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Abstract
Lothal is an important harbour-town of the Indus Civilization at the head of the Gulf of Cambay on the west coast of India (FIG. 1). During the recent excavations there, a circular steatite seal has been found which is neither wholly Indian nor Sumerian in workmanship (PL. IX). On the other hand, it closely resembles the seals from the Persian Gulf islands found by the Danish expedition led by Professor Glob and Dr Bibby. Sir Mortimer Wheeler has named them 'Persian Gulf' seals which, according to him, 'appear to have been made at the various entrepôts (such as Bahrain itself) of a cosmopolitan Persian Gulf trade of the kind which has been analyzed by A. L. Oppenheim from Larsa tablets' (note I). Commenting on these seals, the late Col. D. H. Gordon wrote: 'The problem of Bahrain is a very interesting and important one, and it is possible that these seals may help to solve it. Some day such seals may come to light in India, but so far they have not; Bahrain may have been Dilmun and it was almost certainly an entrepôt on the trade route to India, and so it is possible that seals of this kind were carried on to the Indus or to ports in Kathiawad and will some day be found in those localities, though this will not necessarily make them Indian or even of Indian style' (note 2). The hope expressed by Gordon has now been fulfilled by the discovery of a 'Persian Gulf' seal at Lothal, thus providing the first real evidence of trade contacts between India and the Persian Gulf.
... Kjaerum 1980;Peyronel 2008;Laursen in preparation (b). 15. Rao 1963. 16. ...
Babylonia, the Gulf Region and the Indus - Archaeological and Textual Evidence for Contact in the Third and Early Second Millennia BC
by Steffen Laursen and Piotr Steinkeller
During the third millennium BC, the huge geographical area stretching between the Mediterranean in the west and the Indus Valley in the east witnessed the rise of a commercial network of unmatched proportions and intensity, within which the Persian Gulf for long periods functioned as a central node. In this book, Laursen and Steinkeller examine the nature of cultural and commercial contacts between Babylonia, the Gulf region, and Indus Civilization. Focusing on the third and early second millennia BC, and using both archaeological data and the evidence of ancient written sources, their study others an up-to-date synthetic picture of the history of interactions across this vast region. In addition to giving detailed characterizations and evaluations of contacts in various periods, the book also treats a number of important related issues, such as the presence of Amorites in the Gulf (in particular, their role in the rise of the Tilmun center on Bahrain Island); the alleged existence of Meluhhan commercial outposts in Babylonia; and the role that the seaport of Guʾabba played in Babylonia’s interactions with the Gulf region and southeastern Iran.
... The discoveries of a Persian Gulf seal (Rao 1963) and a bun shaped copper ingot (Rao 1985:520) in addition to the large water structure at the site identified as a dockyard by the excavator have given credence to the vigorous overseas trade that existed between ...
vessels of the Classical Harappan pottery, the black slipped jar stands out due to its peculiar shape and relative scarcity. This tall, pear-shaped jar has a rather constricted throat, large bulbous body and an elongated narrow base (fig.2 & 3). The base is so narrow that the vessel cannot stand on it without external support. Although it is regarded as a household storage vessel (Marshall 1931), its actual use has always been shrouded in mystery. One always wondered how and what did the Harappans store in this unsteady vessel? T Gujarat, during the first field-season in 1996 brought to light a large number of black slipped jar sherds including a large rim bearing a graffiti in Harappan script on it (fig.1). Over 200 sherds of this pottery along with many other Classical Harappan remains were unearthed from the site in the subsequent years. This is one of the largest collections of black slipped jar sherds reported from Gujarat Harappan sites. Among the several well-known characteristic The Black Slipped Jar (BSJ) is widely regarded as a vessel used by the Harappans for overseas transportation of goods. The discovery of considerable number of BSJs from Bagasra, a site located in the Saurashtra coast of the Gulf of Kachchh, indicates the presence of Harappan traders at the site as early as the middle of third millennium BCE. Fluctuating volume of Harappan trade through time is reflected in the relative abundance of the vessel unearthed in different phases of Harappan occupation at the site. Close correspondence of metrical features of the BSJs from Bagasra with the Indus valley sites suggests certain degree of standardization in their production. Graffiti in Harappan script on BSJ appear to be linked with operational aspects of the trade involving the vessel.
