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Improving decision making through mindfulness
Abstract
“Most men's awareness doesn's extend past their dinner plates.”
Scott Westerfeld, Leviathan
Introduction
With perhaps a few exceptions per day, we are seldom fully aware of our thoughts, actions, emotions, and what is happening around us. Even when it comes to making decisions, an activity that is often quite conscious, deliberate, and intentional, people are typically not as aware as they could be. We argue that as a result, decision quality may suffer. Consequently, mindfulness, most often defined as the state of being openly attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present, both internally and externally (e.g., Brown and Ryan 2003; Kabat-Zinn 1982; 1990), can help people make better decisions. Making judgments and decisions is a fundamental human activity in both personal and organizational contexts. Decisions hold the potential for great gains: marrying the right person, accepting a job that fits well, putting one's savings into the right investments, or choosing the appropriate strategy for an organization. Decisions also hold the potential for great loss, pain, and suffering. Wrong decisions can destroy people, families, and organizations. People are haunted by rumination, even depression, looking back with regret at some of the decisions they made. Organizations are also a place of great decision blunders, such as the “merger” between Daimler Benz and Chrysler, or Coca Cola's decision to introduce New Coke.
Decision research has generally painted a rather bleak picture of individual and organizational decision-making capabilities, compiling a long list of biases (i.e. systematic errors) and problems such as overconfidence, confirmation bias, or the sunk cost bias (Kahneman 2011). Arguably, errors are partly due to the daunting difficulty of decision making: the need to process large amounts of information with limited capacity and time, the need to be clear about one's values and objectives, and the need to make difficult trade-offs. We believe that if mindfulness helps even to a small extent to improve decision making, individuals and organizations stand to gain considerable accumulated benefits.
... De behoefte aan autonomie is "het ervaren van een gevoel van vrijwilligheid en psychologische vrijheid" (Van den Broeck et al., 2010, p. 981), competentie verwijst naar "zich effectief voelen" ( Van den Broeck et al., 2010, p. 981) en verbondenheid kan worden omschreven als zich geconnecteerd voelen met anderen (Van den Broeck et al., 2010). In het kader van dit onderzoek wordt gesteld dat (1) aandachtige leidercommunicatie samenhangt met autonomie, omdat het de leider helpt op te merken wat de medewerker nodig heeft en de leider daardoor effectievere beslissingen kan nemen met betrekking tot de toewijzing van middelen of beslissingsruimte (Reb et al., 2015); (2) dat LAC samenhangt met competentie omdat het leiders kan helpen om meer ondersteunend te zijn (Reb et al., 2015), bijvoorbeeld door te luisteren en direct in te gaan op behoeften van werknemers of door (verborgen) talent te herkennen of tijdig trainingsmogelijkheden te bieden; en (3) dat LAC geassocieerd is met verbondenheid omdat in een gesprek waarin de leider de tijd neemt en moeite doet om aandacht te besteden aan de werknemer (op een open manier), de werknemer zich naar verwachting gerespecteerd en gezien voelt (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Kahn (1990) stelt dat er drie psychologische voorwaarden zijn waaraan voldaan moet zijn voor persoonlijke bevlogenheid op het werk. ...
... De behoefte aan autonomie is "het ervaren van een gevoel van vrijwilligheid en psychologische vrijheid" (Van den Broeck et al., 2010, p. 981), competentie verwijst naar "zich effectief voelen" ( Van den Broeck et al., 2010, p. 981) en verbondenheid kan worden omschreven als zich geconnecteerd voelen met anderen (Van den Broeck et al., 2010). In het kader van dit onderzoek wordt gesteld dat (1) aandachtige leidercommunicatie samenhangt met autonomie, omdat het de leider helpt op te merken wat de medewerker nodig heeft en de leider daardoor effectievere beslissingen kan nemen met betrekking tot de toewijzing van middelen of beslissingsruimte (Reb et al., 2015); (2) dat LAC samenhangt met competentie omdat het leiders kan helpen om meer ondersteunend te zijn (Reb et al., 2015), bijvoorbeeld door te luisteren en direct in te gaan op behoeften van werknemers of door (verborgen) talent te herkennen of tijdig trainingsmogelijkheden te bieden; en (3) dat LAC geassocieerd is met verbondenheid omdat in een gesprek waarin de leider de tijd neemt en moeite doet om aandacht te besteden aan de werknemer (op een open manier), de werknemer zich naar verwachting gerespecteerd en gezien voelt (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Kahn (1990) stelt dat er drie psychologische voorwaarden zijn waaraan voldaan moet zijn voor persoonlijke bevlogenheid op het werk. ...
... Vooral de oefening met 'peer-mentoring' rond moeilijke gesprekken werd als zeer waardevol ervaren door deelnemende leidinggevenden. (Arkes & Blumer, 1985;Baas et al., 2014;Carson & Langer, 2006;Hafenbrack et al., 2014;Hülsheger et al., 2013;Karelaia & Reb, 2015;Kiken & Shook, 2011;Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010;Sutcliffe et al., 2016;Weick & Putnam, 2006). c. ...
Deze studie heeft als doel om de effectiviteit van een nieuwe training voor leidinggevenden m.b.t. aandachtige leidercommunicatie te testen. Aandachtige leidercommunicatie verwijst naar "een open, aandachtige houding tijdens een gesprek met een werknemer". De potentiële werkings-mechanismen van de training werden getest door de integratie van de Zelf-Determinatie Theorie en Kahn's psychologische voorwaarden voor bevlogenheid. De training werd longitudinaal getest met twee groepen leidinggevenden (N T1 = 18) uit publieke organisaties en hun medewerkers (N T1 = 129). Doordat de datavergaring tijdens een lockdown met verplicht thuiswerken plaatsvond, werd ook communicatie in de digitale om-geving onderzocht. Data van medewerkers lieten positieve resultaten zien betreffende (tevredenheid met aandachtige) communicatie van leiders, dienend leiderschap, vertrouwen in de leider, en mindfulness in communicatie, hoewel niet bij beide trainingsgroepen. Psycholo-gische behoeftebevrediging medieerde de relatie tussen aandachtige leidercommunicatie en burnout. Kahn's psychologische voorwaarden voor persoonlijke bevlogenheid (beschikbaarheid, betekenisvolheid en veiligheid) medieerden de relatie tussen aandachtige leidercommunicatie en zowel bevlogenheid als burnout. Uit open vragen over de lockdown bleek dat de ervaring van werknemers met betrekking tot thuiswerken varieerde van zeer positief tot extreem negatief. Zij rapporteerden over het algemeen geen effect op het leiderschap van hun leidinggevende, terwijl leiders aangaven dat thuiswerken hun communicatie met werknemers drastisch beïnvloedde.
... Role of mindfulness in the process of self-regulation (Masicampo and Baumeister, 2007) is well-established. Mindful people possess higher present-moment awareness that promotes thoughtful decision-making process (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) and contains automaticity in behavior (Brown and Ryan, 2003), thus acting as a strong tool to develop the ability of self-control. Similarly, studies show that emotions and impulses, when controlled and regulated in the right direction, can prevent indulging in excessive internet usage and impulsive behaviors (Mascia et al., 2020). ...
... Mindful individuals perceive the uniqueness of the moment, independent of its relationship with the immediate earlier or future moment (Nilsson and Kazemi, 2016). Being mindfully aware is also associated with a balanced and deliberative mind (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) that can assess the relevance of the information and cues present in the environment, supporting a thoughtful decision-making process (Karelaia and Reb, 2015); thus, breaking down thinking patterns and the resultant automaticity in one's behavior. ...
... Besides, impulsive customers face difficulty resisting the emotional urges related to impulsive online buying. Mindful individuals tend to be more equipped with a deliberative thinking process (think carefully before acting) that allows them to choose their thoughts or behaviors consciously (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and avoiding reactive approach (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) in decision making situations such as online buying. ...
Introduction
Online impulse buying behavior is an unplanned urge to buy a product or service in an online setting and it has several negative consequences for customers, such as guilt and financial distress, and e-commerce firms, such as higher returns and customer complaints. Evidently, it is important to examine the various psychological processes which may assist in a better understanding, therefore addressing the high prevalence of online impulse buying. This study builds upon self-regulation theory to explore how mindfulness influences online impulse buying, and examines problematic internet use as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and online impulse buying. Further, this study investigates how emotional intelligence as a moderator plays the role of a suppressant on the adverse impact of problematic Internet use which fuels online impulse buying.
Method
A total of 598 individuals working with various servicebased industries responded to the questionnaire. Multiple regression and moderated mediation analysis was used using SPSS and AMOS for analyzing the data.
Result
Problematic internet use mediates the relationship between mindfulness and online impulse buying behavior. Emotional intelligence negatively moderates the relationship between problematic internet use and online impulse buying behavior.
Discussion
This study findings outlined the inverse relationship of mindfulness & online impulse buying, along with the mediating effect of problematic internet use between mindfulness and online impulse buying. Further, this study showed how emotional intelligence played an important role as a moderator by suppressing the adverse impact of problematic Internet use and preventing online impulse buying. The study offers implications to online marketers in regulating the unplanned purchase process—while minimizing uninhibited buying behavior that leads to regret, and the subsequent intention to return products. Further, social and theoretical implications are discussed.
... Role of mindfulness in the process of self-regulation (Masicampo and Baumeister, 2007) is well-established. Mindful people possess higher present-moment awareness that promotes thoughtful decision-making process (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) and contains automaticity in behavior (Brown and Ryan, 2003), thus acting as a strong tool to develop the ability of self-control. Similarly, studies show that emotions and impulses, when controlled and regulated in the right direction, can prevent indulging in excessive internet usage and impulsive behaviors (Mascia et al., 2020). ...
... Mindful individuals perceive the uniqueness of the moment, independent of its relationship with the immediate earlier or future moment (Nilsson and Kazemi, 2016). Being mindfully aware is also associated with a balanced and deliberative mind (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) that can assess the relevance of the information and cues present in the environment, supporting a thoughtful decision-making process (Karelaia and Reb, 2015); thus, breaking down thinking patterns and the resultant automaticity in one's behavior. ...
... Besides, impulsive customers face difficulty resisting the emotional urges related to impulsive online buying. Mindful individuals tend to be more equipped with a deliberative thinking process (think carefully before acting) that allows them to choose their thoughts or behaviors consciously (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and avoiding reactive approach (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) in decision making situations such as online buying. ...
Online impulse buying behavior is an unplanned urge to buy a product or service in an online setting and it has several negative consequences for customers, such as guilt and financial distress, and e-commerce firms, such as higher returns and customer complaints. Evidently, it is important to examine the various psychological processes which may assist in a better understanding, therefore addressing the high prevalence of online impulse buying. This study builds upon self-regulation theory to explore how mindfulness influences online impulse buying, and examines problematic internet use as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and online impulse buying. Further, this study investigates how emotional intelligence as a moderator plays the role of a suppressant on the adverse impact of problematic Internet use which fuels online impulse buying.
... Mindfulness promotes regulating and directing attention to the present moment, with an open and accepting attitude toward experience, irrespective of its content (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness is associated with self-regulation, self-concept clarity, greater cognitive-behavioral flexibility, reduced automaticity in behavior and balanced decision making (Bishop et al., 2004;Karelaia and Reb, 2015;Shapiro et al., 2006). Studies have found mindfulness to be associated with various wellbeing measures and few psychological and behavioral problems (Brown and Kasser, 2005). ...
... Mindfulness may be associated with FWB for several reasons. First, mindful awareness and non-judgmental dimensions are associated with the functioning of a meaningful and balanced mind that helps in assessing the available information neutrally rather than seeing Relating mindfulness to financial well-being it with preconceived lenses (Karelaia and Reb, 2015). Thus, mindful individuals find it easier to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information and make rational and thoughtful decisions (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) through deliberative thinking (tendency to think carefully before acting) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). ...
... First, mindful awareness and non-judgmental dimensions are associated with the functioning of a meaningful and balanced mind that helps in assessing the available information neutrally rather than seeing Relating mindfulness to financial well-being it with preconceived lenses (Karelaia and Reb, 2015). Thus, mindful individuals find it easier to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information and make rational and thoughtful decisions (Karelaia and Reb, 2015) through deliberative thinking (tendency to think carefully before acting) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). In contrast, intuitive thinking often causes various biases in financial decision-making (Kahneman et al., 1982). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and financial well-being (FWB) and the mediating role of materialism on this relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
A conceptual framework is provided to support the research hypotheses. A survey with 311 working professionals from India allowed the hypothesized relationship to be tested through regression-based models.
