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How Important Is Deliberate Practice? Reply to Ericsson (2016)
Abstract
Ericsson and colleagues’ view that individual differences in expertise can largely be accounted for by accumulated deliberate practice is not supported by the available empirical evidence. Extending earlier work (Macnamara, Hambrick, & Oswald, 2014), we found that deliberate practice accounted for a sizeable amount of variance in sports performance (18%), but it left a much larger amount unexplained. Ericsson’s (2016, this issue) evaluation of our research is undercut by contradictions, omissions, and errors. We agree with Ericsson that future longitudinal research will deepen understanding of expertise, but our goal was to evaluate the importance of deliberate practice based on existing evidence.
... Deliberate practice, a systematic activity conducted to improve performance (Ericsson et al., 1980), might explain why public goal monitoring can be seen as a useful tool in skill development. Studies testing the effectiveness of deliberate practice have shown that such activities contribute to increased performance and behavioral goal attainment (Ericsson et al., 1980;Ericsson et al., 1993;Gobet & Campitelli, 2007;Macnamara et al., 2014Macnamara et al., , 2016. By making a goal and its related progress public, this type of progress monitoring might contribute to constantly repeating performance-related skills and, over time, result in habit attainment. ...
... Crucially, if attendance increases, it could be assumed that further development of sports skills will occur over time. This assumption is supported by the findings of some studies (Ericsson et al., 1980;Ericsson et al., 1993;Gobet & Campitelli, 2007;Macnamara et al., 2014;Macnamara et al., 2016), which have emphasized the importance of repeating specific actions to obtain and memorize skills. For these reasons, implementing the interventions is expected to increase athletic performance by providing the chance to engage in relevant skill practice. ...
Interventions based on the goal-setting theory include a goal-setting situation and different feedback variations. Very few studies have compared the impact of different goal-setting interventions on young athletes' performance. This preliminary work aimed to examine the effectiveness of two interventions, goal-setting with private monitoring and goal-setting with public posting. In the study, young swimmers (N = 42) with a mean age of 10 (M = 9.88; SD = 1.88) were assigned to a public monitoring condition, a private monitoring condition, and a control condition. A difference was found in the attendance of training sessions, with the public posting group being superior to other groups. Controlling for baseline performance, participants in the public posting condition performed better than control participants. Public posting created conditions in which it was easier to accept set goals as focal and put greater effort into their attainment. The results contribute to a better understanding of how goal monitoring motivates behavior and performance.
... Several review articles have highlighted that deliberate practice is defined inconsistently both within and across fields and that these inconsistencies make it challenging to measure the benefits of deliberate practice (e.g., Young et al., 2021). For example, Macnamara et al. (2016) stated "For a theory to be falsifiable, definitions must be used consistently" (p. 356). ...
Interest in deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills has expanded considerably over the past several years with the publication of several how-to guides for therapists and empirical studies. A few recent publications have highlighted the potential limitations of deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills development, but these writings have primarily focused on empirical studies. Further, how-to guides often give minimal space to the potential limitations of deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills development and infrequently discuss the limitations of empirical studies. The current article seeks to synthesize conceptual and empirical writings on deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills in order to draw attention to areas that need further consideration. Specifically, we raise a series of unanswered questions warranting deeper reflection by the field. In discussing each question, we review the current literature on the topic. When relevant, we draw from the larger literature on deliberate practice and the expert performance approach to help make recommendations for research and practice. The article concludes by acknowledging the benefits of deliberate practice for psychotherapy (e.g., the production of novel training resources), while also noting the need for therapists to temper their expectations regarding results and utilize available resources to ensure a proper understanding of the model prior to implementation.
... This questions the use of early performance standards to select young athletes for talent development programs ( Buekers, Borry & Rowe, 2015 ;Martindale, Collins & Abraham, 2007 ). As indicated in the model, self-regulation, maturation, learning, and training, along with more or less developmental opportunities, are crucial factors along the road to the top ( Elferink-Gemser et al., 2011 ;Fawver, Beatty & Janelle, 2015 ;Macnamara et al., 2016 ;Phillips, Davids, Renshaw & Portus, 2010 ). ...
Referees in sport are required to have specific perceptual-cognitive skills in order to make correct and consistent decisions. The current article explores those skills and describes the literature regarding perceptual-cognitive skills and decision making of referees in association football. First, we describe the importance of perceptual-cognitive skills in sports including pattern recall and recognition, postural cue usage, and the ability to understand situational probabilities and anticipate future events. Second, we discuss the state of the art on perceptual-cognitive skills in officiating including the concept of accurate versus adequate decision making, talent development in refereeing, training opportunities, embodied officiating, and the use of video technology. Finally, we discuss several directions for future research using representative decision-making task designs, considering contextual and psychological information, implementing training studies, and applying a multifactorial and longitudinal approach.
... Moreover, researchers have found that an extended length of time is necessary to observe the intended long-lasting effects of training and reach expert levels of performance (Ericsson, 2006;Ericsson & Harwell, 2019). No matter what field (e.g., sports or music or math), the amount of time an individual has spent practicing during their lifetime contributes a significant portion (18-25%) of the variance in performance level (Macnamara et al., 2016;Macnamara & Maitra, 2019). ...
Over the past 20 years, the proposal that immersive media, such as video games, can be leveraged to enhance brain plasticity and learning has been put to the test. This expanding literature highlights the extraordinary power of video games as a potential medium to train brain functions, but also the remaining challenges that must be addressed in developing games that truly deliver in terms of learning objectives. Such challenges include the need to: (1) Maintain high motivation given that learning typically requires long-term training regimens, (2) Ensure that the content or skills to be learned are indeed mastered in the face of many possible distractions, and (3) Produce knowledge transfer beyond the proximal learning objectives. Game design elements that have been proposed to support these learning objectives are reviewed, along with the underlying psychological constructs that these elements rest upon. A discussion of potential pitfalls is also included, as well as possible paths forward to consistently ensure impact.
