochric andosols, and pellic vertisols. Furthermore, the region is distinguished by diverse geological processes, from Precambrian-Cambrian to tertiary intrusive, triggered by volcanic and tectonic activity. Land use/land cover changes results indicated dynamics in the various classes with an overall decrease in areas under water bodies (−39.80 %), forests (−22.57 %) and bareland (−36.18) while agricultural land (111.01 %) built-up areas (434.72 %), shrubs and grasses (72.77 %) increased in area coverage over the 23 years study period (2000–2023). This study underscores the complex interplay between environmental variables and human activities in shaping the chemistry of soda-saline lakes.
... The wet season normally occurs between October and December and between March and May (MAM); the short dry season between January and February (JF) and between June and September (JJAS) (Bachofer et al., 2018). The NCA is very diverse ecologically, categorized into five different zones: the Salei plains, Crater Highlands, Gol Mountains, Kakesio/Eyasi Mountain, and Serengeti plains (Masao et al., 2015). ...
... The accuracy was assessed using 90 pixels per category and was based on visual interpretation and ground truth data. The reference data for ground-truthing was obtained from a high-resolution Google Earth and field visit using GPS (Larbi et al., 2019) and previously classified LULC (Masao et al., 2015). A cross-tabulation was achieved between the class values and the ground truth, and the results were as an error matrix. ...
Assessment of land-use and land-cover (LULC) change of any region is one of the prominent features used in environmental resource management and its overall sustainable development. This study analyzed the LULC changes of Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) and its surroundings using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System integrated with the Cellular Automata-Markov model. The LULC maps for the years 1995, 2005, and 2016 were classified using unsupervised and supervised classification procedures and projected for 2025 and 2035 under business-as-usual scenario using the CA-Markov model. The results indicated maximum gains and losses in cultivated land and woodland in the study duration, respectively. The projected LULC for the period 2025 to 2035 showed a reduction in bushland, forest, water, and woodland, but an intensification in cultivated land, grassland, bare land, and the built-up area. The natural forests with high environmental values were found to be continuously declining under the current land management trend, causing the loss in the NCA's ecological values. For sustainable management, the authorities must reach conciliation between the existing LULC patterns change and ecosystem services monitoring. A rational land use plan must be made to control the increase of cultivated land and built-up area counting a rational land use plan and ecosystem services protection guidelines. Decision makers should involve stakeholders to support improved land use management practices for balanced and sustainable ecosystem services strategies.
... The NCA is composed of more than 15,000 km 2 of savannah habitat [44] and is included in the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem (GSE), where the great African wildebeest migration takes place [39,44]. The NCA vegetation ranges between highland plains, savannah woodland, forest and savannah grasslands [45]. ...
... The NCA is composed of more than 15,000 km 2 of savannah habitat [44] and is included in the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem (GSE), where the great African wildebeest migration takes place [39,44]. The NCA vegetation ranges between highland plains, savannah woodland, forest and savannah grasslands [45]. ...
Savannahs are heterogeneous environments with an important role in supporting biodiversity and providing essential ecosystem services. Due to extensive land use/cover changes and subsequent land degradation, the provision of ecosystems services from savannahs has increasingly declined over recent years. Mapping the extent and the composition of savannah environments is challenging but essential in order to improve monitoring capabilities, prevent biodiversity loss and ensure the provision of ecosystem services. Here, we tested combinations of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data from three different seasons to optimise land cover mapping, focusing in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. The NCA has a bimodal rainfall pattern and is composed of a combination savannah and woodland landscapes. The best performing model achieved an overall accuracy of 86.3 ± 1.5% and included a combination of Sentinel-1 and 2 from the dry and short-dry seasons. Our results show that the optical models outperform their radar counterparts, the combination of multisensor data improves the overall accuracy in all scenarios and this is particularly advantageous in single-season models. Regarding the effect of season, models that included the short-dry season outperform the dry and wet season models, as this season is able to provide cloud free data and is wet enough to allow for the distinction between woody and herbaceous vegetation. Additionally, the combination of more than one season is beneficial for the classification, specifically if it includes the dry or the short-dry season. Combining several seasons is, overall, more beneficial for single-sensor data; however, the accuracies varied with land cover. In summary, the combination of several seasons and sensors provides a more accurate classification, but the target vegetation types should be taken into consideration.
... In these areas values for safari tourism are, however, offset against increased risk of livestock depredation and bushmeat hunting. Local communities therefore need to balance potential revenues of biodiversity from safari tourism with the negative implications of biodiversity for livestock depredation and the negative consequences of bushmeat hunting on biodiversity (Blackburn et al., 2016;Catherine et al., 2015;Ogutu et al., 2005). This, however, requires local communities to be able to benefit from the tourism revenues in a fair and just manner (Charnley, 2005;Lamprey and Reid, 2004;Msoffe et al., 2011;Slootweg, 2017). ...
