Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy

Abstract

Abstrac t—Man has harnessed the energy in wind for thousands of years, both for sailing boats and powering wind mills at land. Of all renewable energy sources, wind power is the most mature in terms of commercial development. This energy source is interesting because of its renewability and its availability. Potential for development is huge, and the world’s capacity is far larger than the world’s total energy consumption. Worldwide, a total capacity of about 60 000 MW have been installed, with a yearly production of about 100 TWh. The major challenges for further development are connected to economy, land usage, environment and grid capacity. The growth of renewable energy has been unprecedented over the past 25 years. Wind and solar have maintained double-digit growth rates since 2000. No other segment of the energy sector has grown this fast. Wind power is the most economic new power plant technology, due to reduced installations costs, no fuel costs and construction time of less than one year, compared to over 10 years to construct nuclear power plants. The effects of wind energy on the environment often are considered to be positive, through the production of renewable energy and the potential displacement of mining activities, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with non-renewable energy sources. As a result, a more complete understanding of the environmental and economic effects of any one energy source depends on a more complete understanding of how that energy source displaces or is displaced by other energy sources, and it depends on a more complete understanding of the environmental and economic effects of all other available energy sources. This paper provides analyses to understand those environmental effects, both positive and negative.

Full text

Abstract—Man has harnessed the energy in wind for
thousands of years, both for sailing boats and powering wind
mills at land. Of all renewable energy sources, wind power is
the most mature in terms of commercial development. This
energy source is interesting because of its renewability and its
availability. Potential for development is huge, and the world’s
capacity is far larger than the world’s total energy
consumption. Worldwide, a total capacity of about 60 000 MW
have been installed, with a yearly production of about 100
TWh. The major challenges for further development are
connected to economy, land usage, environment and grid
capacity. The growth of renewable energy has been
unprecedented over the past 25 years. Wind and solar have
maintained double-digit growth rates since 2000. No other
segment of the energy sector has grown this fast. Wind power
is the most economic new power plant technology, due to
reduced installations costs, no fuel costs and construction time
of less than one year, compared to over 10 years to construct
nuclear power plants. The effects of wind energy on the
environment often are considered to be positive, through the
production of renewable energy and the potential displacement
of mining activities, air pollution, and greenhouse gas
emissions associated with non-renewable energy sources. As a
result, a more complete understanding of the environmental
and economic effects of any one energy source depends on a
more complete understanding of how that energy source
displaces or is displaced by other energy sources, and it
depends on a more complete understanding of the
environmental and economic effects of all other available
energy sources. This paper provides analyses to understand
those environmental effects, both positive and negative.
Index Terms—Environmental effects ecological impacts,
renewable energy, wind energy.
I. INTRODUCTION [1]
In recent years, the growth of capacity to generate
electricity from wind energy has been extremely rapid, To
the degree that wind energy reduces the need for electricity
generation using other sources of energy, it can reduce the
adverse environmental impacts of those sources, such as
production of atmospheric and water pollution, including
greenhouse gases; production of nuclear wastes; degradation
of landscapes due to mining activity; and damming of rivers.
Generation of electricity by wind energy has the potential to
reduce environmental impacts, because unlike generators
that use fossil fuel, it does not result in the generation of
atmospheric contaminants or thermal pollution, and it has
been attractive to many governments, organizations, and
individuals. But others have focused on adverse
environmental impacts of wind-energy facilities, which
include visual and other impacts on humans; and effects on
Manuscript received December 5, 2013; revised February 6, 2013.
Suaad Jaber is with Institute of Urban and Regional Planning for
Postgraduate studies, Baghdad University, Irap (email:
j_suaad@yahoo.com).
ecosystems, including the killing of wildlife, especially
birds and bats, some environmental effects of wind-energy
facilities, especially those concerning transportation.
II. RENEWABLE ENERGY
Presently, the known alternatives to energy production
from fossil fuels are renewable and nuclear energy. There
exist many social and environmental complications with
nuclear energy. Renewable energy sources are desirable
because of their contribution to greenhouse gas reduction
and national security of energy supply without the
complications of nuclear energy. Formal definitions of
renewable energy sources vary from country to country, but
there is broad agreement that wind energy, photovoltaic, and
solar thermal energy is considered to be renewables. Other
sources that are often considered renewable include
hydropower and biomass. Increasing dependence on
renewable energy sources is complicated by various barriers
to implementation. Most renewable energy technologies
face cost disadvantages in comparison with conventional
energy technologies. (Roads to and from the plant site) and
transmission (roads and clearings for transmission lines), are
common to all electricity-generating facilities; others, such
as their specific aesthetic impacts, are unique to wind-
energy facilities, at regional to global scales.
III. WIND ENERGY
Wind power is a relatively mature technology. It
competes with other energy sources in terms of price,
environmental effects and usability. With the exception of
hydro power, wind power is closer to commercial
profitability than any of the other renewable sources, though
improved project economy is a vital challenge for wind
power [2]. Wind energy is widely applicable because wind
resources are available in most countries. Among the
renewable energy technologies, wind energy is relatively
mature and many countries have resolved cost and
technology challenges [3].
Fig. 1. Cost of wind power related to annual mean wind speed. Source:
SINTEF Centre for Energy Research.
Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy
Suaad Jaber
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DOI: 10.7763/JOCET.2013.V1.57
Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 3, July 2013