... 17. See Ericsson et al. 1993, Macnamara et al. 2016, Ericsson et al. 2016. More details are provided in section 2. ...
... It is a well-studied fact that, to become a sports talent, natural abilities must be honed into skills (Gagné, 2015). This process requires hours and hours of practice of the sport, in a continuous, systematic (Ericsson, 2014) and quality way (Macnamara et al., 2016), called deliberate practice. The final result is an experienced person (Durand-Bush and Salmela, 2007) denoting time, work, proper mentoring and technical supervision, coupled with the athlete's determination to reach the top and the know-how necessary to get there (Ruiz and Sanchez, 1997, p. 236). ...
The objective of the article was to relate the sports commitment of the football players together with the performance of the coach to test the relationship that both have with the sporting success of the football players. The PRISMA methodology was used. The Web of Science, Scopus, Academic Search Ultimate, Eric, Medline and Sport Discuss databases were used, with no time limit. The PICO strategy was used to screen articles. Finally, a total of 8 articles were included in the review. The importance between the commitment and the interpersonal style of the coach was demonstrated, which includes aspects in relation to his way of working globally, which we call performance. An increase in the level of commitment was also observed as the performance of the coach improved, especially the motivational climate that this produces in the players. For this reason, it is necessary to take care of these aspects in coaches when they work with potential sports talent.
... Ericsson as well as Macnamara and colleagues agree that other factors also are important for explaining individual differences in professionals' expertise (Ericsson, 2016;Macnamara et al., 2016), both in the work environment and in training design. In the work environment, it is important to have a supportive climate in which supervisors encourage professionals to develop their domain knowledge and allow them to make errors (Bohle Carbonell et al., 2014;Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). ...
This study considers the extent to which a professional development programme for educational leaders in a research-intensive university contributes to participants’ adaptive expertise in the domain of leading educational change. We evaluated the programme by asking participants to execute an authentic task at the beginning and end of the programme and compared the outcomes with participants’ self-reported learning gains. While participants report they have substantially learned from participating, according to the task scores there is no significant progress in the development of adaptive expertise. Suggestions are offered to include more purposeful practice and more reflective activities in the programme.
... In a commentary on a subsequent meta-analysis of deliberate practice in sports performance, Ericsson (2016) again insisted that our broad definition of deliberate practice was incorrect (for a reply, see Macnamara et al., 2016a). Yet he did not resolve or acknowledge the material inconsistencies in his past descriptions of deliberate practice, especially those concerning the important question of who designs deliberate practice activities (see Figure 2). ...
The question of what explains individual differences in expertise within complex domains such as music, games, sports, science, and medicine is currently a major topic of interest in a diverse range of fields, including psychology, education, and sports science, to name just a few. Ericsson and colleagues’ deliberate practice view is a highly influential perspective in the literature on expertise and expert performance—but is it viable as a testable scientific theory? Here, reviewing more than 25 years of Ericsson and colleagues’ writings, we document critical inconsistencies in the definition of deliberate practice, along with apparent shifts in the standard for evidence concerning deliberate practice. We also consider the impact of these issues on progress in the field of expertise, focusing on the empirical testability and falsifiability of the deliberate practice view. We then discuss a multifactorial perspective on expertise, and how open science practices can accelerate progress in research guided by this perspective.
... An article from Macnamara et al. (2016b) was published in response to the Ericsson (2016) commentary. They argued that Ericsson (1998) had stated deliberate practice activity could be designed by either a teacher or the performer. ...
... One of the key acknowledgements of the FTEM-O framework and the talent development model for referees and other interactor officials is the contribution of experiences such as playing and participation to the development of skills, in particular perceptual-cognitive skill. Researchers have shown that experience from match competitions and play activities may contribute to individual performance differences (MacMahon et al., 2007;Macnamara, Hambrick, & Moreau, 2016). For example, the majority of elite officials were players prior to their officiating career (Furst, 1989;MacMahon et al., 2007;Ste-Marie & Hancock, 2015). ...
In this chapter we discuss the link between intelligence and problem-solving. To preview, we argue that the ability to solve problems is not just an aspect or feature of intelligence – it is the essence of intelligence. We briefly review evidence from psychometric research concerning the nature of individual differences in intelligence, and then review evidence for how intelligence relates to complex problem-solving. We also consider the question of what mechanisms might underlie both problem-solving and intelligence, focusing on fluid intelligence and some of our own research on placekeeping ability. We then discuss the predictive validity of intelligence as it relates to job performance, mortality, expertise, and academic achievement. We also discuss practical uses of intelligence tests. Finally, we consider the question of whether intelligence as problem-solving ability can be improved through training. We close with directions for future research.
We provide a scoping review of research on athlete development in girls' and women's sports. Our emphasis is on pathways to expertise in the context of deliberate practice theory and associated models, such as the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP). Despite rationale for sex and gender differences in sport development, there are relatively few studies where the developmental pathways of female elite athletes have been evaluated. We sought to map the scope of the literature on this population over the last 30 years, focusing on measures of practice types and amounts. Following an extensive search of the literature, 32 studies were identified that included all female participants or presented sex/gender disaggregated data. Retrospective methods were commonly used to quantify practice, play and specialization. National-level athletes were the most represented, although there was considerable heterogeneity in sport and expertise-level, making general or comparative judgements challenging. We identified some groups that had accumulated high volumes of practice at a young age, particularly in soccer and gymnastics. Across sports and studies, early majority hours of engagement in the primary sport was the norm. Athletes deviated from predictions in the specialization pathway detailed in the DMSP, by continuing to participate in other sports throughout childhood and adolescence. In addition to highlighting the relative paucity of data pertaining to athlete development pathways in female athletes, we show that the data from these groups deviate from predictions detailed in current models of athlete development.