Findings
The findings reveal that the three dimensions of FWB – financial anxiety, current money management stress and perceived financial security – are predicted by mindfulness and materialism even after controlling for several demographic variables. Materialism mediates the relationship between mindfulness and FWB.
Research limitations/implications
The findings are subject to the usual cautions associated with self-reported cross-sectional data. Future research may incorporate mindfulness interventions to establish causal relationships.
Practical implications
The study provides theoretical guidance to the policymakers and the financial institutions, including banks, which may focus on malleable factors beyond merely income to enhance FWB. Mindfulness is not only a trait but also could be cultivated by various physical and online-based mindfulness practices. Banks may integrate tools promoting mindfulness within their interactive web framework in order to stimulate customers' control over their daily spending through enhancing mindful awareness of present financial actions and their impact on the financial future. Thus, organizations may institutionalize such programs within their framework to help their employees cultivate greater FWB. Mindfulness promotes less anxiety related to financial decisions, which may develop customers' value as well as business opportunities for banks.
Originality/value
Unlike other FWB dispositional antecedents, which become relatively stable at the formative stage, mindfulness levels can be enhanced in different age-groups. To our knowledge, this is the first study to empirically establish that mindfulness exerts its beneficial effects on FWB directly, and, through reducing materialistic motives.
... Through this association with lower emotional exhaustion, mindfulness has been related to better performance and less intention to quit (Reb et al. 2017;Dane and Brummel 2014). Mindfulness also seems to lead to more job satisfaction (Hülsheger et al. 2013), better decision making, less stress, and more work engagement (Hyland et al. 2015;Karelaia and Reb 2015;Leroy et al. 2013). ...
... The latter gives rise to a new application, namely, mindfulness for leaders. Reb et al. (2015) distinguish a number of dimensions of what they posit as 'mindful leadership', such as presence, intention, and noticing one's own stream of consciousness, for example, during conversations. They posit that it is important as a leader to (1) focus the attention on the current moment; (2) be really present during the contact with the employees; (3) have the intention to repeatedly bring back the attention to the current moment; (4) to do this in an open, caring, and nonjudgmental way; and (5) thereby also noticing what one pays attention to. ...
... The open and nonjudgmental way of paying attention supports creativity (see, e.g., Langer 1989). Leaders who score high on mindfulness also make fewer cognitive mistakes (Weick and Putnam 2006;Karelaia and Reb 2015) and have less automatic emotional reactions that may obscure the decision-making process (Hülsheger et al. 2013). If a leader is 'mindful' in interactions with employees, (s)he can also notice more relevant information and perhaps make more ethical or helpful decisions with regard to the employees (Ruedy and Schweitzer 2010; Karelaia and Reb 2015). ...
Mindfulness has become quite popular. Both in scientific research and within regular media, the attention for the beneficial effects of mindfulness has increased. In the business world, claims on the effectiveness of mindfulness for well-being, focus, and performance are thrown around rather carelessly. In recent years, organizations are also providing more mindfulness courses for their employees. In the academic world, research on mindfulness in general, as well as on the effect of mindfulness in organizations, is on the rise. As a reaction to the increased “hype”, some scientists are concerned about overstatements on the effectiveness of “McMindfulness”, and the lack of ethical framework surrounding the application of mindfulness in both treatment settings and organizations. Therefore, it is important to remain critical and to develop a nuanced view on the effectiveness and use of mindfulness for both leaders and their employees in organizations. In this review chapter, we provide an overview on the research on leader mindfulness and the possible working mechanisms, after which we formulate some critical remarks and give practical evidence-based advice on the application of mindfulness in organizations. Although mindfulness seems to have beneficial effects on leader and employee well-being, our goal is to provide a nuanced view of the up-to-date research on leader mindfulness, to support future research, theory building, and practical applications in the work place.
... High mindfulness is positively related to attention focus and reallocation (Lindsay and Creswell, 2017), stress alleviation and reduction (Grossman et al., 2004;Goldin and Gross, 2010;Xi et al., 2022), positive emotions and attitudes (Brown and Ryan, 2003;Hülsheger et al., 2013;Liu et al., 2022a), as well as subjective wellbeing (Brown and Ryan, 2003;Wallace and Shapiro, 2006;Liu et al., 2020Liu et al., , 2022b. The training breaks cognitive barriers, cultivate emotion regulation and satisfaction, copes with mental fatigue, and exalts current beliefs and future expectations (Langer, 2000;Hülsheger et al., 2013;Karelaia and Reb, 2015;Wang et al., 2019;Kudesia et al., 2022). In essence, mindfulness intervention altered the mind patterns from negative to positive, from closeness to openness and flexibility, and from path dependency to creation. ...
... MBSR intervention may have an influential impact on the not explicit but implicit attitudes toward negative information. Previous studies revealed that mindfulness training focused more on the present status, thus decreasing the capability of imaging the future possibilities and uncertainties in decisionmaking (Karelaia and Reb, 2015;Yuan et al., 2022) and does not influence rationalized knowledge hiding (Liu et al., 2022c), while other scholars argued that participants increased open-minded behaviors, creative thinking, performance, and metacognitive skills (Guo et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2022;Mitsea et al., 2022). In global climate change issues, in particular, connectedness with nature played a promising mediating role in mindfulness training and climate belief change (Wang et al., 2019). ...
The internet facilitates the formation of the information society while also accelerating the viral spread of negative news and negative emotions, increasing public uncertainty and depression and impeding consensus, especially in the post-pandemic period. Mindfulness intervention, which has a positive effect on attention focus, self-regulation, and subjective wellbeing, is proven to mitigate negative emotional effects, and even alter mind patterns. The study aimed to give insight into the effect of mindfulness in the new media field, concerning trait mindfulness improvement, emotional arousal and regulation, and implicit attitudes from the perspective of intra-personal communication and positive communication. The study conducted a randomized pre-test–post-test control group design, with 3 (condition groups: mindfulness vs. placebo vs. control) × 2 (test times: pre vs. post). Participants who were exposed to negative news coverage with negative emotional arousal received 14 consecutive days of intervention. The results showed that mindfulness training can improve trait mindfulness effectively on the whole, especially in facets of describing, acting awareness, and non-judgment, and mitigate the negative effect from bad information coverage, while mindfulness intervention on mind patterns and expectations on controversial issues still awaited future empirical research. The present study intended to bridge the bonding between positive psychology and new media studies by focusing on individual attention improvement and negative emotion regulation, in the expectation that trait mindfulness can be beneficial in individual infodemic syndromes such as judgment bias and information exhaustion, and avoidance.
... Na atualidade, sabemos que o Mindfulness tem benefícios sobre as dimensões biopsicossociais do indivíduo Janssen et al., 2018) , e que esse facto pode ter impacto na saúde e no bem-estar do indivíduo ao longo da vida. Através da meditação e das práticas conscientes de Mindfulness, espera-se que os indivíduos sejam capazes de tomar as suas decisões com maior clareza, discernimento, liberdade e autonomia (Karelaia & Reb, 2014), podendo esse facto ser determinante para o aprimoramento da tomada de decisão consciente e informada em saúde. Segundo Karelaia & Reb (2014), com o desenvolvimento da atenção plena o processo de tomada de decisão transforma-se num exercício ponderado e cognitivo, que substitui reações impulsivas e instintivas que priorizam as necessidades imediatas. ...
... Através da meditação e das práticas conscientes de Mindfulness, espera-se que os indivíduos sejam capazes de tomar as suas decisões com maior clareza, discernimento, liberdade e autonomia (Karelaia & Reb, 2014), podendo esse facto ser determinante para o aprimoramento da tomada de decisão consciente e informada em saúde. Segundo Karelaia & Reb (2014), com o desenvolvimento da atenção plena o processo de tomada de decisão transforma-se num exercício ponderado e cognitivo, que substitui reações impulsivas e instintivas que priorizam as necessidades imediatas. De acordo com os autores supracitados, o Mindfulness contribui para a identificação precoce das decisões necessárias, resolução de problemas com maior criatividade, avaliação ética alargada e melhoria da capacidade de reconhecimento dos limites do conhecimento, e ainda contribui para o aprimoramento da capacidade de identificar compensações e consequências não intencionais das suas decisões individuais. ...
Introdução: Nos últimos anos, o Mindfulness e os seus princípios, têm ganho credibilidade e despertado o interesse entre os profissionais das áreas da saúde e da educação, especialmente devido aos seus benefícios biopsicossociais. Mais do que uma técnica de meditação, o Mindfulness é atualmente considerado como um instrumento que capacita e empodera os cidadãos para a promoção e educação para a saúde, nomeadamente no que diz respeito ao aumento da literacia em saúde e à tomada de decisão em saúde.
Objetivos: Aumentar o conhecimento sobre os conceitos supracitados, simplificar, clarificar e torná-los úteis, esclarecer sobre o enquadramento destas práticas no contexto de saúde português e contribuir para o aumento da consciência sobre a importância da colaboração entre especialidades.
Metodologia: Foram consultadas e citadas 46 fontes, entre artigos científicos, teses, relatórios, livros e ebooks, num total de 68 autores distintos e 5 intituições de refência nacional e internacional.
Conclusão: O contexto social e científico atual é favorável para a introdução do Mindfulness nos diferentes setores da sociedade portuguesa, podendo esse facto ser determinante para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar da população e da qualidade de vida em geral.
... This, in turn, is likely to facilitate more tailored responses to the unique concerns and needs of employees with regard to their interactions, as well as their sense of autonomy and competence. Empirical support for this assumption comes from research in the field of mindfulness, indicating that leader mindfulness, characterized by an open, present moment attention span, can help leaders process information more accurately (Karelaia and Reb, 2015). This mindful attention, in turn, is positively associated with employee need satisfaction (Reb et al., 2014). ...
... First, as poor communication may frustrate employee needs (Van Quaquebeke & Felps, 2016), and miscommunication is, at its best, inefficient, LAC seems to be a particularly effective resource for leaders to enhance single-tasking (i.e., focusing on one thing) (Levy et al., 2012), and reduce miscommunication due to less distractedness. Moreover, through increasing adequate employee information, LAC may improve leader decision making (Karelaia & Reb, 2015), for instance via altering job demands and job resources based on employee needs (Schaufeli, 2015). This is in line with the observation of House and Podsakoff (1994) that "outstanding leaders differ from less effective leaders in their higher consideration of and sensitivity to the needs of their followers" (Kellett et al., 2002, p. 527). ...
Effective communication is a foundational leadership skill. Many leadership theories implicitly assume communication skills, without investigating them behaviorally. To be able to research leader communication as a building block of effective leader behavior, we propose a new concept, i.e., leader attentive communication which refers to "an open-minded, attentive demeanor while in a conversation with an employee". Instead of focusing on the content or form of the communication, we propose to study the communication skills of the leader from the viewpoint of the employee. In this article, we both validate a questionnaire and test LAC's influence on employee wellbeing in four different studies. We use information from 1,320 employees and their leaders, in 422 teams, in 3 different datasets. The result is a 10-item questionnaire with 2 dimensions consisting of general attention (towards the employee) and attention to non-verbal cues. We also find that LAC is associated with work engagement, psychological needs and Kahn's conditions for work engagement. With this questionnaire , we contribute to calls for a more behavioral, detailed view on leader communication behavior.
... Bireylerin kabullenme seviyeleri arttıkça bu yanılgıya daha az düştükleri yani kendilerinin ve diğerlerinin performansına ilişkin daha doğru tahminler yaptıkları görülmüştür. Farkındalığın ego kaygılarını azalttığı ve doğru bilgiye ulaşımı kolaylaştırdığı çıkarımıyla (Karelaia ve Reb, 2014) uyumlu olan bu sonuç bireylerin ego kaygıları az olduğunda ve olan biteni olduğu gibi kabullendiklerinde daha doğru karar verdikleri şeklinde yorumlanabilir. ...
... Farkındalık ve kendini üstün değerlendirme ilişkisinin kumar oyuncuları üzerinde bir nicel (Lakey ve arkadaşları, 2007) ve bir nitel araştırma (Karelaia ve Reb, 2014) ile incelendiği görülmüştür. ...