... There, and in Ngorongoro CA, Loliondo GCA and in the Conservancies, welfare was relatively high without losing benefits derived from ecosystem services. Thus, it seems that the management strategies for these areas have proven to be successful in maintaining a balance although concerns remain (Blackburn et al., 2016;Catherine et al., 2015;Ogutu et al., 2016). Welfare was expected to increase most in the Globalization scenario at the expense of biodiversity and related ecosystem services. ...
Understanding how anthropogenic activities and management actions influence the delivery of ecosystem services is complicated by the interrelated nature of diverse factors. We present a Bayesian Belief Network to highlight the likely consequences of a set of interventions on four wildlife-related ecosystem (dis)services and for supporting biodiversity and human welfare in the Greater Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem. According to the model, core protected areas are important for biodiversity and safari tourism provision. In adjacent game reserves safari tourism opportunities may be hampered by trophy and bushmeat hunting causing fear in wildlife. Most multiple-use areas strike a good balance between the costs and benefits derived from wildlife. Loliondo, however, requires drastic changes in management to either maximize green value creation or sustainable welfare. Although further globalization is expected to render highest levels of welfare, this will be at the expense of biodiversity and related ecosystem services. An online version of the model is available (https://africanbioservices.shinyapps.io/ servicescape) to interactively explore five future scenarios with alternative management strategies, and visua-lization of the resultant consequences thereof. Identifying areas of conflicts and potential trade-offs between ecosystem (dis)services are crucial to find pathways to nature-based tourism strategies that simultaneously maintain biodiversity and promote the socioeconomic viability of local communities.
... The altitude of NCA ranges from 960m to 3,648masl. The climatic zones vary from semi-arid to montane forests, and annual precipitation ranges from under 500mm to 1700mm, which leads to temperature fluctuations between 2°C and 35°C (Masao, Makoba, & Sosovele, 2015). Due to the variation of easterly trade winds, rainfall intensity depends on location and elevation, thus, forested eastern slopes receive between 800 to 1500 mm a year and the western slopes between 400 to 600mm a year (Gaidzik, 2011). ...
... Due to the variation of easterly trade winds, rainfall intensity depends on location and elevation, thus, forested eastern slopes receive between 800 to 1500 mm a year and the western slopes between 400 to 600mm a year (Gaidzik, 2011). Average annual temperatures vary between 14°C to 25°C, the crater floor part has higher temperatures compared to the rim (Masao et al., 2015). Also the presence of grassland and water (lakes and rivers) used by wild herbivores has made the area very latent. ...
In African savannas, and many other rangelands around the world, wildlife presently find themselves interacting with livestock. Many studies have been conducted on vigilance behaviour in response to presence of predators on foraging grounds, but few scientists have included the presence of livestock and how this affects vigilance when foraging together with wild herbivores. As Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is an important example of wildlife grazing together with livestock, this phenomenon must be understood to achieve a sustainable land use management plan, particularly in Ngorongoro Conservation Area and in other protected areas. Behavioral observations of wildlife and livestock species were conducted from a vehicle driving along transects within NCA. Once a group was sighted the vehicle was stopped and sighting information recorded. Four species of wild herbivores including plains zebra (Equus burchelli), Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsonii), Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) and Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) were studied together with the following livestock species including cattle (Bos taurus), goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) and sheep (Ovis aries), in different seasons. 158 groups were recorded. In dry season 47 non –mixed groups (without livestock) and 30 mixed groups (with livestock) were recorded, while, during wet season 49 non -mixed groups and 32 mixed groups were recorded. Behavior was classified as feeding, grooming, laying down, ruminating, grooming, moving, and looking with head up (vigilance) with the use of the focal animal sampling method. Wildlife decreased their foraging time while they increased vigilance behavior when livestock were present; however, more studies are still for a wider conclusion.
... It lies between Longitude 36° 1' 38.7466" and 36° 1.645776' E and Latitude 3° 9' 44.8399" and 3° 9.747332' S. Notably, the villages surveyed are shown to the right of the Serengeti National Park to the North, urban and agricultural areas to the South, the Loliondo Game Controlled Area to the East, and the Maswa Game Reserve to the West (Linuma et al. 2024;Niboye, 2010). The NCA covers 8,292 km² and is divided into the Crater Highlands, Salei plains, Eyasi escarpment and the Gol Mountains (Masao et al. 2015;Niboye, 2010). The Salei plains receive little rain. ...