As altas capacidades existem em todas as classes sociais. Muitas vezes,
os preconceitos sobre as classes desprivilegiadas estagnam as oportunidades, associando a pobreza à baixa capacidade intelectual. Neste sentido,
deve haver uma preocupação com as pessoas que apresentam altas capacidades e em condições de desvantagens sociais, pois, lhes são ofertadas
menos oportunidades de desenvolvimento. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi
buscar na base de dados TESEO (Base de Datos de Tesis Doctorales) teses
que abordassem sobre altas capacidades e vulnerabilidade social. A pesquisa foi documental. A partir dos resultados obtidos, fez-se uma análise
de dados na perspectiva quali-quantitativa. A busca com o tema altas capacidades e vulnerabilidade social, na citada Base, retornou em zero resultado. Buscou-se, todavia, nessa base de dados, teses que se relacionassem à temática de altas capacidades e foram encontradas 34 teses. Ostemas mais predominantes foram: identificação, professores, aspectos
emocionais, talento matemático e criatividade. O tema identificação apareceu em 30% das teses encontradas. Desta forma, foi possível concluir que,
apesar das teses explorarem temas diversos, bem específicos e importantes para a área, altas capacidades e vulnerabilidade social ainda não é estudo explorado em teses espanholas. Assinala-se, a importância da identificação e do atendimento às capacidades desse público, pois há uma
vulnerabilidade no meio que eles estão inseridos, o que acarreta pré-conceito e pode estigmatizá-los. Cabe assim, aos pesquisadores, não somente
na Espanha, um olhar atencioso, pois, essas pessoas necessitam ser reconhecidas em suas necessidades. Espera-se, portanto, que esta pesquisa
possa nortear futuros estudos e beneficiar a população mais vulnerável.
Palavras-chave: Altas Capacidades; Vulnerabilidade Social; Teses Espanholas.
Zusammenfassung
In Anbetracht des hohen Unfallrisikos, das junge Fahranfänger im Straßenverkehr aufweisen, sieht sich die Fahrschulausbildung in Deutschland immer wieder mit der Frage nach ihrer Wirk-samkeit konfrontiert. Im Laufe der Zeit wurden verschiedene Ansätze und Ideen entwickelt, um Fahrschüler besser auf das selbstständige Führen fahrerlaubnispflichtiger Kraftfahrzeuge vorzubereiten. Besonders hervor sticht hierbei die theoriegeleitete und empirisch fundierte Entwicklung von Qualitätskriterien einer lernwirksamen Fahrschulausbildung, die bereits im Jahr 2003 begann. Die Ausgestaltung dieser Qualitätskriterien durch Fahrlehrer beeinflusst maßgeblich den Erfolg von Fahrschülern in der Fahrerlaubnisprüfung. Trotz ihrer hohen Relevanz für die Qualität der Fahrschulausbildung und ihres Potenzials zur Steigerung der Verkehrssicherheit werden die Qualitätskriterien erst seit Kurzem in der Aus- und Weiterbildung von Fahrlehrern thematisiert. Dies hat zur Folge, dass viele aktive Fahrlehrer sich noch nicht umfassend mit diesen Qualitätskriterien auseinandergesetzt haben. Die vorliegende Masterarbeit verfolgt daher das Ziel, Fahrlehrer durch die Entwicklung und Erprobung einer Fahrlehrer-Fortbildung mit den Qualitätskriterien und den Möglichkeiten zur Gestaltung einer vor allem in pädagogischer Hinsicht qualitativ hochwertigen Fahrschulausbildung vertraut zu machen.
Die Fortbildung erfährt auf theoretischer Ebene eine Anbindung an ein Modell zur professionellen Kompetenz von Fahrlehrern. Die didaktische Gestaltung erfolgt vor dem Hintergrund der in vielen Bereichen des Bildungssystems vorherrschenden Perspektive zur kompetenzorientierten Gestaltung von Bildungsangeboten. Zusätzlich werden theoretisch fundierte und empirisch erprobte Beiträge der Didaktik und der empirischen Bildungsforschung herangezogen, um eine effektive Fortbildung zu erstellen. Außerdem wird eine normative und bildungstheoretische Rahmung der Fortbildung vorgenommen, um den Anforderungen an ein qualitätsvolles Bildungsangebot gerecht zu werden. Im Ergebnis entstand eine dreitägige Fortbildung zu den Qualitätskriterien lernwirksamer Fahrschulausbildung.
Die drei Module der Fortbildung wurden mit 48 Teilnehmern aus dem Handlungsfeld „Fahrschulausbildung“ erprobt. Mit Hilfe eines schriftlichen Bewertungsbogens konnten Rückschlüsse zur Umsetzbarkeit und Sinnhaftigkeit des Fortbildungskonzepts gezogen sowie erste Hinweise zum Potenzial der Fortbildung zur Förderung der professionellen Kompetenz von Fahrlehrern und zur möglichen Verbesserung der Fahrschulausbildung gewonnen werden.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es gelungen ist, ein grundsätzlich gut umsetzbares Bildungsangebot für Fahrlehrer bereitzustellen. Dieses Angebot ermöglicht es, Fahrlehrer durch eine interessante didaktische Gestaltung, welche einen hohen Bezug zu den Tätigkeiten eines Fahrlehrers aufweist, mit den theoretisch fundierten und empirisch bewährten sowie rechtlich verankerten Qualitätskriterien für eine lernwirksame Fahrschulausbildung vertraut zu machen. Darüber hinaus bietet die Fortbildung Fahrlehrern die Chance, ihre eigene professionelle Kompetenz zu erweitern. Schließlich erhalten Fahrlehrer vielfältige Anregungen, um die Qualität ihrer eigenen Ausbildungstätigkeit zu erhöhen, die Vorbereitung von Fahranfängern zu verbessern sowie letztendlich einen Beitrag zur Stärkung der Verkehrssicherheit in Deutschland zu leisten.