Zamanının büyük bir kısmını yaşamlarının en merkezi alanlarından birisi olan çalışma
hayatında harcayan insanlar her gün psikolojik ve fiziksel birçok etmenden etkilenmektedirler. Ayrıca farklı kişisel ve karakteristik özelliklere sahip olan bireylerin sürekli olarak bir arada çalışması örgütte çeşitli sorunların çıkmasına neden olabilmektedir. Bu sorunlar kişisel sebeplerden kaynaklı olarak ortaya çıkabileceği gibi yapılan görevler, normlar, kişiler arası kıskançlıklar vs. gibi birçok nedenden kaynaklanabilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın hareket noktası, bireylerin örgütte mobbing eylemlerine maruz kalma düzeyleri ve söz konusu eylemlere maruz kalan bireylerin örgütsel sessizlik eğilimlerini ilişkin adaletsizlik ya da mağduriyetin bireylerde neden olduğu intikam niyeti ve affetme eğilimlerini incelemektir.
... In his studies on mindfulness, Langer (1989) highlights five important aspects of mindfulness (p.49): Openness to novelty (the ability to reason with relatively novel kinds of stimuli), alertness to distinction (the ability to distinguish minute differences in the details of an object, list, action, or environment), sensitivity to different contexts (tasks and abilities will differ depending on context), awareness of multiple perspectives (the ability to think dialectically), and orientation in the present (paying attention to current surroundings). Similarly, Karelaia / Jochen (2014) argue that mindfulness may be beneficial during decision-making processes. By enhancing goal awareness and facilitating variety of options as well as shortening the time of information search, it is possible to improve the quality of information for decisions. ...
... In general, research on mindfulness in organizations predicts or shows almost exclusively benefits (e.g. Glomb et al., 2011;Good et al., 2016;Hülsheger et al., 2013;Karelaia & Reb, 2015;Kudesia, 2019;Sutcliffe et al., 2016;cf. Dane, 2011;Gebauer et al., 2018). ...
What little prior empirical research that investigated the effects of mindfulness meditation on negotiation performance was conducted in Singapore and the UK and finds benefits. This research reports a mini meta-analysis of ten studies (N > 1100) we conducted in the US on the effect of a brief mindfulness meditation induction on negotiation outcomes and finds a small detriment in terms of value claimed. We had initially hypothesized that mindfulness meditation would help individuals obtain better objective outcomes by claiming more value for themselves due to reduced emotional interference and enhanced flexibility of thought. However, the first study we ran found a moderately strong result in the opposite direction – participants who had just meditated obtained worse objective outcomes by claiming less value than participants in the control condition who had not meditated. In terms of subjective negotiation outcomes, participants in the mindfulness condition reported marginally less satisfaction with the instrumental outcome compared to participants in the control condition. Then we ran nine more experiments and never obtained a significant effect of mindfulness on objective outcomes again. The meta-analysis of the total effect on value claiming across these ten studies was significant (p = .020), negative, and very small (aggregated d = -0.138, 95% confidence interval [-.256, -.021]). We also ran a second meta-analysis on value creation on the appropriate subset of participants and did not find a significant total effect in either direction (p = .609, aggregated d = -.076, 95% confidence interval [-.367, .215]). We discuss implications for theory and practice.
... Metacognition opens leaders' awareness to multiple points-ofviews and possible interpretations of experiences (Dane, 2011;Hafenbrack et al., 2014), to include, and process, more relevant, accurate, and objective information for interpretation (Herndon, 2008;Karelaia and Reb, 2015). Leaders thus become better at drawing inferences from broader available data about what is occurring, thereby limiting the loss of potentially relevant data and the likelihood of misinterpretations, without being misled by their biased mental models and beliefs (Herndon, 2008;Hunter and Chaskalson, 2013). ...
Mindfulness has been practiced by global leaders and companies as an efficient way to build effective leadership. Because of its popularity, plus the lack of a comprehensive theoretical framework that explains it in a leadership context, the research literature has called for a coherent account of the qualities that is derived by those leaders that practice mindfulness. Here, we aim to answer that call, by clarifying what leadership qualities can develop from practicing mindfulness. We report on a semi-systematic literature review of extant research, covering 19 research articles published between 2000 and 2021, plus other relevant supporting literature from the disciplines of leadership and neuropsychology. Our proposed framework consists of three main qualities of the mindful leader: attention, awareness, and authenticity. We call them the “three pillars of mindful leaders.” We also propose that mindfulness meditation must be integrated into our proposed framework, as we are convinced that leaders who hope to benefit from these qualities must integrate a regular mindfulness meditation practice into their daily leadership life.
... Mindful ideas can also decrease adolescents' overconfidence about their understanding of the world and themselves (Karelaia & Reb, J, 2015). Most of the time, adolescents are used to being overconfident and holding on the thoughts that can make them look powerful. ...
Mindfulness is an objective and self-reflecting approach for oneself to acknowledge what one is feeling without interpretation or judgment (Bluth & Blanton, 2014). Understanding mindfulness not only helps people relieve stress and improve the feeling of happiness but also helps to build good family relationships, especially with those who are in adolescence period. This essay argues about the impact of mindfulness ideas on family relationship from both perspectives of parents and adolescents, and analyzes the usage of mindfulness in reducing the chance of adolescence rebellion, developing appropriate parenting style under various real world situations, and promoting self-reflection among family members about their behaviors and thoughts.
... Между тем потенциал для улучшения такого понимания очень велик. Осознанность может не только положительно воздействовать на здоровье и благополучие, но и повышать способность к качественным умозаключениям и принятию верных решений [2]. ...
The concept of a 'health care realm' is introduced. The healthcare realms considered were those patients who have only Physical Health Problems (PH), patients with neither physical nor mental health issues and who are seeking advice to remain healthy (HP), patients only with Mental Health Problems (MH), patients with both Physical Health and Mental Health Problems (PH&MH) and patients with Psychosomatic Health conditions (PS). Described is how patients' minds and bodies interact and its relevance to rheumatology practice. Presented is the culmination of 34 years of the author's experience of rheumatological disorders based in Family Medicine in a United Kingdom General Practice. Also presented are 2 small studies supplementing the main conclusions. The first small study counted the main consultation content of 246 patients, as considered by the principals in the practice. Of these 73.5% were for physical health conditions, 13.3% for health promotion, 11.5% for mental health conditions and 1.8% for psychosomatic conditions. The second small study was a survey of experienced GPs, Physicians and Psychiatrists, asking about their opinions on how well the patients in different health care realms were being managed across the healthcare system. Of the 5 realms, the collective view was that it was the patients in the PH realm who was clearly received the best care. The least good care was being given to patients in the PS realm and only marginally better were patients in the MH Realm. This paper argues that clinicians need a different thinking approach when meeting patients from different healthcare realms. It is known that when doctors treat PH patients, they consider the patient's symptoms against templates of knowledge for the conditions in the differential diagnosis. Furthermore, HP patients are assessed by comparing the patient's bio-measurements against known markers of good health When being consulted by patients in the MH or PS realms, it is advocated, not to follow the approach of PH patients. For patients in the MH realm it is best to address the patient's life as a whole and to consider, how did the person arrive to the situation he is in and what needs to be done to restore the patient's life back on track. For patients in the PS realm, ideally the aim is to help the patient make the link between the physical symptom and its psychological aetiology. A step towards this is to describe how the body physically mediates the symptom.
... Research on how mindfulness may generally be used in organizations predicts or shows almost exclusively benefits (e.g. Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang, 2011;Good et al., 2016;Hülsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt, & Lang, 2013;Karelaia & Reb, 2015;Kudesia, 2017;Sutcliffe, Vogus, & Dane, 2016). Likewise, research on the effects of mindfulness on conflict and negotiation in particular also predicts or shows almost exclusively benefits (Hafenbrack, 2017;Kopelman, Avi-Yohah, & Varghese, 2012;Kay & Skarlicki, 2020;Masters-Waage et al., 2021;Yu & Zellmer-Bruhn, 2018). ...
... It is applied to boost one's attention span and foster mental clarity (Brown and Ryan 2003). It is also closely related to cognitive functions, which boost the learning process (Karelaia and Reb 2014), creative thinking skill, and decision-making skills (Capurso, et al., 2013). Actually, all the benefits are really useful for promoting speaking skills and enhancing oral presentation skills in English in many ways. ...
... For example, studies have shown the positive effect of mindfulness on anxiety and mood symptoms (Hofmann et al., 2010), subjective well-being (Brown et al., 2009) and physical health (Grossman et al., 2004). Akin to the present study, by bringing attention to the present moment, mindful individuals may be able to improve their decision-making process (Karelaia and Reb, 2015). However, this idea has received only scant attention in the financial decision-making literature. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine how mindfulness reduces consumers’ buy-now-pay-later (BNPL) payment scheme usage and how that relates to their overall well-being.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses partial least squares structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses of a conceptual framework which is rooted in the extant literature, using an approximately representative sample of Australian consumers ( N = 275).
Findings
This study finds empirical evidence for the ability of mindfulness to reduce BNPL usage through increasing consumers’ financial self-control and decreasing their impulse buying tendency. This study also obtains empirical evidence that greater BNPL usage is associated with lower subjective evaluations of consumers’ overall well-being by increasing their current money management stress and decreasing their expected future financial security.
Research limitations/implications
Future research could build on the effect of mindfulness that the authors find in this study and how it could be leveraged as a protective mechanism for consumers’ financial decision-making. Such research could involve mindfulness-based interventions, such as instant messaging within smartphone applications. Doing so would also help assess causality, thus addressing the limitation of the cross-sectional nature of this study.
Practical implications
The findings have implications for public policymakers and business practitioners. Financial counselors are encouraged to include the measurement of personality traits such as impulse buying tendency and financial self-control in intake meetings with clients and consider the benefits of offering short mindfulness training. Given the negative effect of BNPL usage on consumers’ financial and overall well-being, and the reputational risks this implies, BNPL providers are recommended to take more responsibility to ensure consumers do not fall into a debt trap, while retailers are advised to take steps to make payment processes more “mindful.”
Originality/value
Although mindfulness has established effects on consumer behavior, its beneficial influence on consumer financial decision-making has rarely been explored. This study also contributes to a better understanding of the antecedents and consequences of consumers’ BNPL payment scheme usage. Although its prominence is increasing in daily life, and despite the concerns of consumer advocates, policymakers and regulators regarding its risks, the topic of consumers’ BNPL usage has received little attention in academic research so far. Finally, this study extends the emerging financial well-being literature by demonstrating how BNPL usage can reduce consumers’ overall well-being through the mediating effect of increasing current money management stress and decreasing expected future financial security.
... According to him, mindfulness practice broadens the individual focus to internal experiences (intuitions) and external experiences: these qualities are very important for making decisions. Karelaia and Reb assess the potential impact of mindfulness on the entire decision-making process [95]. It has been also established that mindfulness enables a better regulation of affect promoting positive emotions and reducing negative ones. ...
The main objective of this work is to explore the concept of mindfulness and its growing popularity within organizations with the introduction of the concept of mindful leadership in the management literature. This paper is one of the first in a pair of papers to explore the concept of mindful leadership in organizations. The first section of the paper provides a brief inquiry into the history of mindfulness, the definitions of mindfulness and the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness meditation. In the second section, the author considers mindfulness in the organizational research before conducting discussion on the concept of mindful leadership in the third section. The paper claims that while many studies have been conducted on mindfulness in diverse research areas, mindful leadership research is still developing, and the author vows for its adoption by business leaders for positive transformation within their organizations. Putting mindfulness into perspective as an energy resource that can activate a spiral of gains, the paper calls for greater research into the concept of mindful leadership. The paper offers a starting point for researchers and organizational development professionals to consider the possibility that mindfulness can be used as an efficient tool for the benefit of business executives.
... These findings indicate that mindfulness may increase individuals' likelihood of engaging in utilitarian-style ethical decision making (i.e., killing one person to save five people) when the target individual being "killed" is not a romantic partner or sibling when compared to the control condition. These findings are consistent with previous research illustrating that mindfulness influences ethical decisions (Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010;Shapiro et al., 2012) -which may be able to improve decision making in general (Karelaia & Reb, 2015) -as well as previous research on inclusive fitness theory and kin selection theory indicating a stronger desire to save and protect close kin and romantic partners (Fitzgerald et al., 2010;Stewart-Williams, 2008). These results may imply that there are limits to the relationship between mindfulness and feelings of interconnectedness with others. ...