The study examined the impact of drinking water source on disease transmission among pastoralists, using a case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. A total of four villages located in the NCA were sampled and studied, namely: Endulen, Nainokanoka, Kayapus and Meshili. This was a cross-sectional study which deployed questionnaires, direct observation, document reviews and focus group discussions. A total of 396 households participated in the survey. The collected data were analyzed using qualitative data analysis techniques and descriptive statistics such as frequencies. The study findings revealed that unfiltered waterholes shared among humans, livestock and wildlife accounted for 82.1%; indicating that it was the primary source of disease transmission. Other sources of disease transmissions were: the use of untreated tap water, rivers, spring water and rainwater. The factors influencing the use of unfiltered waterholes were limited access to tap water, scarcity of drinking water sources, drought, population increase and tourists. The co-usage of water coupled with lack of latrines suggest fecal contamination of drinking water sources. Women were more susceptible to waterborne diseases as they were more directly engaging in all domestic activities including fetching for water as compared to men. The waterborne diseases affecting pastoralist communities were diarrhea, cholera, skin infection, dysentery, worms and typhoid fever. The study concluded that there is a nexus between shared drinking water sources and the prevalence of high anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) infection rates. It is recommended that the adverse impacts of disease transmission on drinking water sources can be mitigated through increasing supply of tap water, using treated water and encouraging community use of pit latrines.
... The evolution of management policies over time has often resulted in disagreements between communities and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority [39,41]. For example, the decision to ease restrictions on cultivation resulted in a rise in cultivated areas [41,46,47]. The conversion of land to cultivation fields creates environmental pressures through vegetation changes and habitat patchiness [48,49]. ...
Efforts to identify suitable habitat for wildlife conservation are crucial for safeguarding biodiversity, facilitating management, and promoting sustainable coexistence between wildlife and communities. Our study focuses on identifying potential black rhino (Diceros bicornis) habitat within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, across wet and dry seasons. To achieve this, we used remote sensing data with and without field data. We employed a comprehensive approach integrating Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope images, vegetation indices, and human activity data. We employed machine learning recursive feature elimination (RFE) and random forest (RF) algorithms to identify the most relevant features that contribute to habitat suitability prediction. Approximately 36% of the NCA is suitable for black rhinos throughout the year; however, there are seasonal shifts in habitat suitability. Anthropogenic factors increase land degradation and limit habitat suitability, but this depends on the season. This study found a higher influence of human-related factors during the wet season, with suitable habitat covering 53.6% of the NCA. In the dry season, browse availability decreases and rhinos are forced to become less selective of the areas where they move to fulfil their nutritional requirements, with anthropogenic pressures becoming less important. Furthermore, our study identified specific areas within the NCA that consistently offer suitable habitat across wet and dry seasons. These areas, situated between Olmoti and the Crater, exhibit minimal disturbance from human activities, presenting favourable conditions for rhinos. Although the Oldupai Gorge only has small suitable patches, it used to sustain a large population of rhinos in the 1960s. Land cover changes seem to have decreased the suitability of the Gorge. This study highlights the importance of combining field data with remotely sensed data. Remote sensing-based assessments rely on the importance of vegetation covers as a proxy for habitat and often overlook crucial field variables such as shelter or breeding locations. Overall, our study sheds light on the imperative of identifying suitable habitat for black rhinos within the NCA and underscores the urgency of intensified conservation efforts. Our findings underscore the need for adaptive conservation strategies to reverse land degradation and safeguard black rhino populations in this dynamic multiple land-use landscape as environmental and anthropogenic pressures evolve.
... It is a multiple land-use area where Maasai pastoralists co-exist with wildlife. One of its prominent features is Ngorongoro Crater, which covers an area nearly 260 km2, and it is recognized as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Man and Biosphere Reserve, and one of the African Seven Wonders (Masao et al., 2015). Major vegetation types in the NCA include grassland, forest, bush land, shrubs, and swamp patches (Foxcroft et al., 2006). ...
... Furthermore, the ngorongoro conservation area emerges as another magnet, encompassing the ngorongoro crater, a volcanic caldera that provides a distinctive and varied habitat for an extensive array of wildlife species (Figure 1). this area is often dubbed the 'eighth Wonder of the World' , celebrated for its incredible biodiversity and the harmonious coexistence of human communities alongside wildlife (Masao et al., 2015). ...
This study examines the demographic determinants for the choice of wildlife attractions among international repeat tourists in Tanzania to provide valuable insights for destination planning and marketing. The study employed binary logistic regression analysis and cross-tabulation to assess the influence of demographic characteristics on the selection of wildlife attractions from the total 1550 international repeat tourists. The demographic attributes of tourists, including family size, employment status, income level, and region of origin, exert a substantial impact on the selection of the wildlife attraction, as indicated by a significant p-value <0.05. While individuals with medium-level annual income, retirees, students, and those individuals who are from Asia and North America are drawn to wildlife experiences. Unlike, tourists residing from small size family (less than members) and those who are coming from South America, show reduced interest in wildlife attractions. Moreover, the results from the cross-tabulation revealed that individuals with a moderate annual income, especially those who are from large family sizes, exhibit a more pronounced preference for wildlife. Additionally, the findings indicated that repeat tourists showing a higher inclination towards wildlife are individuals who are retired and have a family size exceeding three members. These findings shed light on possibilities for marketers to enhance their strategies, ensuring that information regarding the diverse range of wildlife offerings and new wildlife packages reaches individuals displaying a strong inclination for repeat visits.