Abstract
In view of the high accident risk of young novice drivers in road traffic, driving school education in Germany is repeatedly confronted with the question of its effectiveness. In the course of time, various approaches and ideas have been developed to better prepare learner drivers for independent driving of motor vehicles requiring a driving licence. Particularly noteworthy in this context is the theory-based and empirically founded development of quality criteria for effective driving school training, which began as early as 2003. The design of these quality criteria by driving instructors has a decisive influence on the success of learner drivers in the driving test. Despite their high relevance for the quality of driving school education and their potential to increase road safety, quality criteria have only recently become a topic in the education and training of driving instructors. As a result, many active driving instructors have not yet comprehensively dealt with these quality criteria. This master's thesis therefore aims to familiarise driving instructors with the quality criteria and the possibilities for designing high-quality driving school training, especially from a pedagogical point of view, by developing and testing a further training course for driving instructors.
On a theoretical level, the further training is linked to a model for the professional competence of driving instructors. The didactic design is carried out against the background of the prevailing perspective in many areas of the education system on the competence-oriented design of educational offers. In addition, theoretically sound and empirically tested contributions from didactics and empirical educational research are used to create effective further training. Furthermore, a normative and educational-theoretical framing is undertaken in order to meet the requirements of a quality educational offer. The result was a three-day further training course on the quality criteria of effective driving school training.
The three modules of the training were tested with 48 participants from the driving school education. With the help of a written evaluation form, conclusions could be drawn about the feasibility and usefulness of the training concept and initial indications of the potential of the training to promote the professional competence of driving instructors and to possibly improve driving school training.
The results show that it has been possible to provide an educational offer for driving instructors that is basically easy to implement. This offer makes it possible to familiarise driving instructors with the theoretically well-founded and empirically proven as well as legally anchored quality criteria for effective driving school training by means of an interesting didactic design, which is highly related to the activities of a driving instructor. In addition, the advanced training offers driving instructors the opportunity to expand their own professional competence. Finally, driving instructors receive a variety of suggestions to increase the quality of their own training activities, to improve the preparation of novice drivers and ultimately to contribute to strengthening road safety in Germany.
Research into the development of musical imagery ability has remained stagnant in both the fields of aural skills pedagogy and cognitive science. This article integrates scholarship from both disciplines to provide a way forward for both the study and practice of imagery development. Analysis of North American pedagogical practices provides a foundation for the types and functions of activities used to affect imagery ability, while newly designed measurement techniques in the cognitive sciences are shown to have promising implications for assessing change in imagery ability over time. Following consideration of insights from both fields, this article consolidates them by developing a model of imagery development. Framed through the lens of expertise acquisition and skilled memory performance, this model has implications for approaches to imagery in the aural skills classroom and for empirical studies of imagery development in music cognition.
Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés au raisonnement et à la capacité décisionnelle des experts. A l’exception d’une étude qui est composée de deux populations expertes différentes (Joueurs d’échecs et joueurs de Go), nous nous sommes concentrés sur la population d’expert du jeu d’échecs. Notre objectif initial était de montrer l’influence de certains processus émotionnels dans les décisions expertes. Dans ce travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux liens pouvant être établis entre la théorie des marqueurs somatiques et les théories en psychologie de l’expertise. Notre idée est que les marqueurs somatiques offrent un cadre intéressant afin d’étudier et de comprendre les performances expertes.Nous avons tout d’abord étudié les capacités de prise de décision générales des experts, en dehors de leur champ d’expertise, à l’aide d’un test spécialement créé pour étudier les marqueurs somatiques (Iowa Gambling Task ; IGT) et d’autres épreuves se focalisant sur les aspects de décision ambiguë (Balloon Analog Risk Task ; BART) et en connaissance des risques (Game of Dice Task ; GDT). L’objectif était de voir si les joueurs d’échecs sont meilleurs que les novices dans ces tâches et de mieux comprendre le type de contexte décisionnel pouvant amener les joueurs experts à dépasser les capacités de la population générale. Nous observons que la prise de décision des experts est meilleure principalement dans le cadre de l’IGT. Ainsi, contrairement à ce qui apparait parfois dans la littérature, les performances des joueurs d’échecs ne semblent pas se limiter exclusivement à leur domaine d’expertise.Nous avons ensuite étudié les décisions des experts au sein de leur domaine de compétence. Nous avons ainsi réalisé deux études utilisant des positions d’échecs. Il s’agit d’une tâche d’amorçage et d’une adaptation de l’effet d’Einstellung (ou effet d’attitude). L’objectif de ces études était d’observer l’influence du traitement automatique des positions sur la performance des joueurs d’échecs. Nos résultats semblent indiquer que les experts procèdent à un traitement automatique des positions pouvant amener à l’activation de schémas et procédures de résolution spécifiques à la situation. Cet activation automatique peut entraîner une amélioration des performances pouvant aller jusqu’à la mise en place d’une décision intuitive pour les joueurs experts. Mais celle-ci peut également venir perturber la décision des joueurs en focalisant leur attention sur des aspects moins pertinents de la situation.Pour ce qui concerne les compétences générales des experts, en dehors de leur champ d’expertise, les résultats obtenus semblent indiquer une utilisation efficace de la voie émotionnelle de la décision responsable de l’activation des marqueurs somatiques. Dans les études menées dans le domaine d’expertise, la théorie des marqueurs somatiques permettrait également, selon nous, d’expliquer les différents modes de décision des experts. Nous proposerons donc dans cette thèse un modèle des décisions expertes incluant la modalité somatique.En résumé, nos résultats semblent indiquer que la théorie des marqueurs somatiques est un cadre interprétatif intéressant pour les décisions expertes. Ces marqueurs sont reliés à de précédentes situations ayant provoqué une réaction émotionnelle et pourraient venir assister les décisions experts dans et hors de leur domaine d’expertise. Néanmoins, de plus amples recherches, incluant des mesures physiologiques, doivent être menées afin de confirmer l’intérêt des marqueurs somatiques dans la décision experte.