The present study examined whether the induction of a mindful state would influence ethical decision making in a trolley problem that was modified to contain variables relevant to one’s inclusive fitness. N = 312 participants – half of which were presented with a guided mindfulness meditation – were presented with a modified trolley problem in which they were given a choice: let five strangers die, or divert the trolley toward a single target who will be killed by the trolley instead of the five strangers. This single target was manipulated to be one of the following five individuals: a stranger, the participant’s friend, cousin, sibling, or romantic partner. Participants in a mindful state were more likely to divert the trolley away from the five strangers when the individual target was a stranger, friend, or cousin. However, individuals in a mindful state were no more likely than controls to divert the trolley when the single target was a sibling or romantic partner. These results indicate that mindfulness may increase utilitarian decision making when the sacrificial target is not the participant’s close kin member or romantic partner.
... For instance, Charoensukmongkol (2014) discovered that the skill of dealing with one's feelings mediates the connection between the exercise of mindfulness and overall selfeffectiveness convictions. Furthermore, mindfulness has been suggested to be an attribute that lessens people's inclination to take part in the constant deconstructive way of thinking that brings about anxiety (Gärtner, 2013;Karelaia and Reb, 2014). Since mindful people usually focus and stay in the current moment, they are less prone to contemplate things in the past or be afraid of what could take place in the future (Weick and Putnam, 2006). ...
To manage the undesirable effect of anxiety on students, a wide scope of research has been dedicated to determining the triggers of anxiety and pedagogical interferences that can assist students with mitigating anxiety. Mindfulness is a relaxation strategy that has been related to constructive impacts when utilized as a managing technique for stress and anxiety. Originating from the construct of mindfulness, there is a multidimensional conception acknowledged as resilience as one of the notions in the Positive Psychology (PP) literature, which highlights the organizations and individuals’ strengths and self-control to comply with accidental states. Given the eminence of mindfulness and resilience in learning situations, the present study sets forth to examine the role of these constructs in alleviating English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ anxiety. To meet this objective, 502 Chinese EFL learners took part in this research. They were asked to respond to the three questionnaires, namely resilience, mindfulness, and anxiety. To answer the research question of the study, a linear multiple regression was run and the findings demonstrated that mindfulness and resilience together could significantly predict anxiety. Consistent with the findings, some recommendations are presented concerning the implications of the present research.
... This ensured the right data was captured, from the right people, and in an accurate fashion, which reduced the risk of errors or failures in its provision and use. If the data were poorly framed then even good execution of the decisions taken based on the data would typical not lead to good results (Karelaia & Reb, 2015). ...
The Covid-19 pandemic illustrates that we are never far away from situations that have a scale and impact, which are difficult to predict. Positioned at the intersection of crisis management and resilience, this insider case-study provides the opportunity for a more complete understanding of the organisation-adversity relationship (Williams et al., 2017), by focusing on the third Covid19 wave in Ireland (Dec 2020) and resulting response by an Intensive Care Unit crisis team. The study examines the evolution of seven data supply chains that were developed to support the ICU crisis team through the surge of cases which put the highest level of strain on the Irish health system since the pandemic began. The study focuses on 289 data reviews, which triggered 63 changes each requiring a new iteration of a data supply chain. Incorporating Organisational Mindfulness as the theoretical framework, the study provides an insight into the realities of data management during a crisis but also provides a rich awareness of the complexities of data management that often go unrecognised. In doing so, the study contributes the concept of ‘mindful data’, which aids managers to understand the key characteristics of resilient data supply chains. The study also provides a rare first-hand insight into how mindful data was constructed, presented, and evolved into an essential element within the critical care environment.
... It enhances a person's self-regulation, emotional balance, and thinking process, leading to managing their anxiety and stress in responding to the creative situation at hand (Cheung et al., 2020). Mindful employees are more willing to accept the environmental clues even if they are inconsistent with their established patterns of mental schemata (Karelaia & Reb, 2015). The study of Ding, Tang, Tang and Posner (2014) from a neuroscience perspective suggested positive associations between mindful-based interventions (MBI) and the brain's neural activities associated with CP. ...
Creative performance (CP) has become an indispensable need for survival and competitiveness in today's business world. In response to this exigent situation, the current research is focused on investigating the role of employee attitudes, namely mindfulness and happiness, in their CP. This research also highlights the mediating role of creative processes engagement (CPE) between mindfulness, happiness, and CP pathways. CP comprises individual creativity (IC) and innovative work behaviors (IWB). The target population of the current study was manufacturing and service firms in Pakistan, and structural equation modeling was used to test the theoretical model and proposed hypotheses. The results indicated that mindfulness and happiness positively and significantly influence employee CP. Furthermore, mindfulness and happiness indicated a significant positive impact on IWB and IC. CPE partially mediated the relationships between mindfulness and CP and happiness and CP. The results propose imperative directives for the leadership of manufacturing and service organizations by suggesting different ways to promote CP among employees through their attitudes.
... Mindfulness is defined as "a receptive attention to and awareness of present events and experience" [5] (p.212). In addition to this, the effects that mindfulness plays in organizational and business settings have been considered using samples of employees and principals [6,7,[10][11][12][13][14], while the topic has been short explored in entrepreneurship [9] and in Family Business [15,16]. In this vein, Van Gelderen et al. [9] (p. ...
In a challenging work environment, entrepreneurship orientation (hereafter, EO) can be an important asset for university students. In this study, we investigated the EO and concerns about the future of B.A. students, focusing on the role of mindfulness levels. A total of 204 students, including those coming from family businesses (hereafter, FB), were asked about their intention of creating their own business and future concerns with an ad hoc questionnaire, and about their mindfulness levels with the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale. The results showed no differences in concerns about the future between those students coming from a family business and those who did not. However, in that group of students who were uncertain about starting a business career, a negative association between mindfulness and future concerns was found. This paper sheds light on the relationship between mindfulness and concerns about the future in Business Administration (hereafter, B.A.) students, concluding that, in the face of uncertainty, higher levels of mindfulness help to reduce concerns about the future. Finally, we indicate the relevance of this study for entrepreneurs, family business members, policymakers and B.A. Faculties and Business schools.
... Our research contributes to the cumulative theoretical knowledge in psychology by demonstrating a rare negative consequence of mindfulness, which to date has been repeatedly shown and theorized to have positive consequences. The current literature includes several thousand articles on positive consequences of mindfulness (for reviews, see Creswell, 2017;Glomb et al., 2011;Good et al., 2016;Karelaia & Reb, 2015) but far fewer demonstrating negative consequences of mindfulness (Grapendorf et al., 2017;Hafenbrack & Vohs, 2018;Schindler et al., 2019). There is theoretical value in considering when a construct that is widely lauded or reviled can have effects of the opposite valence. ...
The present research investigates whether and how mindfulness meditation influences the guilt-driven tendency to repair harm caused to others. Through a series of eight experiments (n > 1400), we demonstrate that state mindfulness cultivated via focused breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors. Experiment 1 showed that induced state mindfulness reduced state guilt. Experiments 2a-2c found that induced state mindfulness reduced the willingness to engage in reparative behaviors in normally guilt-inducing situations. Experiments 3a and 3b found that guilt mediated the negative effect of mindfulness meditation on prosocial reparation. Experiment 4 demonstrated that induced state mindfulness weakened the link between a transgression and reparative behavior, as well as documented the mediating role of guilt over and above other emotions. Finally, in Experiment 5, we found that loving kindness meditation led to significantly more prosocial reparation than focused breathing meditation, mediated by increased other focus and feelings of love. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.
... Third, research has found that mindfulness has a positive effect on increasing awareness of the limitations of one's own thinking process. For example, studies suggest that mindfulness improves the quality of decision-making by reducing cognitive biases (Hafenbrack et al., 2014) and enhances ethical decision-making (Karelaia and Reb, 2015). Mindfulness can eliminate stereotypical thinking, and an open, non-judgmental manner facilitates the generation of more creative ideas (Baas et al., 2014). ...
This study combined conservation of resources theory with the job demands-resources model to explore the influence of leader mindfulness on the emotional exhaustion of university teachers Using a time-lagged research design, 388 paired data sets were gathered. Multiple regression and bootstrapping were used to test each hypothesis. The results showed that first, leader mindfulness significantly reduces the emotional exhaustion of university teachers. Second, the results showed that workplace telepressure partially mediates the relationship between leader mindfulness and the emotional exhaustion of university teachers. Third, university teacher mindfulness positively moderates the relationship between leader mindfulness and workplace telepressure. Finally, the results of this study indicate that self-efficacy in managing negative emotions negatively moderates the relationship between workplace telepressure and the emotional exhaustion of university teachers. This study empirically examined the interpersonal influence of leader mindfulness and the initial resources effect of university teacher mindfulness and self-efficacy in managing negative emotions from the bilateral perspective of leaders and university teachers.
... This prevalent approach to decision making, which Keeney subsumes under the term alternative-focused thinking, leads to perceiving decisions as context-specific problems to be solved and not to their framing as general opportunities that can be seized (Ley-Borrás, 2015). Hence inherent to this approach is a basically reactive response to externally given alternatives that is based on the (usually insufficient) elicitation of short-term preferences (Fischhoff, 2008;Hsee & Hastie, 2006); this approach contrasts with proactively creating alternatives as a means to achieve long-term value (Karelaia & Reb, 2015). Truly creative alternatives, which are essential for decision quality and especially for decisions with far-reaching consequences, are seldom contemplated in a reactive regime (Keeney, 1992). ...
Decision sciences are in general agreement on the theoretical relevance of decision training. From an empirical standpoint, however, only a few studies test its effectiveness or practical usefulness, and even less address the impact of decision training on the structuring of problems systematically. Yet that task is widely considered to be the most crucial in decision-making processes, and current research suggests that effectively structuring problems and generating alternatives—as epitomized by the concept of proactive decision making—increases satisfaction with the decision as well as life satisfaction more generally.
This paper empirically tests the effect of decision training on two facets of proactive decision making—cognitive skills and personality traits—and on decision satisfaction. In quasi-experimental field studies based on three distinct decision-making courses and two control groups, we analyze longitudinal data on 1,013 decision makers/analysts with different levels of experience. The results reveal positive training effects on proactive cognitive skills and decision satisfaction, but we find no effect on proactive personality traits and mostly non-significant interactions between training and experience. These results imply the practical relevance of decision training as a means to promote effective decision making even by more experienced decision makers.
The findings presented here may be helpful for operations research scholars who advocate for specific instruction concerning proactive cognitive skills in courses dedicated to decision quality and/or decision theory and also for increasing, in such courses, participants’ proactive decision making and decision satisfaction. Our results should also promote more positive decision outcomes.
... † Job Chen and Yufeng Zhang contributed equally to this work. (Karelaia & Reb, 2015). A study found that people with higher trait mindfulness made more ethical decisions than did those with lower mindfulness (Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010). ...
The current research investigated whether various aspects of mindfulness were differentially associated with risk preference in decision-making. In Studies 1 and 2, attention and present-focus aspects of trait mindfulness were associated with lower risk preference in making monetary gains. In Study 3, participants completed either a mindfulness training or listened to a comparable control recording. Compared to the control condition, subjects in the mindfulness condition were more risk-averse in making choices for monetary gains. The attention and present-focus aspects of state mindfulness mediated this connection. Study 4 introduced a loss framing, where attention and present-focus no longer associated with lower risk preference, but awareness and acceptance aspects of trait mindfulness associated with higher risk preference in avoiding monetary losses. The results suggest that different aspects of mindfulness have potential for mitigating risk preference, but such potential is limited depending on the framing of a decision context.
... Their empirical research shows that mindful individuals are more likely to modify their expression of their implicit motivational orientations when desirable. Moreover, Karelaia and Reb (2015) explained that mindfulness may increase the number and quality of options being considered by a person. In this regard, Teasdale and colleagues (Teasdale, 1999;Teasdale et al., 2002) described this phenomenon as metacognitive insight: "actually experiencing thoughts as thoughts" (that is, as events in the mind rather than as direct readouts on reality) in the moment they occur" (Teasdale et al., 2002, p. 286, emphasis in original). ...