... The Tanzania Royal Tour Film has the objective of promoting the country as a unique and unrivaled tourist destination through a positioning strategy called "Tanzania Unforgettable Experience". The film showcases narratives of potential historical sites such as the island of Zanzibar and the Ngorongoro crater, which is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site (Masao et al., 2015;Melubo & Lovelock, 2019). Additionally, the film provides an explanation of Tanzania's history, culture, economic and social development, and its strategic contribution in ...
The Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals emphasizes the importance of promoting local residents’ involvement in building inclusive tourism development across all aspects, including business strategies. However, there has been little focus on promoting inclusivity of local residents in destination branding as a business strategy. This study aims to investigate the role of political leaders in shaping local residents to behave as destination brand ambassadors, responding to calls from scholars and practitioners to explore the position of local residents in achieving inclusive destination branding. The study adopts corporate branding theory to explore the role of leaders in motivating local residents to demonstrate positive brand-building behavior, specifically brand ambassadorship behavior. To test the proposed structural model, the study uses cross-sectional survey data from 313 local residents in Dodoma, the capital city of Tanzania. The results indicate that brand-oriented leadership has a significant influence on local residents’ intentions to demonstrate brand ambassadorship behavior through public trust. This proposed and tested model can be used as a valuable guideline for tourism destination administrators and marketers to develop effective strategies. Finally, the study concludes with implications and future research directions.
... While the SGNP is reserved for photo tourism and wildlife management, the NCA allows tourism and pastoralism. Over the past few years, the number of livestock and humans has increased within the NCA (Catherine et al., 2015). ...
The Masai giraffe has experienced a population decline from 70,000 to 35,000 in the past three decades and was declared an endangered subspecies by the IUCN in 2019. The remaining number of Masai giraffe are geographically separated by the steep cliffs of the Gregory Rift escarpments (GRE) in Tanzania and Kenya dividing them into two populations, one west and one east of the GRE. The cliffs of the GRE are formidable barriers to east-west dispersal and gene flow and the few remaining natural corridors through the GRE are occupied by human settlements. To assess the impact of the GRE on Masai giraffe gene flow, we examined whole genome sequences of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in populations located east (Tarangire ecosystem) and west (Serengeti ecosystem) of the GRE in northern Tanzania. Evidence from mtDNA variation, which measures female-mediated gene flow, suggests that females have not migrated across the GRE between populations in the Serengeti and Tarangire ecosystems in the past ~289,000 years. The analysis of nuclear DNA variation compared to mtDNA DNA variation suggests that male-mediated gene flow across the GRE has occurred more recently but stopped a few thousand years ago. Our findings show that Masai giraffes are split into two populations and fulfill the criteria for designation as distinct evolutionary significant units (ESUs), which we denote as western Masai giraffe and eastern Masai giraffe. While establishing giraffe dispersal corridors across the GRE is impractical, conservation efforts should be focused on maintaining connectivity among populations within each of these two populations. The importance of these efforts is heightened by our finding that the inbreeding coefficients are high in some of these Masai giraffe populations, which could result in inbreeding depression in the small and fragmented populations.
... The NCA is internationally recognized for its scenic beauty, spectacular wildlife, and natural ecosystem. It is also exceptional for its inventive joint land-use policy, which integrates wildlife conservation and human activities in the world (Deocampo 2004;Masao 2015). The NCA is one of the main tourist destinations and the most visited conserved area in Tanzania and East Africa (Melita and Mendllinger 2013). ...
... The NCA illustrates, on a rather small scale, many of the biological constraints and responses characterizing rangelands and pastoralism in East Africa, balancing the competing needs of its multiple users [18]. The NCA is currently facing climate change-driven challenges [19], high human population growth rates [20], and wildlife-livestock competition attributed to localized overgrazing [21]. A large proportion of the NCA is semi-arid, with an average annual rainfall of less than 500 mm; hence, grassland productivity is low and the risk of overgrazing and death from starvation is high [22]. ...
Rainfall variability is of great importance in East Africa, where small-scale farmers and pastoralists dominate.