Little is known about the outer reaches of learning curves for very complex cognitive skills exercised over decades. Can skill performance improve as long as practice lasts or do all learners ultimately plateau? Furthermore, does natural talent set widely varying performance limits or do all learning curves eventually converge? Chess skill learning curves were examined for 333 players, mostly grandmasters, who, over a median 20 years, played at least 1500 internationally-rated games. Curves of nine of the 333 participants who played more than 3050 games, and one of the 333 and two others who played more than 4250 games over more than 30 years, also were examined. Players on average reached an approximate plateau by around 1200 games. This asymptotic value has changed little from the 1990s despite massive changes in the chess environment. Out to more than 3050 or 4250 games, players stayed at an approximate plateau for many games and years and then performance eventually declined. Chess skill learning curves do not rise forever. Over extensive practice lasting decades, they typically plateau for a long time and eventually decline. The more talented tend to plateau later and curves of the greater and lesser talented do not converge.
This chapter discusses enduring “nature‐nurture” debate as it is central to an understanding of the extent to which expertise in sport can be developed via training and practice. It presents a conceptual framework that captures the current understanding of the developmental pathway toward expertise in sport from a psychological perspective. The chapter explains how extensive practice leads to domain‐specific adaptations to the cognitive system, and focuses on the nature of these adaptations, which involve changes to domain‐specific mental representations and memory for domain‐specific information. It demonstrates how these cognitive adaptations increase the efficiency with which the expert athlete processes information from their domain, conveying them a critical performance advantage. Finally, current limitations of research on sport expertise are proposed and suggestions are made for future research.
The paper confronts two views on the conditions for attaining exceptional
(expert) achievements: a viewpoint whereby giftedness, defined as exceptional
innate ability, constitutes a necessary requirement for the emergence of such
achievements, and the expert-performance oriented approach whereby the level
of achievement, including a superior one, depends exclusively on the amount
of deliberate practice. Adopting one of the two views implies different
educational practices, hence it is essential to assess their scientific
foundation. To begin with, we present and analyse the given viewpoints with
regard to their respective positions on the following questions: What is the
contribution of ability and of practice in explaining/predicting levels of
achievement? Is there an upper limit on the development of competencies
through practice, which might be attributed to abilities? Are there
significant individual variations in the dynamics of acquiring expertise? May
each instance of exceptional achievement be explained by deliberate practice?
Further, we offer a review of relevant studies in order to formulate
empirically based answers to the above stated questions. We conclude that the
dynamics and outcomes of the process of acquiring expertise cannot be
understood and predicted solely on the basis of deliberate practice, but that
they depend significantly on the existence of a gift, i.e., an exceptional
natural ability. With respect to educational implications, we find that
available scientific evidence yields some support for ”pedagogical optimism”
- the belief that most students can develop a high level of competency by way
of mentor-guided practice and feedback - yet that it also strongly calls for
differentiated and individualised instruction based on differences in
abilities.
Resumo Para avaliar algumas capacidades físicas, enfatizando o papel delas na identificação de pessoas com dotação (10%) e comparando sua manifestação nos sexos, e estimar a magnitude do efeito da idade, da maturação e da prática deliberada na identificação desse tipo de dotação, uma amostra de 346 estudantes do Ensino Fundamental foi submetida a uma bateria de medidas antropométricas, de aptidão física e demográficas. Uma Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) reteve dois componentes que foram denominados de Dotação Técnica (DT) e Dotação Antropométrica (DA) que, ao serem combinados entre si e com um escore total das dotações (DAT), desdobraram-se em cinco perfis de dotação física: DT; DA; DAT; DA e DAT; e DT e DAT. Observou-se que o grupo de meninas (n=15; 9,55%) e o de meninos (n=21; 11,11%) com dotação física apresentaram dimensões equivalentes. Não foram observadas diferenças entre os sexos no que diz respeito à DA. No caso da DT, constatou-se que as meninas são mais flexíveis e os meninos obtiveram melhores resultados nas demais variáveis. A idade e, principalmente, a maturação apresentaram efeito significativo na identificação de algumas dotações, especialmente a DA. Assim, pode se afirmar que a dotação física é um construto multidimensional e que meninos e meninas possuem tanto semelhanças quanto diferenças nessas capacidades. Evidenciou-se ser possível obter informações confiáveis para identificar dotação física em escolares na própria escola. Os instrumentos e procedimentos empregados neste estudo constituem ferramentas e estratégias que podem ser utilizados por gestores e outros profissionais da educação na busca ativa por dotação física no espaço escolar. Palavras-chave: talento, esporte, identificação, criança, jovem, escola. Abstract In order to evaluate some physical abilities, emphasizing their role in the identification of gifted people (10%) and comparing its manifestation in different genders, and also to estimate the magnitude of the age influence and the practice of identification of this kind of gift, a sample of 346 Primary students underwent a set of anthropometric, physical and demographic measures. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) retained two components that were denominated Technical Gift (TG) and Anthropometric Gift (AG) that, when combined with each other with a Total Gift score (ATG), unfolded in five physical profiles: TG; AG; ATG; AG and ATG; TG and ATG. It was observed that the group of girls (n=15; 9,55%) and the group of boys (n=21; 11,11%) with physical gift presented equivalent dimensions. Difference between the genders regarding the AG was not observed. Regarding the TG, it was concluded that the girls are more flexible and that the boys obtained better results in the remaining variables. Age and maturation presented significant effect in the identification of some gifts, specially the AG.