Making appropriate perspective transformations as we age is necessary to meet the demands of the rapidly changing conditions within our world. Accordingly, there has been a growing interest in the role of mindfulness in enabling transformations. Still, how mindfulness may facilitate perspective transformations is not well understood. The present paper draws from empirical evidence from psychology and cognitive science to discuss the theoretical possibility that mindfulness may facilitate perspective transformations. A theoretical model is presented that depicts an incremental transformative learning process that is facilitated through mindfulness. Mindfulness affords the adult enhanced attention to their thoughts, feelings, and sensations as they arise in the present moment experience. This metacognitive awareness may moderate the expression of motivational disposition for the present moment behaviour, enabling a more objective assessment of the conditions of the situation. Nonetheless, in accordance with transformative learning theory, an adult would have to become critically aware of and analyse the assumptions that underlie the reasons why they experience as they do in order to convert behaviour change to perspective transformation. Further empirical studies are necessary to test this assumption of the theoretical model presented in the present paper.
... Similarly, Shapiro et al. (2006) describe how mindfulness helps people to recognize and to feel what is meaningful for them (values clarification) and enables them to reflect about own values, interests and needs, instead of adopting them inconsiderately. Accordingly, corresponding findings also show that mindfulness practice is associated with more value-oriented behavior (Donald et al. 2016;Franquesa et al. 2017) and is discussed in regard to its benefits for decision making (Karelaia and Reb 2015). Given that mindfulness is associated with behavior that is congruent with one's own needs, intensive conflicts during these actions should also be less likely. ...
Mindfulness has shown beneficial relationships with well-being and self-regulation. We aim to improve the understanding of the effects of between- and within-person differences in mindfulness when dealing with situations of motivational conflict. For this purpose, we conducted an experience sampling study with 56 university students who replied to a total of N = 1889 short questionnaires, which they received via their smartphones over a period of eight consecutive days. In addition to a state mindfulness questionnaire with the facets presence and non-judgment (focusing attention on the experience of the current action and a momentary non-judgmental stance towards these, respectively), the participants received questions about their current affective well-being and perceived intensity of want or should conflict experiences. Multi-level analyses revealed that want conflicts were predicted by both state mindfulness facets, even after momentary affect was controlled. In addition, to be non-judgmental (as a trait), and having momentary presence (as a state), related to lower intensity of should conflicts. The results suggest that being mindful might be a particularly beneficial way of dealing with daily motivational conflicts, which is an essential and frequent task of self-regulation.
... Mindfulness shields employees from generating work problems and solutions based on heuristics or past experiences. When being mindful, employees are more receptive to all kinds of information, including that which seems inconsistent with their routine thinking or established assumptions from their environment (Karelaia & Reb, 2015). With decreased automaticity, mindful employees are also more aware of their internal world-their own insights or intuitions in problem-solving (Ostafin & Kassman, 2012)-and have more time to reflect on their internal experience (Glomb et al., 2011). ...
An emerging line of research in the mindfulness literature is to examine the role of mindfulness in creativity in organizations. Thus far, little is known about how and when mindfulness, defined as present-moment attention, is associated with employee creativity. We theorize and test a model that links mindfulness to employee creativity through creative process engagement. We further suggest and test perceived leader humility as a boundary condition for such an association. The results of two field studies with time-lagged designs provide supporting evidence for our conceptual model. Specifically, the findings from both studies indicate that employee mindfulness has a positive association with supervisor-rated employee creativity through employee creative process engagement. In our second study, we also find that the indirect positive association between mindfulness and employee creativity (via creative process engagement) is strengthened when employees perceive their supervisors to be humble leaders. In contrast, the conditional indirect relationship is statistically nonsignificant under the condition of low perceived leader humility.
... Instead of quickly concluding information is true, these people may pause to question and evaluate the legitimacy of the information (Brown & Krishna, 2004). As a result, they typically withhold the decision to believe or re-share the content until they can be confident or obtain additional proof from other sources to support the validity of the information (Gärtner, 2013;Karelaia & Reb, 2014). Therefore: ...
The objective of this research was to explore the effect of mindfulness on individuals' tendencies to believe social media content and share it without realizing the potential consequences. The sample used in this study comprised 300 participants in Bangkok, Thailand, of whom 157 were full-time employees and 143 were college students. Results from partial least squares regression analysis supports the hypothesis that individuals who exhibit higher levels of mindfulness tend to be skeptical of the validity of information to which they are exposed. In addition, skepticism is linked to a decreased tendency to believe social media content and to share content on social media. The findings further support a direct link between mindfulness and a decreased tendency to share social media content. Overall, these findings confirm the positive contribution of mindfulness as a quality that may allow individuals to question the validity of social media content before they decide to believe it and share it with others.
Given the growing attention directed to emotions and non-cognitive variables in second language (L2) learning, numerous researchers have examined these constructs in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts. To contribute to this research agenda, this study aimed to test a model of L2 boredom based on mindfulness, grit, and academic buoyancy. Selecting a total number of 627 intermediate EFL learners via convenience sampling, the researchers administered an electronic survey constituting the scales measuring mindfulness, grit, academic buoyancy, and boredom to gather the data. Structural equation modelling of the data demonstrated a good fit and the outcomes revealed that: (a) grit, mindfulness, and buoyancy directly predicted L2 boredom; (b) mindfulness predicted boredom via the mediation of buoyancy and grit; and (c) grit indirectly affected boredom through buoyancy. These outcomes might offer implications for EFL practitioners.
Purpose
The response of the receiver to a voiced patient safety concern is frequently cited as a barrier to health professionals speaking up. The authors describe a novel Receiver Mindset Framework (RMF) to help health professionals understand the importance of their response when spoken up to.
Design/methodology/approach
The framework draws on the broader receiver-focussed literature and integrates innovative findings from a series of empirical studies. These studies examined different receiver behaviour within vignettes, retrospective descriptions of real interactions and behaviour in a simulated interaction.
Findings
The authors' findings indicated that speaking up is an intergroup interaction where social identities, context and speaker stance intersect, directly influencing both perceptions of and responses to the message. The authors' studies demonstrated that when spoken up to, health professionals poorly manage their emotions and ineffectively clarify the speaker's concerns. Currently, targeted training for receivers is overwhelmingly absent from speaking-up programmes. The receiver mindset framework provides an evidence-based, healthcare specific, receiver-focussed framework to inform programmes.
Originality/value
Grounded in communication accommodation theory (CAT), the resulting framework shifts speaking up training from being only speaker skill focussed, to training that recognises speaking up as a mutual negotiation between the healthcare speaker and receiver. This framework provides healthcare professionals with a novel approach to use in response to speaking up that enhances their ability to listen, understand and engage in point-of-care negotiations to ensure the physical and psychological safety of patients and staff.
Based on self-regulation theory this study proposed a moderated mediation model between innovation-oriented HRM, TMT reflexivity and organizational change, with CEO leader mindfulness as the moderator. A sample of 113 matched data located in China suggested that innovation-oriented HR management is positively related to organizational change via TMT reflexivity. In addition, the results also indicated that CEO leader mindfulness reinforced the indirect effect of TMT reflexivity between Innovation-oriented HRM and organizational change. These findings have important implications for HRM research and managerial practices.
ÚVOD
„Premýšľam, či medicína je aj moje poslanie. Cítim, že potrebujem byť celý život v kontakte s ľuďmi a pomáhať im. Zaujíma ma biológia, ľudské telo. Bola som na DOD a bola som uchvátená anatomickým múzeom. Ale stále to zvažujem, lebo ako vieme, nie je to sranda a ja sa obávam či by som to zvládala. Také náročné povolanie. Či to ozaj je moja cesta, stále ma to mučí, som hrozne nerozhodná a chcem mať istotu. Každý večer sa modlím, aby mi Pán naznačil, že čo je moja cesta, pretože moje srdce túži naplniť jeho dielo, nech je akékoľvek. Ďakujem za každú rozumnú odpoveď a úprimnú snahu poradiť.“ (Mccaffe, 2016, neupravené)
Spokojnosť jednotlivca s jeho kariérou je jedným z dôležitých aspektov osobného šťastia. Rozhodovanie sa ohľadom kariéry je pre adolescentov príležitosťou k nasmerovaniu svojho života k potencionálnej životnej spokojnosti. Podľa štatistík OECD za rok 2011 strávi priemerný Slovák 36% dňa prácou. Práca a spokojnosť s prácou sú dôležitými aspektmi celkovej životnej spokojnosti. Pre adolescentov predstavuje kariérové rozhodovanie dôležitú výzvu. Majú za sebou prvé rozhodnutie z konca štúdia na základnej škole. Toto rozhodovanie je často silnejšie vedené druhými významnými ľuďmi (najmä rodičmi), prípadne je rozhodnutie o špecializácii odložené prostredníctvom výberu gymnázia. Adolescenti sú opätovne konfrontovaní s kariérovým rozhodovaním počas stredoškolského štúdia. Významným obdobím, najmä u žiakov gymnázií súvisiace s kariérovým rozhodovaním, sú posledné dva ročníky stredoškolského štúdia, kedy si vyberajú profiláciu maturitných predmetov a následne zvažujú svoje budúce smerovanie v štúdiu či prechod na trh práce. Podľa štatistiky Centra vedecko-technických informácií SR ukončilo v roku 2017 gymnaziálne štúdium 12 086 absolventov a 32 071 absolvovalo štúdium na stredných odborných školách a konzervatóriách (Štatistická ročenka, 2018). Z týchto štatistík vyplýva, že až 44 157 adolescentov mohlo byť v uplynulom roku v nejakom rozsahu konfrontovaných s rozhodnutím ohľadom ich kariéry. Z absolventov gymnázia pokračovalo vo vysokoškolskom štúdiu od akademického roka 2017/18 10 499 žiakov. Z absolventov stredných odborných škôl a konzervatórií pokračovalo vo vysokoškolskom štúdiu 10 647 žiakov (Štatistická ročenka, 2018). 87% absolventov gymnázií a 33% absolventov stredných odborných škôl a konzervatórií pokračovalo v tom istom roku vo vysokoškolskom štúdiu. Celkovo je to približne 48% absolventov stredoškolského štúdia, ktorí si realizovali kariérové rozhodnutia ohľadom ich vysokoškolského štúdia.
S kariérovým rozhodovaním adolescentov sa môže spájať viacero ťažkostí i napriek tomu, že možnosť voľby sa spája so slobodou. Veľa ľudí uprednostňuje situáciu, kedy majú k dispozícii veľký počet možností. Napriek tomu platí, že ak majú ľudia k dispozícii veľa možností, je menej pravdepodobné, že sa budú vedieť rozhodnúť. A ak sa rozhodnú, budú so svojou voľbou menej spokojní (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000). Čím viac možností majú na výber, tým väčšie budú mať očakávania, že sa im podarí nájsť dokonalé rozhodnutie. Taktiež však platí, že čím viac možností majú jednotlivci na výber, tým menšia je pravdepodobnosť, že sa im podarí vybrať tú najlepšiu alternatívu. Po rozhodnutí, keď bol k dispozícii veľký počet možností, sa často zvyšuje neistota ohľadom správnosti voľby nasledovaná pocitom sklamania a uvažovaním o nevybraných možnostiach (Schwartz, 2004). Náročnosť rozhodovania sa dotýka i kariérového rozhodovania adolescentov.
Ťažkosti v kariérovom rozhodovaní často vytvárajú prekážky pre optimálne rozhodovanie sa adolescentov. Predstavujú neželanú súčasť riešenia kariérového problému a môžu viesť k zlyhaniu v procese kariérového rozhodovania. Technické, sociologické a ekonomické zmeny posledných rokov vytvorili zložitý svet, v ktorom sa sťažuje schopnosť adolescentov zodpovedať si otázky o tom, kým chcú byť v oblasti sveta práce a čo budú robiť v meniacom sa svete práce (Di Fabio, Palazzeschi, Levin & Gati, 2015).