Their livestock production activities are heavily dependent on rainfall. We assessed pastoralist perceptions on climate change, particularly rainfall variability, its impact on livestock production, and the adaptive capacity of pastoralists in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania. We combined 241 household interviews and information from 52 participants of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) with archived data from the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA). We found that most (71%) pastoralists were aware of general climate change impacts, rainfall variability, and impacts of extreme events on their livestock. Most (> 75%) respondents perceived erratic and reduced amounts of rainfall, prolonged and frequent periods of drought as the main climate change challenges. Mean annual rainfall accounted for only 46% (R2), (p = 0.076) and 32% (R2), (p = 0.22) of cattle, and sheep and goat population variability, respectively. Unexpectedly, cattle losses intensified by 10% when herd size increased (p < 0.001) and by 98% (p = 0.049) when mobility increased, implying that increasing herd sizes and mobility do not cushion households against climate change shocks. Our study highlights the need to enhance adaptive capacity of the pastoralist communities through interventions that proactively reduce vulnerability. We recommend that future research should address the profitability of pastoral cattle production under changing environmental conditions.
... Historically, the Maasai tribe, in northern Tanzania, were purely pastoralists, but they are increasingly switching to agropastoralism to provide food for sustenance (Lyamuya et al., 2014b;Masao et al., 2015) in a similar way to the neighbouring Sonjo tribe. Due to the present human population increase in Africa, land for livestock pasture is declining, which might cause conflicts with other stakeholders such as farmers, conservationists and pastoralists (Mbau, 2013;Pooley et al., 2017). ...
Human-carnivore encounters are common where humans and wild carnivores share the same landscape. The frequency of such encounters gives insight regarding carnivore density and might correlate with human-carnivore conflict incidences. We interviewed livestock owners in the eastern Serengeti ecosystem and recorded reported carnivore presence and relative abundance. We simultaneously conducted a carnivore survey to assess the potential variability of reported carnivore presence that was recorded during the surveys. The playback surveys attracted 9 lions (Panthera leo), 88 spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and 47 black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas schmidti) to 12 call-in stations which were resurveyed three times (36 playbacks in total). Reported encounters with lions, leopards (Panthera pardus), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyenas, African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) and jackals were higher closer to the Serengeti National Park (SNP). Data from carnivore surveys were positively correlated with what people reported in questionnaires. These results indicate that local reports of encounters with wild carnivores may act as an important indicator of carnivore presence. Combining observational data through surveys with data reported by local people in areas where humans and wild carnivores coexist may improve existing data on carnivore abundance and distribution in such areas.
... At the same time, unpalatable invasive plant species have spread extensively within the NCA and dominate more than half of the caldera floor (Ngondya et al., 2019), reducing rangeland quality for many wildlife species and livestock (Foxcroft et al., 2006;Ngondya et al., 2016Ngondya et al., , 2019. The resident human population has also grown dramatically from approximately 10,000 people in 1954 (displaced from adjacent areas set aside for the Serengeti National Park) to 87,851 in 2013 (Galvin et al. 2015, Masao et al., 2015 and currently approaching 100,000 (Manzano & Yamat, 2018). Associated with the expansion of the human population, livestock numbers within the NCA have increased during the same period, fostering the greater incidence and impact of diseases affecting humans, livestock and wildlife (Homewood, 2008). ...
Conservationists need detailed information on human population growth and distribution in areas adjacent to protected areas. This information can help determine land use/land cover changes (LULCC), which affect the quality and quantity of elephant habitat and, thus, elephant populations. We assessed the influence of human population trends on demographic characteristics on the African elephant (Loxodonta Africana) population and related conflicts with people in Rombo, Tanzania. Data on household surveys, focus group discussions, site observations and human census records as well as reported human-elephant conflict (HEC) incidents were included. A Digital Elevation Model in GIS was used to produce a map showing spatial distribution of human population density along an altitudinal gradient in relation to LULCC and HEC status. We found that, over the past 40 years, the human population in Rombo area has been growing fast, with an increment of 128% from 1967 to 2012. The population density was low in lower altitudes (<1230 masl), which were strongly used for seasonal cropping and highly dominated by HEC (98%). Settlements expanded from 1987 to 2015 by 30%, particularly at higher altitudes. Most respondents only attained primary education (72%) and strongly depended on agriculture (99%) to sustain their livelihoods. We conclude that with the increasing human population and alteration of land use need interventions to sustain elephant conservation and livelihood of the people. We recommend the establishment of buffer zones for elephant conservation and tourism activities in the lowland areas.
... The most recent information on grey crowned crane abundance in and near the Crater comes from Masao, Makoba, and Sosovela (2015) who reported cranes increased by 12% during 1988-2012, based on report data from the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA); numbers substantiating this increase, however, were unclear, and no information on seasonal population fluctuations was noted. Even anecdotal reports of grey crowned crane numbers in the Crater are limited. ...