Wind is clean, free, indigenous and inexhaustible. Wind
turbines do not need any type of fuel, so there are no
environmental risks or degradation from the exploration,
extraction, transport, shipment, processing or disposal of
fuel. Not only is generation produced with zero emissions of
carbon dioxide (during the operational phase) but it also
does not release toxic pollutants (for example mercury) or
conventional air pollutants (for example smog-forming
nitrogen dioxide and acid rain-forming sulphur dioxide)
[4].Wind energy projects must be located in accordance
with the Planning Act, the regional plans, and the municipal
plans. The regional plans provide general locations for wind
projects and guidelines for integrating wind turbines with
other land-uses. The municipal plans can include targets and
desires related to wind energy and provide a more detailed
basis for turbine location, number, height and appearance
[5]. Wind energy is a clean and environmentally friendly
technology that produces electricity. Its renewable character
and the fact it does not pollute during the operational phase
makes it one of the most promising energy systems for
reducing environmental problems at both global and local
levels.
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF WIND ENERGY
Operation of wind power has zero emissions of harmful
substances. It does not add to global warming, the “fuel” is
free, and is quite evenly distributed around the world. The
energy needed to produce and install the turbine amounts to
three months of turbine production. But, as with other
sources of energy, wind power does have an environmental
impact. The impact on wildlife is likely low compared to
other forms of human and industrial activity. However,
negative impacts on certain populations of sensitive species
are possible, and efforts to mitigate these effects should be
considered in the planning phase. wind energy, like any
other industrial activity, may cause impacts on the
environment which should be analyzed and mitigated [6].
A
．
Environmental Benefits
What are the advantages to the environment that is caused
by wind energy?
Primarily, wind energy do not cause water or air
emissions, and do not produce any kind of hazardous waste
as well. Moreover, wind power does not make use of natural
resources like oil, gas or cause and therefore will not cause
damage to the environment through resource transportation
and extraction and also do not need consequent amounts of
water during operation [5].
Wind energy is not only a favorable electricity generation
technology that reduces emissions (of other pollutants as
well as CO2, SO2 and NOx), it also avoids significant
amounts of external costs of conventional fossil fuel-based
electricity generation [6].
More and more use of wind energy should be made in
order to prevent the problem of global warming.
Wind energy plants are considered a green power
technology because it has only minor impacts on the
environment. Wind energy plants produce no air pollutants
or greenhouse gases [7].
Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:
• It is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of
energy
• It doesn't require fuel
• It doesn't create greenhouse gases
• It doesn't produce toxic or radioactive waste
B. Disadvantages
Any means of energy production impacts the
environment in some way, and wind energy is no different.
Like every other energy technology, wind power plants do
have some effects on the environment. Wind turbines cause
virtually no emissions during their operation and very little
during their manufacture, installation, maintenance and
removal. Compared to the environmental impact of
traditional energy sources, the environmental impact of
wind power is relatively minor.
Wind farms are often built on land that has already been
impacted by land clearing. The vegetation clearing and
ground disturbance required for wind farms is minimal
compared with coal mines and coal-fired power stations [7].
If wind farms are decommissioned, the landscape can be
returned to its previous condition.
The major challenge to using wind as a source of power
is that the wind is intermittent and it does not always blow
when electricity is needed. Wind energy cannot be stored
(unless batteries are used); and not all winds can be
harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands [3].
Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far
from cities where the electricity is needed. Wind resource
development may compete with other uses for the land and
those alternative uses may be more highly valued than
electricity generation [4]. Although wind power plants have
relatively little impact on the environment compared to
other conventional power plants, there is some concern over
the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual)
impacts, and sometimes birds have been killed by flying
into the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved
or greatly reduced through technological development or by
properly sitting wind plants.
To the extent that we understand how, when, and where
wind-energy development most adversely affects organisms
and their habitat, it will be possible to mitigate future
impacts through careful sitting decisions.
V. ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
There are two major ways that wind-energy development
may influence ecosystem structure and functioning—
through direct impacts on individual organisms and through
impacts on habitat structure and functioning. Environmental
influences of wind-energy facilities can propagate across a
wide range of spatial scales, from the location of a single
turbine to landscapes, regions, and the planet, and a range of
temporal scales from short-term noise to long-term
influences on habitat structure and influences on presence of
species [5]. The ecological influences of wind-energy
facilities are complex, and can vary with spatial and
temporal scale, location, season, weather, ecosystem type,
species, and other factors. Moreover, many of the influences
are likely cumulative and ecological influences can interact
in complex ways at wind energy facilities and at other sites
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Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 3, July 2013