V predkladanej monografii sa zameriavam na kariérové rozhodovanie adolescentov. Napriek tomu, že sa môže javiť ako prirodzené popisovať a analyzovať kariérové rozhodovanie adolescentov z perpektívy teórií rozhodovania, tento prístup nebol adoptovaný v kariérovom poradenstve ako dominantný teoretický rámec. V oblasti kariérového poradenstva dominujú teórie kariérového vývinu, ktoré sa zameriavajú na vývinové okolnosti, v rámci ktorých sa kariérové rozhodovanie uskutočňuje. Tieto vývinové okolnosti zahrňujú zmeny, ktoré nástávajú v preferenciách jednotlivca, kariérovú zrelosť a adaptabilitu, a dopady týchto zmien na kariérové rozhodovanie. Druhý dominujúci prístup v kariérovom poradenstve reprezentuje model zhody medzi osobnosťou a prostredím („Person-Environment Fit“). Tento prístup sa zameriava na zhodu medzi jednotlivcom a jeho prostredím, a teda na dôsledky procesu kariérového rozhodovania (Gati & Tal, 2008). Cieľom predkladanej monografie je poskytnúť čitateľovi informácie objasňujúce proces kariérového rozhodovania adolescentov, a tým rozšíriť poznanie o jedinečných črtách rozhodovacieho procesu v oblasti kariéry u adolescentov. Na proces kariérového rozhodovania budem nahliadať z dvoch dominantných perspektív. Prvou perspektívou budú ťažkosti, ktoré sa u adolescentov spájajú s kariérovým rozhodovaním. Druhou perspektívou budú strátegie, ktoré adolescenti používajú pri realizácii kariérových rozhodnutí. Porozumenie procesuálnej stránke kariérového rozhodovania adolescentov predstavuje z môjho pohľadu dôležitý faktor pri kariérovom poradenstve. Identifikovanie jedinečnej konštelácie ťažkostí z hľadiska aktuálnej fázy kariérového rozhodovania, ako i identifikovanie adaptívnych a maladaptívnych stratégií používaných pri kariérových rozhodnutiach, môže vytvárať priestor pre zacielenejšie a efektívnejšie intervencie kariérových poradcov a psychológov. Druhým cieľom monografie je zdôrazniť relatívne silný podiel osobnostných a emočných faktorov pri realizácii kariérových rozhodnutí adolescentmi. Budem predkladať argumenty podložené výskumnými zisteniami, že niektoré temperamentové osobnostné črty môžu vytvárať predispozíciu k ťažkostiam v kariérovom rozhodovaní a k používaniu adaptívnych, ale i maladaptívnych stratégií kariérového rozhodovania. Zároveň však vyzdvihnem význam viacerých osobnostných čŕt a kompetencií, ktoré pod strešným označením ako emočná inteligencia, môžu facilitovať využívanie adaptívnych stratégií kariérového rozhodovania. Adolescenti sú v procese rozhodovania citliví voči emočným vplyvom a vplyvom sociálneho prostredia. Výskum emočných a sociálnych kompetencií vytvára významný príspevok k rozvoju adaptívneho kariérového rozhodovania. Monografia prináša analýzu zahraničných výskumných zistení, ako i prezentáciu vlastných výskumných zistení na vzorkách žiakov slovenských stredných a vysokých škôl ohľadom ich ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní, preferovaných stratégiách kariérového rozhodovania, ako i viacerých osobnostných a emočných korelátov procesu rozhodovania sa adolescentov.
V prvej kapitole po zadefinovaní kľúčových konceptov týkajúcich sa kariérového rozhodovania adolescentov priblížim špecifiká rozhodovania sa adolescentov z ontogenetického hľadiska vzhľadom na charakteristiky ich spôsobov myslenia, formovania identity, hodnoty, ale i ich vnímanie rizika, toleranciu k neistote a najmä ovplyvniteľnosť ich rozhodovania emočnými stavmi a vrstovníkmi.
Druhá kapitola predstavuje náčrt vývoja prístupu k rozhodovaniu ako k fenoménu medziodborového záujmu. Od päťdesiatych rokov dvadsiateho storočia sa stala problematika rozhodovania predmetom skúmania matematikov, štatistikov a ekonómov. Vznikali tzv. normatívne teórie rozhodovania, ktoré sa snažili nastaviť etalón logicky optimálneho rozhodovania. Reálne experimentálne pokusy však spozorovali, že ľudia sa pri rozhodovaní neriadia prísnymi zákonmi logiky. I keď nie sú ľudia pri rozhodovaní primárne iracionálni, ich racionalita je obmedzená (Simon, 1955). Pod vplyvom výskumu pôsobenia heuristík boli popísané viaceré sklony ku kognitívnym omylom v procese posudzovania a rozhodovania. Priblížim vybrané heuristiky a zasadím ich do kontextu kariérového rozhodovania. Poznanie kognitívnych omylov, ktorých sa ľudia systematicky v procese rozhodovania dopúšťajú pod vplyvnom automatických procesov spracovávania informácií, pokladám za podstatnú súčasť poznania odborníkov venujúcich sa kariérovému poradenstvu. Približujem i alternatívny prístup k nazeraniu na význam heuristík v procese rozhodovania. Adaptívne heuristiky môžu slúžiť k efektívnejšiemu rozhodovaniu ohľadom kariéry. Vychádzajúc z princípu „menej je viac“ vytvárajú adaptívne heuristiky priestor pre realizáciu dostatočne dobrých (i keď možno nie úplne ideálnych) rozhodnutí spôsobom, ktorý rešpektuje kognitívne a iné limity bežného človeka. V oblasti aplikácie poznatkov heuristík a sklonov ku kognitívnym chybám do kariérového rozhodovania aktuálne absentuje empirický výskum. Verím, že v tejto oblasti bude nadväzovať ďalší výskum kognitívnych omylov v procese kariérového rozhodovania, ako i vytváranie postupov pre kariérové rozhodovanie využívajúce adaptívne heuristiky. Jedným z nich, ktorý predstavím, je model Preskríning-Hĺbková explorácia-Voľba (PIC- Prescreening, In-depth exploration, and Choice), ktorý ponúka preskriptívny pohľad na kariérové rozhodovanie.
V tretej kapitole sa zameriavam na ťažkosti v kariérovom rozhodovaní sa adolescentov. Prezentujem dva prístupy, ktoré odlišujú vývinovú nerozhodnutosť a nerozhodnosť ako osobnostnú črtu. Vývinovú nerozhodnutosť približujem prostredníctvom Taxonómie ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní pochádzajúcu od Gatiho, Krauszovej a Osipowa (1996), ktorá odlišuje ťažkosti v kariérovom rozhodovaní charakterizované nepripravenosťou na kariérovú voľbu, nedostatočné informácie a nekonzistentné informácie ako výsledok konfliktov. K tejto problematike prezentujem výsledky vlastného výskumu výskytu ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní žiakov slovenských stredných škôl. Následne sa zaoberám emočnými a osobnostnými aspektami ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní. Sakaová, Gati a Kelly (2008) vypracovali Taxonómiu emočných a osobnostných aspektov ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní, ktorá odlišuje pesimistické pohľady, úzkosť a identitu a sebaobraz ako kľúčové osobnostné a emočné zdroje ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní.
V štvrtej kapitole presuniem pozornosť na štýly a stratégie kariérového rozhodovania. Vychádzam z procesného prístupu k rozhodovaniu, kde sa nenahliada na kariérové rozhodovanie z hľadiska jeho dôsledkov. Za kľúčový determinant pozitívnych dôsledkov kariérového rozhodovania je považovaný adaptívny proces kariérového rozhodovania. Stručne povedané, ak sa adolescenti budú rozhodovať adaptívnymi spôsobmi, zvyšujú si pravedepodobnosť pozitívnych dôsledkov rozhodovania. Podrobnejšie predstavím Profil kariérového rozhodovania Gatiho, Landmanovej, Davidovitchovej, Asulin-Peretzovej a Gadassiovej (2012), výsledky nášho výskumu o preferovaných stratégiách kariérového rozhodovania sa slovenských žiakov stredných škôl a podporím tento model výsledkami vlastného výskumu vzhľadom na spokojnosť a prežívanú ľútosť nad kariérovým rozhodovaním sa adolescentov.
Piata kapitola je venovaná osobnostným korelátom kariérového rozhodovania. Vychádzam z modelu osobnosti podľa Veľkej päťky, ktorý je relatívne akceptovaným modelom zoskupenia piatich osobnostných čŕt. Sumarizujeme výskumné zistenia o vzťahu osobnostných čŕt – Neurotizmu, Extraverzie, Otvorenosti, Prívetivosti a Svedomitosti – k rozličným aspektom rozhodovania. Následne výskumne overujem súvislosť uvedených osobnostných čŕt k ťažkostiam v kariérovom rozhodovaní, ako i k používaniu adaptívnych a maladaptívnych stratégií kariérového rozhodovania žiakmi stredných škôl. Mojím cieľom je poukázať na dispozíciu emočne labilnejších, introvertnejších a menej svedomitých adolescentov k prežívaniu viacerých ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní, ako i ich tendenciu k používaniu maladaptívnych štýlov kariérového rozhodovania. Tieto výsledky zároveň zdôrazňujú výrazný podiel emócií pri (nielen) kariérovom rozhodovaní.
Šiesta kapitola predstavuje problematiku emočnej inteligencie v kontexte kariérového rozhodovania. Aktuálne sa vďaka neuropsychologickým výskumom dozvedáme viac o pôsobení emócií na rozhodovanie (viac napr. v našich predchádzajúcich publikáciách Jurišová & Pilárik, 2012; Pilárik, 2016; Jurišová, 2016; Šlepecký, Kotianová, Chupáčová, & Pavlov, 2016; Gallová, 2016). Tieto poznatky zasadzujeme do kontextu kariérového rozhodovania prostredníctvom konceptu emočnej inteligencie. V prvom rade popisujem viaceré pohľady na emočnú inteligenciu a výskumné zistenia ohľadom súvislosti emočnej inteligencie ku kariérovému rozhodovaniu. Prezentujem výsledky výskumov, ktoré podporujú významnú rolu vnímanej a črtovej emočnej inteligencie v kariérovom rozhodovaní.
V záverečnej siedmej kapitole ponúkam niekoľko námetov vyplývajúcich z predchádzajúcich poznatkov a výskumných zistení pre kariérové poradenstvo. Zameriavam sa na potrebu rozvíjať programy na predchádzanie kognitívnym chybám v kariérovom rozhodovaní. Poukazujem na možnosť identifikovať adolescentov so zvýšeným rizikom k ťažkostiam v kariérovom rozhodovaní prostredníctvom poznania štruktúry ich osobnostných čŕt. Podrobnejší rozbor emočných a osobnostných zdrojov ťažkostí v kariérovom rozhodovaní, ako i posúdenie individuálneho profilu stratégií kariérového rozhodovania ponúkajú informácie pre presnejšie zacielenie kariérových intervencií a psychologického poradenstva. V neposlednom rade poukazujem na koncept emočnej inteligencie, ktorý vytvára prostredníctvom rozvoja emočných a sociálnych kompetencií základňu pre zvyšovanie kvality rozhodovacieho procesu pri kariérových voľbách.
Verím, že nasledujúce riadky ponúknu čitateľovi nové informácie o procese kariérového rozhodovania sa adolescentov. Zároveň si uvedomujem limity predkladaných tém, ktoré sú primárne zamerané na osobnostné a emočné aspekty kariérového rozhodovania adolescentov. Toto užšie zameranie považujem za prirodzený dôsledok toho, že svoje závery zakladám na svojich (prip. realizovaných v spoluautorstve) výskumných štúdiách. Dúfam, že si monografia nájde svojich priaznivcov u odbornej verejnosti, ale inšpirácie môžu nachádzať i kariéroví poradcovia, poradenskí psychológovia, pedagógovia poskytujúci poradenstvo žiakom, ako i rodičia a samotní adolescenti zažívajúci ťažkosti pri svojom rozhodovaní.
Scientific research is an open‐ended quest where success usually triumphs over failure. The tremendous success of science obscures the tendency for the non‐linear discovery process to take longer and cost more than expected. Perseverance through detours and past setbacks requires a significant commitment that is fueled by scientific optimism; the same optimism required to overcome challenges simultaneously exacerbates the very human tendency to continue a line of inquiry when the likelihood of success is minimal, the so‐called sunk‐cost bias. This Viewpoint Article shows how the psychological phenomenon of sunk‐cost bias influences medicinal, pharmaceutical, and organic chemists by comparing how the respective industrial and academic practitioners approach sunk‐cost bias; a series of interviews and illustrative quotes provide a rich trove of data to address this seldom discussed, yet potentially avoidable research cost. The concluding strategies recommended for mitigating against sunk‐cost bias should benefit not only medicinal, pharmaceutical, and organic chemists but a wide array of chemistry practitioners. An awareness of sunk‐cost bias provides an antidote to the scientific optimism that exacerbates the tendency to continue research projects when the likelihood of success is minimal. A survey of academic and industrial practices, as summarized in the sunk‐cost bias decision matrix, captures how implementing controls facilitates data‐driven decisions to terminate or continue research while avoiding emotionally driven decisions that can sap resources.