There are few quantitative estimates of numbers of Africa's endangered grey crowned cranes ( Balearica regulorum ), yet conservation of this species will depend on such estimates. We used line‐transect distance sampling on multiple 2‐km segments of an existing road network to estimate the abundance of grey crowned cranes in a portion of the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania, during the wet (April) and dry (August) seasons of 2016. We analysed data from 106 transects on which we observed 174 groups of 1–61 cranes (median and mode = 2). Abundance and density estimates on the areas surveyed were best modelled without group size as a covariate and indicated that mean crane densities were significantly lower in the wet season (2.4/km ² ) than in the dry season (20.2 cranes/km ² ). Even based on survey areas of different size, minimum estimated numbers of cranes in the Crater (wet season: 108–133; dry season: 362–401) likely reflect the concentration of cranes in the nonbreeding (dry) season in the perennial wetlands of the Crater and reinforce the notion of the Crater being a key seasonal habitat for crane populations in northern Tanzania, as previously suggested in the literature.
... Communities in the Western part of the study area and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area rely most on environmental income. This may be attributed to restrictions on livelihood activities, in particularly crop production in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Charnley, 2005;Masao et al., 2015), in ...
Protected areas are an important cornerstone in the attempt to halt habitat and species losses. While it is widely recognized that local communities impact on conservation outcomes, there is a limited understanding of the economic importance of environmental resources in protected areas to local household incomes and well-being. This inhibits the development and implementation of efficient conservation policies. This paper, using the iconic case of the Greater Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem and its surrounding local communities in Tanzania and Kenya, quantifies the household-level economic importance of this protected area. Data was collected using well-being and environmentally augmented structured household surveys administered to 985 randomly selected households in 25 communities. Results documented high reliance on environmental income of the poorest, a negative relationship between environmental reliance and well-being, with households closer to the protected area having higher environmental reliance and lower well-being. Hence, degradation of protected area habitats will negatively and disproportionately affect the income and may further reduce the well-being of the poorest households. Sustainable protected area management must address human well-being as well as conservation objectives. Increasing access to education and building skills to promote alternative non-environmental based livelihood activities will promote both conservation and development objectives.
... Le défrichement pour l'extension de l'espace cultivé, ou l'accroissement des surfaces de pâturage sont des constantes qui s'inscrivent dans un contexte démographique dynamique et une pénurie foncière grandissante. Pour cette dernière activité, l'avenir de l'aire protégée du Ngorongoro, dont le statut spécifique autorise un accès, limité, aux éleveurs Masai, est un enjeu central et emblématique (Goldman, 2011 ;Masao et al., 2015 ;Melita et al., 2013). La dimension foncière est la clé de voute d'un problème aux facettes multiples : économiques, sociales, politiques… 37 Sur les versants fertiles du Mont Meru et du Mont Kilimandjaro, les shamba de la ceinture café-banane des populations Meru (Spear, 1997) et Chagga (Bart et al., 2003a ;Bart, 2003b) se heurtent ainsi à une double fermeture de l'espace agraire : en bas, l'obstacle est climatique en dessous de 1000 mètres (manque d'eau), parfois foncier (estates, urbanisation autour d'Arusha et Moshi) ; en haut, l'obstacle climatique (fraîcheur) est renforcé par la limite inférieure de la zone protégée (vers 1500-1800 m), qui se matérialise par l'interdiction de l'agriculture, du pacage animal et de la cueillette. ...
This paper discusses about the interactions between protected areas and agro-pastoral areas in Tanzania. This East African country is in fact one of the most involved in safari tourism. By focussing on contact spaces and lines between those two types of spaces, it addresses sociopolitical development issues and the role played by tourism. The issue of the role of different actors (State, international organizations, environmental lobby groups and agro-pastoral smallholders) is also raised.
In this study, a novel measure of interest in all (264) natural or mixed World Heritage sites sourced from an online platform is contrasted with the degree and number of threats as formally identified by the UNESCO (in its State of Conservation database) and the IUCN (in its Conservation Outlook Assessment reporting), when typical site characteristics are accounted for. Information on TripAdvisor reviews is the digitally sourced measure, and the site characteristics originate from the UNESCO World Heritage database including size, year of inscription, kind of site as well as a distinction between mixed and fully natural sites. Results reveal that the number of reviews and threats both relate to years of inscription, kind of site and to a certain extent continent. The degree of threat reacts to all site characteristics except continent. The analysis reveals that TripAdvisor measures the popularity of the site, although this does not automatically mean that it is also threatened.