associated with changed land-use practices and other
anthropogenic disturbances [4]. Wind turbines cause
fatalities of birds and bats through collision, most likely
with the turbine blades. Species differ in their vulnerability
to collision, in the likelihood that fatalities will have large
scale cumulative impacts on biotic communities, and in the
extent to which their fatalities are discovered [7]. the data
are inadequate to assess relative risk to passerines and other
small birds. It is possible that as turbines become larger and
reach higher, the risk to the more abundant bats and
nocturnally migrating passerines at these altitudes will
increase [1]. Determining the effect of turbine size on avian
risk will require more data from direct comparison of
fatalities from a range of turbine types. The construction and
maintenance of wind-energy facilities also alter ecosystem
structure through vegetation clearing, soil disruption and
potential for erosion, and noise. Alteration of vegetation,
including forest clearing, represents perhaps the most
significant potential change through fragmentation and loss
of habitat for some species [6].Changes in forest structure
and the creation of openings alter microclimate and increase
the amount of forest edge. Plants and animals throughout an
ecosystem respond differently to these changes. There might
also be important interactions between habitat alteration and
the risk of fatalities, such as bat foraging behavior near
turbines [6].
Standardized studies should be conducted before sitting
and construction and after construction of wind-energy
facilities to evaluate the potential and realized ecological
impacts of wind development [3]. Pre-sitting studies should
evaluate the potential for impacts to occur and the possible
cumulative impacts in the context of other sites being
developed or proposed. Likely impacts could be evaluated
relative to other potentially developable sites or from an
absolute perspective. In addition, the studies should evaluate
a selected site to determine whether alternative facility
designs would reduce potential environmental impacts.
Post-construction studies should focus on evaluating
impacts, actual versus predicted risk, causal mechanisms of
impact, and potential mitigation measures to reduce risk and
reclamation of disturbed sites.
VI. IMPACTS ON HUMANS
The human impacts include aesthetic impacts; impacts on
cultural resources, such as historic, sacred, archeological,
and recreation sites; impacts on human health and wellbeing,
specifically from noise and from shadow flicker; economic
and fiscal impacts; and the potential for electromagnetic
interference with television and radio broadcasting, cellular
phones, and radar. This is not an exhaustive list of all
possible human impacts from wind-energy projects [6].
VII. CULTURAL IMPACTS [6]
Wind-energy facilities create both positive and negative
recreational impacts. On the positive side, many wind-
energy projects are listed as tourist sights: some offer tours
or provide information areas about the facility and wind
energy in general; and several are considering incorporating
visitor centers. There are two types of potential negative
impacts on recreational opportunities: direct and indirect.
Direct impacts can result when existing recreational
activities are either precluded or require rerouting around a
wind-energy facility. Indirect impacts include aesthetic
impacts (addressed above) that may affect the recreational
experience. These impacts can occur when scenic or natural
values are critical to the recreational experience. In
analyzing impacts on historic, sacred, and archeological
sites, the primary concern is that no permanent harm should
be done that would affect the integrity of the site. Whether
or not a wind-energy project would damage the resource
may depend on the specific nature of the historic resources
involved.
Unlike housing developments, wind-energy projects
cannot be screened from view, except behind intervening
topography and vegetation. Such issues are likely to arise as
wind projects are proposed in cultural landscapes, and
guidance as to what constitutes an undue impact to historic
or sacred sites and areas will be necessary.
VIII. IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH [6]
Wind-energy projects can have positive as well as
negative impacts on human health and wellbeing. The
positive impacts accrue mainly through improvements in air
quality, as discussed previously in this report. These
positive impacts (i.e., benefits) to health and well-being are
diffuse; they are experienced by people living in areas
where conventional methods of electricity generation are
used less because wind energy can be substituted in the
regional market. In contrast, to the extent that wind-energy
projects create negative impacts on human health and well-
being, the impacts are experienced mainly by people living
near wind turbines that are affected by noise and shadow
flicker.
IX. LOCAL ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Wind-energy projects can have a range of economic and
fiscal impacts, both positive and negative. Some of those
impacts are experienced at the national or regional level;
these involve, and for example, tax credits and other
monetary incentives to encourage wind-energy production,
as well as effects of wind energy on regional energy pricing.
In this section, the focus is on the local level: on private
economic impacts, positive and negative, as well as on
public revenues and costs [6].
X. VISUAL IMPACT [4]
Landscape perceptions and visual impacts are key
environmental issues in determining wind farm applications
related to wind energy development as landscape and visual
impacts are by nature subjective and changing over time and
location.
The characteristics of wind developments may cause
landscape and visual effects. These characteristics include
the turbines (size, height, number, material and color),
access and site tracks, substation buildings, compounds, grid
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Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 3, July 2013