Scientific research is an open‐ended quest where success usually triumphs over failure. The tremendous success of science obscures the tendency for the non‐linear discovery process to take longer and cost more than expected. Perseverance through detours and past setbacks requires a significant commitment that is fueled by scientific optimism; the same optimism required to overcome challenges simultaneously exacerbates the very human tendency to continue a line of inquiry when the likelihood of success is minimal, the so‐called sunk‐cost bias. This Viewpoint Article shows how the psychological phenomenon of sunk‐cost bias influences medicinal, pharmaceutical, and organic chemists by comparing how the respective industrial and academic practitioners approach sunk‐cost bias; a series of interviews and illustrative quotes provide a rich trove of data to address this seldom discussed, yet potentially avoidable research cost. The concluding strategies recommended for mitigating against sunk‐cost bias should benefit not only medicinal, pharmaceutical, and organic chemists but a wide array of chemistry practitioners.
In this paper, we propose that an increasingly regarded theoretical framework in neuroscience—the predictive processing framework—can help to advance an understanding of the foundations of critical thinking as well as provide a mechanistic hypothesis for how education may increase a learner’s subsequent use of critical thinking outside of an educational context. We begin by identifying a lacuna in the understanding of critical thinking: a causal account of the internal triggers to think critically. We then introduce the predictive processing framework to address this lacuna, and unpack the implications of this framework for understanding the deployment of critical thinking skills in situ, in the real world.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral therapy on cognitive and resilience abilities of blind athletes. The population included all blind athletes in Golestan, Iran (30 individuals) that were selected by available sampling method. Data were collected using cognitive abilities scale and resiliency scale. The findings showed that there was a significant difference between the scores related to cognitive abilities and resilient in post-test among the two experimental and control groups (p<0.01). It can be concluded that the intervention is effective and improves the cognitive ability and resilient of athletes blind, due to the higher mean scores of the experimental group in the post-test phase. Moreover, mindfulness-based therapy as a cognitive-behavioral third wave therapy can be effective in improving the cognitive abilities and resilience of blind individuals in the …
In a time characterized by growing uncertainty, e.g. because of the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic, effective leadership is more important than ever. In addition, employee well-being has been named one of the critical drivers of business success. In this dissertation, we therefore answer the following overarching question: Exactly how can leaders contribute to employee well-being? In order to answer this question, we execute several theoretical and empirical studies, and we also develop new ways of investigating leader (communication) behavior itself. In the first part of this dissertation, we look into the main ways in which positive leadership styles influence employee work engagement. In the first theoretical study, we argue why certain leader behaviors are shared across positive leadership styles, and we identify several theory-driven processes and pathways through which leaders can influence employee work engagement. In the second study, a moderated meta-analysis, we investigate the meta-correlation of positive leadership styles and work engagement, as well as provide an empirically-driven overview of categories of mediating and moderating mechanisms, to end up with an overarching research model. In the second part of this dissertation, we look into the role of leaders’ own well-being, for both their own leadership as well as for employee well-being. In the first study, we test a moderated mediation and find that 1) mindfulness is an antecedent of positive leadership (here: transformational leadership), 2) leaders’ psychological need satisfaction mediates the relationship between mindfulness and transformational leadership and 3) neuroticism moderates the relationship between mindfulness and relatedness need satisfaction. In the second study, with multilevel and multisource data, we investigate the trickle-down effect of leaders’ psychological need satisfaction. We find that psychological need satisfaction indeed trickles down to employees, mediated by (employee-rated) levels of LMX. We also find a direct positive association between leader competence and employee competence, as well as a negative one between leader autonomy and employee competence. In the last part of this dissertation, we look into how we can improve leader communication to increase employee well-being. In the first study we develop a new construct and validate a new 10-item questionnaire for leader attentive communication (LAC), i.e. an open-minded, attentive demeanor while in a conversation with an employee. We also find that psychological need satisfaction and Kahn’s conditions for engagement mediate the relationship between LAC and work engagement. In the second study, we devise and test a two-day training protocol to improve leader communication. Despite an interference by the pandemic in the data-collection, we find small increases in employee-rated outcomes after the training. We also find that employee-rated LAC is related to employee well-being, and that this is mediated by both psychological need satisfaction and Kahn’s conditions for engagement.
This study investigates the effects of mindfulness, an important personality trait, on people's perceptions of privacy. Using protection motivation theory as a conceptual foundation, the central tenet is that mindfulness plays an important role in people's threat appraisal process of privacy concerns and thus influences one's intention to share personal information online. A survey-based approach was employed to measure privacy attitudes of 685 UK individuals about online data disclosure. Our findings demonstrate that mindfulness contributes to the formation of privacy concerns. A more mindful consumer is more likely to adopt a more objective appraisal style, interpret privacy threats as less threatening, and thus share personal information online.
It is widely assumed that mindfulness training will lead to a range of benefits, from improved attentional capacities to better decision-making. Indeed, many large corporations have begun to provide workplace mindfulness training with the aim of improving group-based decision-making. Yet, there has been little empirical work testing the effects of mindfulness training on complex group-based task performance. In a randomised experimental study ( N = 332), we examine the effects of two different durations of mindfulness training on strategic decision-making using the classic NASA survival task, assessing individual and then group performance. We expected that a longer training duration (seven daily sessions) would be associated with better group performance relative to a “one-off” training session. We did not find such an association: groups in the longer training condition made slightly, but not significantly, more errors than groups in the one-off condition. We did not find any differences across training conditions when examining individual performance. Our findings should be interpreted in light of numerous studies demonstrating the benefits of even short durations of mindfulness practice on cognitive performance. We conclude that our lengthier mindfulness training duration did not confer measurable benefits over a one-off training session at either the individual or the group level on a strategic decision-making task.
This study investigated the daily relationships between mindfulness and job satisfaction via affect, and mindfulness and task performance via problem solving confidence. Participants were 57 full‐time and part‐time employees who completed a baseline survey and five daily diary entries. Data were analyzed using multilevel modelling approach. On days when they experienced greater mindfulness, employees also experienced (a) greater daily job satisfaction via high‐activation positive affect (but not low‐activation positive affect, nor negative affect); and (b) greater daily self‐reported task performance, via problem solving confidence. Our findings suggest that daily high‐activation positive affect and problem solving confidence may be important mechanisms of mindfulness at work. Growing evidence links mindfulness to work‐related outcomes, however limited research has investigated the mechanisms involved. The present study is one of the first to collect empirical observations regarding how state mindfulness operates at work on a daily basis, providing support for both affective and cognitive pathways. Advances in this area can underpin a robust theoretical framework to guide the implementation of daily mindfulness practice and interventions targeting specific work‐related outcomes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Several independent lines of research bear on the question of why individuals avoid decisions by postponing them, failing to act, or accepting the status quo. This review relates findings across several different disciplines and uncovers 4 decision avoidance effects that offer insight into this common but troubling behavior: choice deferral, status quo bias, omission bias, and inaction inertia. These findings are related by common antecedents and consequences in a rational-emotional model of the factors that predispose humans to do nothing. Prominent components of the model include cost-benefit calculations, anticipated regret, and selection difficulty. Other factors affecting decision avoidance through these key components, such as anticipatory negative emotions, decision strategies, counterfactual thinking, and preference uncertainty, are also discussed.
Humans and animals make inferences about the world under limited time and knowledge. In contrast, many models of rational inference treat the mind as a Laplacean Demon, equipped with unlimited time, knowledge, and computational might. Following Herbert Simon's notion of satisficing, this chapter proposes a family of algorithms based on a simple psychological mechanism: one-reason decision making. These fast-and-frugal algorithms violate fundamental tenets of classical rationality: It neither looks up nor integrates all information. By computer simulation, a competition was held between the satisficing "take-the-best" algorithm and various "rational" inference procedures (e.g., multiple regression). The take-the-best algorithm matched or outperformed all competitors in inferential speed and accuracy. This result is an existence proof that cognitive mechanisms capable of successful performance in the real world do not need to satisfy the classical norms of rational inference.
Choice conflicts between one's important values may cause negative emotion. This article extends the standard effort-accuracy approach to explaining task influences on decision processing by arguing that coping goals will interact with effort minimization and accuracy maximization goals for negatively emotion-laden decision tasks. These coping goals may involve both a desire to process in a thorough, accurate manner and a desire to avoid particularly distressing aspects of processing. On the basis of this extended framework, the authors hypothesized and found in 3 experiments that decision processing under increasing negative emotion both becomes more extensive and proceeds more by focusing on one attribute at a time. in particular, increased negative emotion leads to more attribute-based processing at the beginning of the decision process. The results are inconsistent with views that negative emotion acts only as an incentive or only as a source of decision complexity.
In the research reported here, we investigated the debiasing effect of mindfulness meditation on the sunk-cost bias. We conducted four studies (one correlational and three experimental); the results suggest that increased mindfulness reduces the tendency to allow unrecoverable prior costs to influence current decisions. Study 1 served as an initial correlational demonstration of the positive relationship between trait mindfulness and resistance to the sunk-cost bias. Studies 2a and 2b were laboratory experiments examining the effect of a mindfulness-meditation induction on increased resistance to the sunk-cost bias. In Study 3, we examined the mediating mechanisms of temporal focus and negative affect, and we found that the sunk-cost bias was attenuated by drawing one's temporal focus away from the future and past and by reducing state negative affect, both of which were accomplished through mindfulness meditation.
The present research examined the relation between mindfulness and negativity bias, or the tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive. A randomized experiment compared a brief mindfulness induction to an unfocused attention control condition. Negativity bias was assessed with a subjective measure of optimism and pessimism and an objective measure of negativity bias in attitude formation, BeanFest, which required associating novel stimuli with positive or negative outcomes. Participants in the mindfulness condition demonstrated less negativity bias in attitude formation. That is, they correctly classified positive and negative stimuli more equally than those in the control condition. Interestingly, the difference in negativity bias stemmed from better categorization of positives. Furthermore, those in the mindfulness condition reported higher levels of optimism compared to the control condition. Together, these results suggest that mindfulness increases positive judgments and reduces negativity bias.
Models indicate that opportunities for reputation formation can play an important role in sustaining cooperation and prosocial behavior. Results from experimental economic games support this conclusion, as manipulating reputational opportunities affects prosocial behavior. Noting that some prosocial behavior remains even in anonymous noniterated games, some investigators argue that humans possess a propensity for prosociality independent of reputation management. However, decision-making processes often employ both explicit propositional knowledge and intuitive or affective judgments elicited by tacit cues. Manipulating game parameters alters explicit information employed in overt strategizing but leaves intact cues that may affect intuitive judgments relevant to reputation formation. To explore how subtle cues of observability impact prosocial behavior, we conducted five dictator games, manipulating both auditory cues of the presence of others (via the use of sound-deadening earmuffs) and visual cues (via the presentation of stylized eyespots). Although earmuffs appeared to reduce generosity, this effect was not significant. However, as predicted, eyespots substantially increased generosity, despite no differences in actual anonymity; when using a computer displaying eyespots, almost twice as many participants gave money to their partners compared with the controls. Investigations of prosocial behavior must consider both overt information about game parameters and subtle cues influencing intuitive judgments.
People with high level of trait mindfulness are more likely to maintain an open and present-focused awareness and attention. Whereas a positive link between trait mindfulness and well-being has been established, its influence on real-world performance has not been fully addressed. In Study 1, we validated the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) in a Chinese sample (N = 294) and found that a two-dimensional solution (a presence factor and an acceptance factor) best fit the data. In Study 2, using this validated scale, we directly investigated the influence of trait mindfulness on task and safety performance. In a sample of 136 Chinese nuclear power plant operators, it was found that trait mindfulness interacted with task complexity to influence performance. For high-complexity-task holders (the control room operators), the presence factor was positively related to their task and safety performance; for the low-complexity-task holders (the field operators), the presence factor had no influence on safety performance but a negative influence on task performance. The acceptance factor did not have any meaningful influences. These results suggest that the benefit of being mindful outweighs its cost for complex but not simple tasks. Implications are discussed.