Invasive alien species are a major driver of biodiversity loss, despite global, regional, and domestic efforts to address them. This study aims to assess community awareness and engagement in combating invasive alien plant species in Tanzania, using a cross-sectional questionnaire survey of 208 respondents. Eight villages around Ngorongoro, Tarangire, and Manyara ecosystems were surveyed using questionnaires to gather information on awareness of Invasive Alien Plant Species presence, affected areas, means of spread, harmful effects, and community involvement. Results show that over 65% of respondents were aware of Invasive Alien Plant Species, with impacts observed on farms and grazing lands. However, there was limited knowledge about specific harmful effects. Community involvement in combating Invasive Alien Plant Species was lacking, with minimal direct engagement from authorities and stakeholders. Control methods primarily involved burning and cutting, while biological and chemical approaches were less favored. The study underscores the need for enhanced community involvement and recommends greater collaboration between stakeholders to effectively manage Invasive Alien Plant Species and mitigate their impacts on ecosystems.
Human population growth in areas bordering protected areas is high and has become a serious threat to the management of wildlife all over Africa. Local communities around the protected areas conduct illegal activities that are destructive to habitats and threaten wildlife. This study explored the impact of the human population on large animals in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The study used quantitative and qualitative research methods, employing both closed and open-ended questionnaires from 125 respondents. The collected data were analysed using IBM and Microsoft Excel tools. The results showed that wildlife and livestock can share and drink water in the same area. Furthermore, the study established that an increase in livestock numbers has no negative effect on wildlife numbers, but an increase in human settlement (93.9%) consumed natural forest products as building materials, creating deforestation, while the use of firewood as a source of power (96.5%) has a great negative impact on wildlife and their habitat because of fragmentation of wildlife habitat within Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Thus, there is a need to manage population growth along the national conserved or protected areas to ensure the long-term existence of designated protected areas.
Leptospirosis, also known as Weil’s disease, is a febrile tropical disease of humans and diverse animals. The maintenance hosts of the infectious pathogen, Leptospira spp., are primarily rodents, while other warm-blooded animals and some reptiles are secondary or transient hosts of this pathogen. African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys spp.) have been identified to be important maintenance hosts of pathogenic leptospires in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This study assessed the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in the African giant pouched rats of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, where there is close human, domestic animal, and wildlife interaction. A total of 50 African giant pouched rats were sampled between July 2020 and December 2021. Blood sera were screened for specific leptospiral antibodies using a microscopic agglutination test (MAT), while urine and kidney tissues were examined for the pathogen and pathogen-specific genes using cultures and polymerase chain reactions (PCR), respectively. The pathogen detection varied from 0% in cultures to 6% via the MAT and 20% via PCR. The Fisher exact test was applied to compare positive cases detected through the diagnostic tests, and showed a significant difference in the indirect and direct detection of Leptospira serovars via the MAT and PCR. We conclude that pathogenic Leptospira serovar are found in the NCA and recommend that the NCA authority raises awareness of the existence of the Leptospira serovar in giant African pouched rats, and possibly other rodents. The NCA should initiate appropriate management strategies, including the guided disposal of household garbage, which is the major attractant of rodents to residential areas. Where necessary, the NCA should carry out limited rodent control and periodic monitoring of the pathogen carrier (rodent) populations.
Miombo woodlands cover approximately 3.6 million km² in sub-Saharan Africa and have been identified as one of the global priority areas for conservation. Nonetheless, it is debatable whether the presence of the pastoralists and livestock in Miombo woodlands is linked to the ecological degradation and resources use conflicts. Besides, the impact of Miombo woodlands utilization in relation to biodiversity and ecosystem service provision is not well understood. The current review describes the various concurrent issues underlying livestock production in Miombo woodlands and ecosystem resilience. Analytical review established that livestock in Miombo woodlands have a crucial role in enhancing food security and animal source protein requirement in the future. Ecologically, pastoralists’ presence in the Miombo serves biodiversity conservation, enhances nutrient recycling, and regulates wildfires. On the other hand, pastoralists are faced with several challenges including pests and diseases and persistent drought that leads to scarcity of water and pasture resources. Other setbacks include high enteric methane emission due to poor livestock productivity, unsustainable rangeland management practices, land tenure, and poor water management. Observations of wildlife interactions with the natural ecosystem elsewhere provide crucial evidence for the potential of livestock-woodland beneficial symbiotic interaction. It is concluded that, since there is high ecological compatibility of livestock production in Miombo woodlands, there is need to reform management policy to promote livestock interaction on the Miombo woodlands.
Changes in wildlife conservation areas have serious implications for ecological systems and the distribution of wildlife species. Using the Masai Mara ecosystem as an example, we analyzed long-term land use/cover changes and wildlife population dynamics. Multitemporal satellite images, together with physical and social economic data were employed in a post classification analysis with GIS to analyze outcomes of different land use practices and policies. The results show rapid land use/cover conversions and a drastic decline for a wide range of wildlife species. Integration of land use/cover monitoring data and wildlife resources data can allow for the analysis of changes, and can be used to project trends to provide knowledge about potential land use/cover change scenarios and ecological impacts.