... The discoveries of a Persian Gulf seal (Rao 1963) and a bun shaped copper ingot (Rao 1985:520) in addition to the large water structure at the site identified as a dockyard by the excavator have given credence to the vigorous overseas trade that existed between ...
vessels of the Classical Harappan pottery, the black slipped jar stands out due to its peculiar shape and relative scarcity. This tall, pear-shaped jar has a rather constricted throat, large bulbous body and an elongated narrow base (fig.2 & 3). The base is so narrow that the vessel cannot stand on it without external support. Although it is regarded as a household storage vessel (Marshall 1931), its actual use has always been shrouded in mystery. One always wondered how and what did the Harappans store in this unsteady vessel? T Gujarat, during the first field-season in 1996 brought to light a large number of black slipped jar sherds including a large rim bearing a graffiti in Harappan script on it (fig.1). Over 200 sherds of this pottery along with many other Classical Harappan remains were unearthed from the site in the subsequent years. This is one of the largest collections of black slipped jar sherds reported from Gujarat Harappan sites. Among the several well-known characteristic The Black Slipped Jar (BSJ) is widely regarded as a vessel used by the Harappans for overseas transportation of goods. The discovery of considerable number of BSJs from Bagasra, a site located in the Saurashtra coast of the Gulf of Kachchh, indicates the presence of Harappan traders at the site as early as the middle of third millennium BCE. Fluctuating volume of Harappan trade through time is reflected in the relative abundance of the vessel unearthed in different phases of Harappan occupation at the site. Close correspondence of metrical features of the BSJs from Bagasra with the Indus valley sites suggests certain degree of standardization in their production. Graffiti in Harappan script on BSJ appear to be linked with operational aspects of the trade involving the vessel.
... Two of the most comprehensive concordances of the Indus Valley artifacts (Mahadevan et al., 1977; Wells & Fuls, 2011) list a total of seven seals and four sealings of unknown provenance. 1 This may seem a small number, but it is nonetheless lamentable that their origins remain unknown. Scholars frequently glean insights about the Indus culture and script on the basis of the provenance of inscribed Indus artifacts, sometimes a very small handful (Laursen, 2010; Parpola, 1975; Pittman, 2013; Rao, 1963). In addition, a general computational linguistic method for estimating the geographic origin of inscribed artifacts would be of great value to scholars of archaeology, anthropology, and history. ...
Computational techniques comparing co-occurrences of city names in texts allow the relative longitudes and latitudes of cities to be estimated algorithmically. However, these techniques have not been applied to estimate the provenance of artifacts with unknown origins. Here, we estimate the geographic origin of artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization, applying methods commonly used in cognitive science to the Indus script. We show that these methods can accurately predict the relative locations of archeological sites on the basis of artifacts of known provenance, and we further apply these techniques to determine the most probable excavation sites of four sealings of unknown provenance. These findings suggest that inscription statistics reflect historical interactions among locations in the Indus Valley region, and they illustrate how computational methods can help localize inscribed archeological artifacts of unknown origin. The success of this method offers opportunities for the cognitive sciences in general and for computational anthropology specifically.
... The morphological analysis and the stylistic examination suggest that one of the seals from Mohenjo-Daro ( Fig. 9 ⁄ 2) should possibly be regarded as a product of the 'western' tradition. As such this seal perhaps indicates the easternmost boundary of this early 'western' orbit, which is not to be matched until later in the Isin-Larsa period, from whence a Dilmun Type seal discovered at the site of Lothal in Gujarat (Rao 1963) is testimony of a compatible eastern range of the interaction network. ...