We examined the extent to which individual differences in authenticity and mindfulness predicted verbal defensiveness. Participants first completed measures of authenticity [Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 38 (pp. 283–357).] and mindfulness [Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848]. Within the next few weeks, participants completed the Defensive Verbal Behavior Assessment [Feldman Barrett, L., Williams, N. L., & Fong, G. T. (2002). Defensive verbal behavior assessment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 776–788]. Their responses to potentially self-threatening experiences subsequently were rated for the extent to which they reflected openness and honesty as opposed to defensiveness. Our findings indicated that authenticity and mindfulness correlated positively and that higher scores on each related to lower levels of verbal defensiveness. Additional analyses revealed that the relation between authenticity and verbal defensiveness was indirect, mediated by mindfulness. These findings support the view that higher authenticity and mindfulness relate to greater tendencies to engage self-relevant information in a relatively non-defensive manner.
Humans and animals make inferences about the world under limited time and knowledge. In con-
trast, many models of rational inference treat the mind as a Laplacean Demon, equipped with un-
limited time, knowledge, and computational might. Following H. Simon's notion of satisficing, the
authors have proposed a family of algorithms based on a simple psychological mechanism: one-
reason decision making. These fast and frugal algorithms violate fundamental tenets of classical
rationality: They neither look up nor integrate all information. By computer simulation, the authors
held a competition between the satisficing "Take The Best" algorithm and various "rational" infer-
ence procedures (e.g., multiple regression). The Take The Best algorithm matched or outperformed
all competitors in inferential speed and accuracy. This result is an existence proof that cognitive
mechanisms capable of successful performance in the real world do not need to satisfy the classical
norms of rational inference.
Decety and Lamm argued that empathy is "the ability to experience and understand what others feel without confusion between oneself and others" (italics added; 2006, p. 1146). Excessive identification with another who is suffering appears to lead to personal distress and avoidance rather than empathic concern. This is particularly a problem for roles involving helping or other forms of emotional labour. And yet there is a potential paradox here as empathy appears to be motivated by a felt sense of connection between self and other. How can we understand self-other differentiation in a way that allows us to improve it in organisations? In this chapter I present a contextual, behavioural approach that explains why mindfulness programs work to improve self-other differentiation. We can see self and other either in terms of a) conceptualisations, b) a flow of experiences or c) as awareness itself. Responding to conceptualisations of self and other can be helpful but can also impair empathy. Self-other differentiation at the level of content generally creates separation and judgement rather than empathy. Responding at the level of present-moment experience is the essence of responding to the others experience but it is here that differentiation of self and other is essential for mature, sustainable empathy. At the level of awareness itself, a stable sense of self beyond threat can be contacted in such a way to support empathy. Furthermore, in rare instances one can experience a sense of shared awareness that transcends difference. Mindfulness training appears to support the development of all three senses of perspective taking in a way that can enhance empathy, but also improve organisational outcomes in other areas such as authentic leadership.
Variations of the self-imposed delay-of-gratification situation in preschool were compared to determine when individual differences in this situation may predict aspects of cognitive and self-regulatory competence and coping in adolescence. Preschool children from a university community participated in experiments that varied features of the self-imposed delay situation. Experimental analyses of the cognitive–attentional processes that affect waiting in this situation helped identify conditions in which delay behavior would be most likely to reflect relevant cognitive and attentional competencies. As hypothesized, in those conditions, coherent patterns of statistically significant correlations were found between seconds of delay time in such conditions in preschool and cognitive and academic competence and ability to cope with frustration and stress in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the impact of task importance on the causal attributions for success and failure on a bogus social-perceptiveness task which was given to 52 undergraduates. Consistent with previous research, Ss assumed more personal responsibility for success than failure. Moreover, the more valid and important the social-perceptiveness test was presented as being, the more pronounced was the effect of outcome on the Ss' attributions. Results favor a motivational as opposed to an information-processing explanation of asymmetries in causal attribution. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review of the evidence for and against the proposition that self-serving biases affect attributions of causality indicates that there is little empirical support for the proposition in its most general form. Some support was found for the contention that individuals engage in self-enhancing attributions under conditions of success, but only minimal evidence suggested that individuals engage in self-protective attributions under conditions of failure. Moreover, it was proposed that the self-enhancing effect may not be due to motivational distortion, but rather to the tendency of people to (a) expect their behavior to produce success, (b) discern a closer covariation between behavior and outcomes in the case of increasing success than in the case of constant failure, and (c) misconstrue the meaning of contingency. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A number of philosophers and psychologists stress the importance of disconfirmation in reasoning and suggest that people are instead prone to a general deleterious "confirmation bias." In particular, it is suggested that people tend to test those cases that have the best chance of verifying current beliefs rather than those that have the best chance of falsifying them. We show, however, that many phenomena labeled "confirmation bias" are better understood in terms of a general
positive test strategy. With this strategy, there is a tendency to test cases that are expected (or known) to have the property of interest rather than those expected (or known) to lack that property. We show that the positive test strategy can be a very good heuristic for determining the truth or falsity of a hypothesis under realistic conditions. It can, however, lead to systematic errors or inefficiencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
What was noted by E. J. Langer (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did Langer, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Children are notoriously bad at delaying gratification to achieve later, greater rewards (e.g., Piaget, 1970)-and some are worse at waiting than others. Individual differences in the ability-to-wait have been attributed to self-control, in part because of evidence that long-delayers are more successful in later life (e.g., Shoda, Mischel, & Peake, 1990). Here we provide evidence that, in addition to self-control, children's wait-times are modulated by an implicit, rational decision-making process that considers environmental reliability. We tested children (M=4;6, N=28) using a classic paradigm-the marshmallow task (Mischel, 1974)-in an environment demonstrated to be either unreliable or reliable. Children in the reliable condition waited significantly longer than those in the unreliable condition (p<0.0005), suggesting that children's wait-times reflected reasoned beliefs about whether waiting would ultimately pay off. Thus, wait-times on sustained delay-of-gratification tasks (e.g., the marshmallow task) may not only reflect differences in self-control abilities, but also beliefs about the stability of the world.
Mindfulness may be conceptualised as a dispositional trait which differs across individuals. Previous
research has independently identified both attachment security and emotion regulation abilities as correlates
of dispositional attachment. We investigated the relationship between the three concepts in a
sample of 192 participants who had previously had no mindfulness training. Participants completed
the Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised
(ECR-R) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) online. Exploratory factor analysis
revealed a 2-factor solution accounting for 52% of the variance across scores on these measures. The first
factor accounted for 36% of the variance and loaded highly on emotion regulation and mindfulness subscales.
The second factor accounted for 16% of the variance and loaded highly on emotion regulation,
attachment and mindfulness subscales. We called the first factor ‘conscious awareness of emotional
states’ and the second factor ‘metacognition of emotional states’. The results confirmed that both emotional
regulation abilities and attachment security were related to dispositional mindfulness.
Happiness and ecological well-being are often portrayed as conflictual pursuits, but they may actually be complementary. In
samples of adolescents (Study 1) and adults (Study 2), we tested this proposition and examined the role of three factors in
promoting both subjective well-being (SWB) and ecologically responsible behavior (ERB). In both studies, individuals higher
in SWB reported more ERB. An intrinsic value orientation (Studies 1 and 2) and dispositional mindfulness (Study 2) related
to higher SWB and ERB, while a lifestyle of voluntary simplicity (Study 2) related to higher ERB. Further analyses showed
that the compatibility of SWB and ERB was explained by intrinsic values and mindfulness. These findings offer clues to a sustainable
way of life that enhances both personal and collective well-being.
Many unethical decisions stem from a lack of awareness. In this article, we consider how mindfulness, an individual’s awareness
of his or her present experience, impacts ethical decision making. In our first study, we demonstrate that compared to individuals
low in mindfulness, individuals high in mindfulness report that they are more likely to act ethically, are more likely to
value upholding ethical standards (self-importance of moral identity, SMI), and are more likely to use a principled approach
to ethical decision making (formalism). In our second study, we test this relationship with a novel behavioral measure of
unethical behavior: the carbonless anagram method (CAM). We find that of participants who cheated, compared to individuals
low in mindfulness, individuals high in mindfulness cheated less. Taken together, our results demonstrate important connections
between mindfulness and ethical decision making.
Keywordsawareness–carbonless anagram method–cheating–consequentialism–ethical decision making–formalism–meditation–mindfulness–self-importance of moral identity–unethical behavior
What was noted by E. J. Langer (1978) remains true today; that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. Langer, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment.
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious)feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
Subjects in an experimental simulation played the role of a decision maker in the World Bank. This simulation was designed to tap some variables relevant for policy situations and to compare specific predictions derived from six psychological theories. Subjects were asked to allocate resources to one of several courses of action and their commitment was measured following a financial setback. Causal information pertaining to the financial setback was experimentally manipulated as was prior success or failure experience. The results showed that individuals may process information differently after a failure as opposed to a success experience, and that this differential processing may account for differences in commitment to policy decisions.
Choice often produces conflict. This notion, however, plays no role in classical decision theory, in which each alternative is assigned a value, and the decision maker selects from every choice set the option with the highest value. We contrast this principle of value maximization with the hypothesis that the option to delay choice or seek new alternatives is more likely to be selected when conflict is high than when it is low. This hypothesis is supported by several studies showing that the tendency to defer decision, search for new alternatives, or choose the default option can be increased when the offered set is enlarged or improved, contrary to the principle of value maximization.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a topic of growing interest. This article describes the design of a new tailored instrument to measure emotional intelligence, which was piloted on 201 managers. Data are presented showing its high reliability and validity. In particular, construct validity is demonstrated using the 16PF, Belbin team roles, Myers-Briggs type inventory and Type A behaviour. Seven elements (sub-scales) make up the total questionnaire – self-awareness; influence; decisive; interpersonal sensitivity; motivation; integrity; and resilience. These are defined in detail, and guidance is given on administration, and reporting which is done through an expert system. Advice on how the results can be used for personal development is also given. Finally, suggestions are put forward for further work on appropriate organisational cultures to reinforce emotional intelligence, and the issue of emotional intelligence and leadership.
Interest in mindfulness and its enhancement has burgeoned in recent years. In this article, we discuss in detail the nature of mindfulness and its relation to other, established theories of attention and awareness in day-to-day life. We then examine theory and evidence for the role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships. The processes through which mindfulness is theorized to have its beneficial effects are then discussed, along with proposed directions for theoretical development and empirical research.
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious) feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
The self-serving bias refers to a tendency for people to take personal responsibility for their desirable outcomes yet externalize responsibility for their undesirable outcomes. We review a variety of explanations for this attribution bias. Although researchers have historically pitted cognitive and motivational explanations for the self-serving bias against one another, cognitive and motivation processes often work in tandem to lead people to conclude that they are responsible for the desirable but not the undesirable outcomes.
The hypothesis that temporary and chronic construct accessibility effects may independently influence cognitive and behavioral reactions was examined. Male subjects blocked on the Likelihood to Sexually Harass (LSH) scale (Pryor, 1987) were randomly assigned to priming condition (control vs facilitation of the category, women as sexual objects). On a lexical decision task, as predicted, primed subjects responded faster to sexist words than did control subjects. In addition, they were slower to recognize nonsexist words pertaining to women than were controls. All subjects subsequently interviewed a female confederate job applicant under high or low power conditions. The power manipulation, the priming manipulation, and the individual difference measure proved to be associated with subjects′ (1) stereotyped information acquisition during the interview and (2) sexualized behavior during the interview. In addition, both the priming manipulation and the dispositional measure were associated with sex-typed evaluations of the confederate. The findings are supportive of an additive versus an interactive model, whereby either chronic or temporary construct accessibility may be sufficient to produce sex discriminatory behavior.
Based on Zimbardo's (1970) theory of deindividuation and Duval and Wicklund's (1972) theory of “objective self-awareness” it was predicted that self-awareness would lead to a decrease in transgressive behavior. Subjects were either made self-aware (seated in front of a mirror listening to their own tape-recorded voice) or nonself-aware (seated to the side of the mirror listening to another's voice) and were given an opportunity to cheat on an anagrams test. Significantly more cheated in the nonself-aware condition (71%) than in the self-aware condition (7%). The results support the basic premise of deindividuation theory that self-awareness influences impulsive, counternormative behavior and suggest that an integration of the theories of deindividuation and objective self-awareness is possible.