Two hallmark criteria are commonly used to determine whether a variable of interest has an impact on sport expertise development: (a) discrimination of performance or skill levels and (b) association with time spent in deliberate practice activities. Our opinion is that there has been warranted criticism of the deliberate practice framework and greater methodological rigour will invigorate survey research in this area. In this paper, we aimed to provide critical perspectives on self-report methods previously used to assess group discrimination and to measure deliberate practice in survey-based work in the context of sport expertise as well as to illustrate steps that could be taken to improve confidence in the validity and reliability of these measures. First, we focus on challenges discriminating between multiple, progressively skilled groups of athletes and outline two strategies: one aimed at improving the validity of skill grouping using standardized performance measures, and another illustrating how researchers can assess variability within skill levels. Second, we highlight challenges in measuring deliberate practice activities and propose a funnel method of narrowing athletes’ estimates from general sport activity to highly individualized, purposeful practice. We argue more attention is needed on the development of self-report methods and measurements to reliably and validly assess sport expertise development.
The debate over the origins of individual differences in expertise has raged on for over a century in psychology. The “nature” view holds that expertise reflects “innate talent”—that is, genetically-determined abilities. The “nurture” view counters that if talent even exists, its effects on ultimate performance are negligible. While no scientist takes seriously a strict nature view of expertise, the nurture view has gained tremendous popularity over the past several decades. Most prominently, while explicitly rejecting any important role for innate ability (“talent”), some authors have argued that what distinguishes expert performers from normal adults is lifelong engagement in deliberate practice. Here, we argue that despite its popularity, this view is inadequate to account for the evidence concerning the origins of expertise that has accumulated since the view was first proposed. More generally, we argue that the nature vs. nurture debate in research on expertise is over—or certainly should be, as it has been in other areas of psychological research for decades. We describe a multifactorial model for research on the nature and nurture of expertise, which we believe will provide a progressive direction for future research on expertise.
En los últimos años se han producido numerosos e importantes avances en la modalidad deportiva del voleibol, siendo especialmente complicado –y complejo– determinar quienes forman parte de lo que conceptuamos como su “élite deportiva”. De ahí que la fase de detección y formación de jóvenes con altas capacidades deportivas en categorías inferiores sea fundamental, llegando a ser uno de los elementos más significativos y relevantes de cualquier programa orientado a su formación y desarrollo, tanto a nivel personal como colectivo, humana y técnicamente.
En este sentido, la Tesis que presentamos tiene como principal objetivo diseñar un programa de detección y formación para jóvenes con altas capacidades en voleibol en categoría infantil femenina. Para lograrlo, se identificarán los principales factores de rendimiento de una jugadora de élite de voleibol, entre los que deben situarse los de índole fisiológica, técnico-tácticos o psicológicos; a los que se añaden otros directamente asociados con el rendimiento: agilidad, coordinación óculo-manual, etc. Buena parte de los elementos que componen dichos factores pueden ser evaluados en una jugadora de categoría infantil, sin que puedan obviarse otras circunstancias o dimensiones, entre las que incluimos la educación en valores de la deportista.
Con estos referentes, fue diseñado el programa que denominaremos DeFACaVo (acrónimo de Detección y Formación de Altas Capacidades en Voleibol). En él, para tomar en consideración los factores fisiológicos se recurre al método Beunen–Malina–Freitas para estimar la altura que las adolescentes tendrán en su edad adulta; al software Lince para analizar los elementos técnico-tácticos durante los partidos y/o competiciones; y, para los factores psicológicos, a los apartados correspondientes del cuestionario de Características Psicológicas relacionadas con el Rendimiento Deportivo (CPRD). Complementariamente, se incluyen informaciones relativas a si la jugadora practica o ha practicado otras modalidades deportivas. Con respecto a los elementos que determinan si la jugadora goza de una buena educación en valores, empleamos el software Lince para analizar sus conductas relacionadas con el juego limpio, la equidad y la deportividad (tanto positivas como negativas) durante los partidos y/o competiciones.
Con todos los resultados obtenidos se elaborará un informe de la jugadora, en el que, además, aparecerán sus datos personales (nombre y apellidos, fecha de nacimiento, lugar de residencia, etc.) y sus datos deportivos (club, años practicando voleibol, categoría deportiva en la que milita el club, etc.). Esta información consideramos que permite estimar, de manera eficaz, qué jugadoras tienen altas capacidades en voleibol en categoría infantil femenina, considerando a tal fin las valoraciones realizadas por distintos expertos (académicos, investigadores, deportistas, entrenadores, etc.) para someter a un proceso de validación el programa y sus desarrollos instrumentales.
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Enlace al texto completo: http://hdl.handle.net/10347/16120
The athlete's road towards attainment of expert performance is long and arduous. A considerable amount of time must be deliberately invested to develop multiple-performance characteristics, while simultaneously overcoming numerous constraints. In order to do that, the athlete has a relationship to a sport practitioner, whose role is to create optimal and effective practices in which the athlete is integrated and actively engaged in a self-determined process as a self-regulated, motivated learner. This type of self-regulated and self-determined practice is established in a theoretical review, which includes its branches of basic psychological needs and personal construct theory. From this theory, mechanisms for the creation of optimal coaching practice were identified and transferred into reality, with a season-long implementation in the development of an ice hockey club participating at the highest level of Finnish competitive junior U18 ice hockey. The objective of the research was to measure athletes' perceptions of the usefulness of the implemented framework, identify its future potential, and the degree to which athletes' basic psychological needs in sport were satisfied. The aim was for results to reflect on the practicality, quality and importance of the practice. This study shows that for the framework to be useful players had to believe they would repeatedly benefit from it in the future. Furthermore, relevant statements anchoring constructs indicated that this framework had significant impact on the level of athletes' confidence, self-awareness, and motivation. It helped to increase their sports-based knowledge and provided the means for monitoring performance. Indices , which can serve as a catalyst for coach-athlete relationship development, were obtained. Satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness was high.