connection, anemometer masts, and transmission lines.
Another characteristic of wind farms is that they are not
permanent, so the area where the wind farm has been
located can return to its original condition after the
decommissioning phase. While visual impact is very
specific to the site at a particular wind farm, several
characteristics in the design and sitting of wind farms have
been identified to minimize their potential visual impact
XI. NOISE IMPACT
Noise from wind developments has been one of the most
studied environmental impacts of this technology. Noise,
compared to landscape and visual impacts, can be measured
and predicted fairly easily.
As with any machine involving moving parts, wind
turbines generate noise during operation. Noise from wind
turbines arises mainly from two sources: 1) mechanical
noise caused by the gearbox and generator; and 2)
aerodynamic noise caused by interaction of the turbine
blades with the wind [6].
Experience acquired in developing wind farms suggests
that noise from wind turbines is generally very low [7]. The
comparison between the number of noise complaints about
wind farms and about other types of noise indicates that
wind farm noise is a small-scale problem in absolute terms.
Information from the US also suggests that complaints
about noise from wind projects are rare and can usually be
satisfactorily resolved.
XII. IMPACT ON LAND USE [4]
National authorities consider the development of wind
farms in their planning policies for wind energy projects.
Decisions on sitting should be made with consideration to
other land users. Regional and local land-use planners must
decide whether a project is compatible with existing and
planned adjacent uses, whether it will modify negatively the
overall character of the surrounding area, whether it will
disrupt established communities, and whether it will be
integrated into the existing landscape. Land use planning
rules in some countries recommend avoiding areas with
protected designations; in others, specific areas have been
earmarked for potential wind farm development.
XIII. REDUCE THE NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS OF WIND ENERGY
The negative environmental impacts from wind energy
installations are much lower in intensity than those
produced by conventional energies, but they still have to
assessed and mitigated when necessary. There are specific
conditions that must be in place before an area can be
considered suitable for a wind farm development. These
conditions include factors such as: wind climate,
topographical, logistical and ecological constraints [5].
A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is the
procedure used to evaluate the adverse impacts of any plans
and programs on the environment. National, regional and
local governments must undertake SEAs of all wind energy
plans and programs that have the potential for significant
environmental effects [6]. The ecological influences of
wind-energy facilities are complex, and can vary with
spatial and temporal scale, location, season, weather,
ecosystem type, species, and other factors. Moreover, many
of the influences are likely cumulative and ecological
influences can interact in complex ways at wind energy
facilities and at other sites associated with changed land-use
practices and other anthropogenic disturbances [5]. Because
of this complexity, evaluating ecological influences of
wind-energy development is challenging and relies on
understanding factors that are inadequately studied. Despite
this, several patterns are beginning to emerge from the
information currently available. Increased research using
rigorous scientific methods will be critical to filling existing
information gaps and improving reliability of predictions.
In conclusion, we must decide that if we have to produce
electricity, it is certainly preferable to produce it in a way
which has the smallest possible impact on the environment.
From a technical and economic standpoint, the most mature
form of renewable and “clean” energy is wind energy. It
can effectively contribute to combating climate change
while at the same time providing various environmental,
social and economic benefits. On the other hand, it is
necessary to minimize the impact of the wind energy,
particularly in terms of environment (preservation of
protected areas) and human health (noise and visual impact).
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Suaad Jabber Laffta was born in Aug. 16, 1972 in
Iraq. Her Specific Specialty: environmental planning,
environmental & sustainable assessment. She has been
working as a faculty member in the Institute of Urban
and Regional Planning for Postgraduate studies,.
University of Baghdad since 2001, graduated from the
surveying Eng Dept - University of Baghdad in 1994.
She took her master degree in urban studies from the Higher Institute of
Urban & Regional Planning, University of Baghdad, 2006. AT the present
time she a Doctoral student in the Institute of Urban and Regional
Planning for Postgraduate studies, University of Baghdad.
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