The land management practices of pastoralist Maasai communities have a major bearing on landscapes and wildlife habitats in northern Tanzania and play a key role in maintaining habitat for one of the world's most spectacular assemblages of terrestrial large mammals. Pastoralists manage lands according to locally devised rules designed to manage and conserve key resources such as pastures and water sources. Dry season grazing reserves are an important part of traditional land management systems in many pastoralist communities, providing a ‘grass bank’ for livestock to consume during the long dry season when forage invariably becomes scarce and domestic animals are stressed for water and nutrients. Because of the scale and importance of northern Tanzania's wildlife-based tourism industry, and its indirect dependence on communal lands under the authority of pastoralists, these land use practices have an important economic dimension. By conserving large proportions of northern Tanzania's wildlife ecosystems, local pastoralist communities collectively make an important contribution to the national and regional economy. Using data regarding the degree to which wildlife depends on pastoralist lands in different ecosystems, and the relative importance of different areas in terms of generating revenue for the northern safari circuit, the annual value of pastoralist land uses to the wildlife-based tourism industry in northern Tanzania is estimated at approximately US $83.5 million. The economic value of pastoralists' contribution to wildlife conservation highlights the importance of Tanzanian policies in land, livestock, tourism, and wildlife sectors prioritizing measures that promote communal rangeland management and support traditional land use practices.
This paper discusses the impact of population pressure on the protected areas in Tanzania. Generally, rapid population growth increases pressures on most protected areas. Evidence from the Swagaswaga Game Reserve illustrates serious land use conflicts due to encroachment and establishment of various human activities. Such conflicts justify need for involving the local communities in the management of protected areas. The paper concludes that unless population dynamics and the needs of local communities are considered strict conservation measures may not ensure sustainability. Local communities need to be regarded as partners in the planning, management and sharing of benefits accruing from the respective protected areas. This will ensure responsibility and a sense of ownership among the local communities
ABSTRACTS
Since the mid‐1980s, “democratization” and structural adjustment, have been transforming domestic political economies throughout sub‐Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, these processes could significantly alter the terrain in the conflict between local land rights and state wildlife conservation. The situation has become increasingly complex as the parties involved ‐ land‐holders, state and international conservation agencies ‐ are joined by land rights political organizations, domestic conservation groups and foreign capital. The paper focuses on struggles over land and resource rights, specifically on new forms of grassroots political action which has emerged on the question of wildlife conservation in national parks. At the same time, tourism is expanding with an influx of foreign capital. The paper explores the implications of the interactions between these forces.
Community Based Conservation (CBC) has become the catch–all solution to the social and ecological problems plaguing traditional top–down, protectionist conservation approaches. CBC has been particularly popular throughout Africa as a way to gain local support for wildlife conservation measures that have previously excluded local people and their development needs. This article shows that, despite the rhetoric of devolution and participation associated with new CBC models, conservation planning in Tanzania remains a top–down endeavour, with communities and their specialized socio–ecological knowledge delegated to the margins. In addition to the difficulties associated with the transfer of power from state to community hands, CBC also poses complex challenges to the culture or institution of conservation. Using the example of the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem, the author shows how local knowledge and the complexities of ecological processes challenge the conventional zone–based conservation models, and argues that the insights of local Maasai knowledge claims could better reflect the ecological and social goals of the new CBC rhetoric.
The concentration of over 25,000 ungulates inside Ngorongoro Crater on a 250 km2 patch of the African plains was a major reason for designating the Ngorongoro Conservation Area as a World Heritage Site in 1979. As one of East Africa’s premier tourist attractions, it is also a major source of foreign exchange for Tanzania. This paper reports the decline of populations of wildebeest, Thomson’s and Grant’s gazelles since the mid-1980s and the rise to dominance of the buffalo, the results of research carried out from 1996 to 2000 on the Crater ungulates, and discusses natural and anthropogenic factors that may be linked to the population changes.Samples comparing young:adult female ratios in Ngorongoro and Serengeti populations indicated higher survival rates of Crater wildebeest and zebra young, and lower survival rates of Thomson’s gazelle. The possibility that predation by lions and spotted hyenas was responsible for reductions in the ungulate populations is belied by corresponding declines in the number of predators.Further research in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area is urgently needed to increase understanding of this complex ecosystem and promote effective stewardship, not only of Ngorongoro Crater but of the Serengeti ecosystem, of which the NCA is an integral part, comprising an International Biosphere Reserve. Our recommendations include establishment of a scientific advisory board and a research center that would attract and accommodate Tanzanian and foreign scientists.
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