This paper provides a comprehensive examination of the seals of the so-called ‘Gulf Type’, which date to the end of the third millennium BC. It is argued that the Gulf Type seals are of key importance to our understanding of the origin of sealing and other administrative technologies within an emerging Early Dilmun ‘state’. Based on principal component analysis it is demonstrated that the shape of Gulf Type seals with inscriptions in Indus characters is distinct from seals without inscriptions. It is further argued that Gulf Type seals found in the Indus Valley, Iran, Mesopotamia/Bahrain and Bahrain can be connected with relatively discrete morphological groups apparently corresponding to different areas of production. The Indus inscriptions on the seals are investigated with particular emphasis on the abnormal occurrence of prefixed ‘twins’ signs in the western inscriptions. The hypothesis that a language different from that of the Harappans was used on these seals is reconfirmed on the basis of a newly found seal with a particular instructive pseudo-inscription. The paper concludes that breakaway Harappans operating in the western orbit invented the Gulf Type seals but that the type from around 2050 BC became practically synonymous with the merchant communities in Dilmun.
Lothal is situated approximately 30 km inland from the Gulf of Khambhat on the western coast of India in Gujarat. It served as a bustling port during the Bronze Age Harappan period (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE) and was connected to a series of Harappan production and distribution centres dotted along the Gulf of Kachchh and the Rann of Kachchh. Artefacts of foreign nature found in Lothal attest to its intercultural trade relation. Further, Lothal is renowned for its well-preserved brick-walled dockyard and warehouse. However, different views for and against the dockyard are available in archaeological literature. This study revisits the dockyard theory from the landscape perspective and integrates information extracted from early maps, multi-spectral and multi-temporal satellite data of different spatial resolutions, and Digital Elevation Models to understand the larger context of the palaeolandscape around Lothal, including both fluvial and coastal areas. The findings offer fresh perspectives on the hydrographic dynamics of the region, highlighting an evident direct connection between Lothal and the former course of River Sabarmati, one of the major rivers in Gujarat that currently flows 20 km east of Lothal. The reconstruction of the palaeolandscape, both fluvial and coastal, complements and verifies certain interpretations related to the dockyard theory, partially bridging the ‘credibility gap’ in the broader discussion and strengthening the arguments in favour of the dockyard theory. Additionally, the study underscores the significance of integrating various types of geospatial data to understand past landscapes. Further investigation of the reconstructed palaeolandscape, particularly the complex hydrographic network including rivers and creeks, of this historically important region has the potential to contribute to new insights into existing archaeological and geomorphological interpretations and may guide us about the past human adaptation to the natural dynamics.
The Bronze Age Harappan Civilisation thrived between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE in the northwestern part of the Indian Subcontinent. The Harappans established robust interregional trade networks, efficiently managing procurement and distribution across various regions. Water transport was crucial to these trade activities, offering a cost-effective and faster means of transportation. This was particularly important in the Kachchh region, where the unique geographical features favoured waterborne trade. Extensive maritime routes allowed the Harappans to expand their trade pursuits to distant regions such as Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Peninsula. The intercultural trade and exchange were facilitated by a series of settlements on the Kachchh coast, prominent among them being Dholavira, Shikarpur, Bagasra, Kanmer, Surkotada and sites on the Makran coast. By incorporating satellite data, on-site observations and existing literature, the present study reinvestigates Lothal, an important Harappan port town and production hub, including its adjoining region. This paper explores the contemporary and historical geography of the region, focusing on the Harappan maritime routes that were once active but have become entirely defunct due to geomorphic and climatic changes. The analysis identifies three major navigable waterways: the shallow inland water route through the Nal Corridor connecting Lothal to the Little Rann of Kachchh, offering a much shorter and safer path to Harappan sites north of Lothal; the riverine route through the Sabarmati River, leading to Aravalli and the eastern hinterland; and the sea route through the Gulf of Khambhat to the south, providing access to the Ratanpur-Rajpipla mines. This suggested that Lothal was strategically positioned at the intersection of these routes during the Harappan Period, demonstrating the Harappans' advanced geographic knowledge. The results highlight the dynamic nature of procurement and distribution networks and the pivotal role of Lothal and its surrounding landscape in facilitating direct or indirect interregional and intercultural economic exchanges.