The aim of the present study was to document how differing motivational orientation profiles, situated within environmental constraints (i.e., a competitive and practice environments) influence the nonlinear variability of performance and subsequent retention of a visual motor tracking skill. Myriad research associates atypical nonlinear aspects of motor variability with pathology; however, few empirical efforts have explored the influence of individual differences and environmental factors on nonlinear aspects of motor output and skill retention. Participants performed an isometric force-tracking task, matching the force indicated by a target line displayed across a computer screen. Dependent variables were performance outcome (root mean squared error) and the complexity of the produced signal (Sample Entropy) across practice, competition, and retention. Participants with high task orientation, regardless of high or low levels of ego orientation, exhibited the greatest visual motor tracking improvement as well as the greatest increases in irregularity of force variability from practice to competition and retention. We conclude that individual differences play a key role in the structure of continuous behavior, and that this structure influences the learning of continuous motor skills.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
The relative importance of nature and nurture for various forms of expertise has been intensely debated. Music proficiency is viewed as a general model for expertise, and associations between deliberate practice and music proficiency have been interpreted as supporting the prevailing idea that long-term deliberate practice inevitably results in increased music ability. Here, we examined the associations (rs = .18-.36) between music practice and music ability (rhythm, melody, and pitch discrimination) in 10,500 Swedish twins. We found that music practice was substantially heritable (40%-70%). Associations between music practice and music ability were predominantly genetic, and, contrary to the causal hypothesis, nonshared environmental influences did not contribute. There was no difference in ability within monozygotic twin pairs differing in their amount of practice, so that when genetic predisposition was controlled for, more practice was no longer associated with better music skills. These findings suggest that music practice may not causally influence music ability and that genetic variation among individuals affects both ability and inclination to practice.
More than 20 years ago, researchers proposed that individual differences in performance in such domains as music, sports, and games largely reflect individual differences in amount of deliberate practice, which was defined as engagement in structured activities created specifically to improve performance in a domain. This view is a frequent topic of popular-science writing-but is it supported by empirical evidence? To answer this question, we conducted a meta-analysis covering all major domains in which deliberate practice has been investigated. We found that deliberate practice explained 26% of the variance in performance for games, 21% for music, 18% for sports, 4% for education, and less than 1% for professions. We conclude that deliberate practice is important, but not as important as has been argued.
Theories of skilled performance that emphasize training history, such as K. Anders Ericsson and colleagues' deliberate-practice theory, have received a great deal of recent attention in both the scientific literature and the popular press. Twin studies, however, have demonstrated evidence for moderate-to-strong genetic influences on skilled performance. Focusing on musical accomplishment in a sample of over 800 pairs of twins, we found evidence for gene-environment correlation, in the form of a genetic effect on music practice. However, only about one quarter of the genetic effect on music accomplishment was explained by this genetic effect on music practice, suggesting that genetically influenced factors other than practice contribute to individual differences in music accomplishment. We also found evidence for gene-environment interaction, such that genetic effects on music accomplishment were most pronounced among those engaging in music practice, suggesting that genetic potentials for skilled performance are most fully expressed and fostered by practice.
Counter to the common belief that expert performance reflects innate abilities and capacities, recent research in different domains of expertise has shown that expert performance is predominantly mediated by acquired complex skills and physiological adaptations. For elite performers, supervised practice starts at very young ages and is maintained at high daily levels for more than a decade. The effects of extended deliberate practice are more far-reaching than is commonly believed. Performers can acquire skills that circumvent basic limits on working memory capacity and sequential processing. Deliberate practice can also lead to anatomical changes resulting from adaptations to intense physical activity. The study of expert performance has important implications for our understanding of the structure and limits of human adaptation and optimal learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replies to H. Gardner's (see record
1996-10360-001) comments on K. A. Ericsson and N. Charness's (see record
1994-43905-001) review of the structure and acquisition of expert performance. In contrast to Gardner, they attribute differences to the individuals' history of relevant activities that differentially benefit the acquisition of associated skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the theory of deliberate practice (K. A. Ericsson et al, 1993) and contrasted results with the sport commitment model (T. K. Scanlan et al, 1993a, 1993b). In Part I, international (mean age 25.6 yrs), national (mean age 24.0 yrs), and provincial (mean age 25.4 yrs) soccer and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport-related activities, and everyday activities at the start of their career and every 3 years since. In Part II, these activities were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and concentration required, and enjoyment. A monotonic relationship between accumulated individual plus team practice and skill level was found. In contrast with Ericsson et al's findings for musicians, relevant activities were also enjoyable, while concentration became a separate dimension from effort. The viability of a generalized theory of expertise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A modified version of Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer's (1993) semi-struc-tured interview schedule was employed to examine the relationship between gender, level of professional standing and facets of practice amongst men and women pro-fessional and amateur dart players. Players accumulated number of practice hours were classified at four periods duringtheir sporting history, namely; at years 3, 5, 10 and 15 in relation to engaging in playing league darts, playing for fun, playing in competitions, engaging in solitary deliberate practice and deliberate practice with a partner. KEY WORDS: Dart. The sample were 12 professional male dart players, mean age 41.7 years, (S.D = 6.27), 12 amateur level male dart players, mean age 41 years, (SD = 6.95), 6 professional female dart players, mean age 36.6 years, (SD = 6.15) and 6 amateur female level dart players, mean age 42 years, SD = 5.51. All participants were right-handed throwers. The main criteria for both male and female professional level players was to have attained international level of performance, at least one singles win at World level and five singles wins at International Open Championship level, and to be ranked in the top 16 of the World rankings for at least 75 % of their playing career. The criteria for both male and female Amateur was to have no attainment of international level of performance and to have played county darts for a duration of at least 15 years.