From the late second century BCE onwards, when Chinese trade with the West becomes more evident, historical research acquires an important interpretive tool to explain intercultural contacts and influences between Asia and the Mediterranean. The problematic term “Silk Road,” which first appeared in the nineteenth century CE, has been used to emphasize these intercultural contacts between East and West. However, things are more difficult for researchers focused on intercultural contacts and influences before the time of the Silk Road, i.e. during the era of the first great civilizations of antiquity. Even in that early period, the exchange of ideas, peoples, and goods is apparent. But their exact communication networks are difficult to detect accurately, for we lack an interpretive tool similar to the “Silk Road(s).” More concretely, ample evidence supports the presence of ongoing communication and trade between the Sumerian and the Indus Valley civilizations or between the Indus Valley Civilization and civilizations of the Iranian Plateau and Central Asia. This study seeks to achieve three key aims: (1) to show that there was extensive mobility of ideas, people and goods between East and West, long before the second century BCE, already present from the 3rd millennium BCE onwards, (2) to show that many geographical locations pivotal during the Silk Road era were already playing an equally important role as early as the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE and (3) to correct the arbitrariness and the problematic issues inherited from our traditional understanding of the Silk Road. The following presentation will connect all this information, assembling a comprehensive puzzle of ancient intercultural communications. Based on studies such as those of Toby Wilkinson, Philippe Beaujard, and Charles Clifford Lamberg-Karlovsky, this study will try to construct an updated version of our understanding of the Silk Road.
In this volume Enrico Ascalone presents more than 2000 weights, potential weights and other objects – mostly unpublished so far – from 20 Bronze Age sites in Iraq, Iran and India. It includes ca. 750 weights from Susa in south-western Iran and nearly 900 weights from Dholavira, Kutch district, in India. The typology, material, archaeological context and metrology of the objects is discussed. For the first time a large number of weights from the Mature Harappan culture is presented in detail. The investigations were made possible by various partners in the Iran, India and France (Louvre) and were funded by the ERC-2014-CoG 'WEIGHTANDVALUE: Weight metrology and its economic and social impact on Bronze Age Europe, West and South Asia' [Grant no. 648055].
A comprehensive and authoritative overview of ancient material culture from the late Pleistocene to Late Antiquity Features up-to-date surveys and the latest information from major new excavations such as Qatna (Syria), Göbekli Tepe (Turkey) Includes a diverse range of perspectives by senior, mid-career and junior scholars in Europe, USA, Britain, Australia, and the Middle East for a truly international group Includes major reviews of the origins of agriculture, animal domestication, and archaeological landscapes Includes chapters dealing with periods after the coming of Alexander the Great, including studies of the Seleucid, Arsacid, Sasanian, Roman and Byzantine empires in the Near East, as well as early Christianity in both the Levant and Mesopotamia Fills a gap in literature of the Ancient Near East, dealing with topics often overlooked, including ethical and legal issues in antiquities markets and international scholarship.
The Indus script used by the Harappan civilization around 2600–1800 B.C. remains little understood, but is by no means a ‘hopeless case’ as some authorities have maintained. The vexed problems concerning the nature of the script, the identity of the underlying language, and the methods and present state of decipherment are briefly discussed. (For overviews with different emphases, see Parpola 1975 and 1979, with bibliographies). The focus of this paper is on aspects that are of special interest to archaeologists, including the problem of the origin of the Indus script, its forerunners and earliest examples, as well as the types of objects on which the signs occur.
Excavations at one of the southern-most sites of the Harappan Culture have revealed a large artificial basin adjacent to the settlement area. This has been interpreted to be a mooring station for merchant vessels and the settlement itself has been considered an entrepôt for trade with Mesopotamia. In this article, the author argues that there is little substantive support for either of these claims. The settlement in general and the basin in particular do not, in the author's view, appear to meet the requirements of a port. As an alternative, he suggests that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank for a moderately-sized but still rural village.
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