The development of expertise for two groups of rhythmic gymnasts was studied where a group of elite (Olympic) gymnasts was compared to a group of sub-elite (International) gymnasts. Structured interviews were used to collect retrospective information about the gymnasts?health, training resources, level and ranking, and hours spent in training activities. The gymnasts rated practice activities during the last period of their development (age 16 and older) with respect to their perceived physical effort, mental concentration, and fun. The Olympic gymnasts were involved in significantly fewer activities and sports throughout their development compared to the International gymnasts. All gymnasts reported engaging in five practice activities of warm-up, ballet, technique training, routines, and conditioning in their rhythmic gymnastics training. Olympic gymnasts allocated substantially more time to the practice activities of ballet, technique, routines, and conditioning, compared to the International gymnasts. Olympic gymnasts also rated their health as lower than the International gymnasts. All gymnasts reported that the practice activities of technique and routine training required more physical effort and mental concentration than warm-up, ballet, and conditioning. The Olympic gymnasts reported experiencing less fun in their participation overall. The findings of this study provide a comprehensive description of early activity involvement, training activities, training resources, and health and injury ratings of expert level rhythmic gymnasts and help to further the understanding of how to assess sport expertise development.
The role of sport-specific practice in the development of decision-making expertise in the sports of field hockey, netball, and basketball was examined. Fifteen expert decision-makers and 13 experienced non-expert athletes provided detailed information about the quantity and type of sport-specific and other related practice activities they had undertaken throughout their careers. Experts accumulated more hours of sport-specific practice from age 12 years onwards than did non-experts, spending on average some 13 years and 4,000 hours on concentrated sport-specific practice before reaching international standard. A significant negative correlation existed between the number of additional activities undertaken and the hours of sportspecific training required before attaining expertise, suggesting a functional role for activities other than sport-specific training in the development of expert decision-making.
Thesis (M.A.)--University of Ottawa, 1998. Includes bibliographical references. Photocopy.
The concept of deliberate practice was introduced to explain exceptional performance in domains such as music and chess. We apply deliberate practice theory to intermediate-level performance in typing, an activity that many people pursue on a regular basis. Sixty university students with several years typing experience participated in laboratory sessions that involved the assessment of abilities, a semistructured interview on typing experience as well as various typing tasks. In line with traditional theories of skill acquisition, experience (amount of typing since introduction to the keyboard) was related to typing performance. A perceptual speed test (digit-symbol substitution) and a measure of motor abilities (tapping) were not significantly related to performance. In line with deliberate practice theory, the highest level of performance was reported among participants who had attended a typing class in the past and who reported to adopt the goal of typing quickly during everyday typing. Findings suggest that even after several years of experience engagement in an everyday activity can serve as an opportunity for further skill improvement if individuals are willing to push themselves.
In their original article, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) reviewed the evidence concerning the conditions of optimal learning and found that individualized practice with training tasks (selected by a supervising teacher) with a clear performance goal and immediate informative feedback was associated with marked improvement. We found that this type of deliberate practice was prevalent when advanced musicians practice alone and found its accumulated duration related to attained music performance. In contrast, Macnamara, Moreau, and Hambrick’s (2016, this issue) main meta-analysis examines the use of the term deliberate practice to refer to a much broader and less defined concept including virtually any type of sport-specific activity, such as group activities, watching games on television, and even play and competitions. Summing up every hour of any type of practice during an individual’s career implies that the impact of all types of practice activity on performance is equal—an assumption that I show is inconsistent with the evidence. Future research should collect objective measures of representative performance with a longitudinal description of all the changes in different aspects of the performance so that any proximal conditions of deliberate practice related to effective improvements can be identified and analyzed experimentally.
Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer's (1993) framework for the acquisition of expertise was examined using three global metrics for cumulative practice, including an exclusive sport-specific and a priori defined metric for deliberate practice (Young & Salmela, 2002). Based on practice histories for 48 national, provincial and club middle distance runners, between-group analyses were conducted separately for each of the global measures and also for accumulations in each of 12 specific individual training activities across the initial seven years of a career. Each of the global measures failed to discriminate between groups, with cumulative DP demonstrating the smallest effect sizes. National atbletes reported more technique practice than Club runners across the first 5 yrs of a career, and more endurance weights than lesser-skilled groups after 3 yrs and onwards in a career. Provincial runners accumulated more work with a coach than Club runners across the first 5 yrs. Discussion focused on whether an exclusive a priori defined cumulative deliberate practice metric advances work in the area, as well as how the three significant individual training activities contribute to acquired expertise in running.
Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) have concluded from work with musicians that expertise is the result of ≪deliberate practice≫, so how valid is this conclusion in sport? Four groups of male amateur wrestlers (n = 42); 2 international and 2 club (current and retired) recalled the number of hours they had spent in wrestling and everyday activities since beginning wrestling. All groups had begun wrestling at a similar age (M = 13 yrs) and had been wrestling for 10 years or more. Data were examined as a function of age and years spent wrestling. Contrary to Ericsson et al. practice alone activities did not differentiate between the groups, only practice with others. At 6 years into their careers, the international group practised 4.5 hrs/week more than the club wrestlers. At 20 years of age the international wrestlers had accumulated over 1000 more hours of practice with others compared to the club wrestlers. Evaluations of wrestling related activities showed that activities judged to be relevant were also rated high with regards to concentration and enjoyment. Diary data were collected from current wrestlers to validate the retrospective reports. The time spent in all wrestling related activities was comparable for the club and international wrestlers, however, the international wrestlers spent longer travelling to practice, which reflected the necessity to train at a club with the best sparring partners. Practice with others yielded high correlations between estimates for a typical week and the diary data for the international wrestlers. In conclusion Ericsson et al.'s definition of ≪deliberate practice≫ needs to be considered, especially as ≪relevancez≫ correlates highly with ≪enjoyment≫. It is recommended that future studies focus on what it is that motivates people to spend the necessary hours of practice to achieve expertise.
Why are some people more skilled in complex domains than other people? According to one prominent view, individual differences in performance largely reflect individual differences in accumulated amount of deliberate practice. Here, we investigated the relationship between deliberate practice and performance in sports. Overall, deliberate practice accounted for 18% of the variance in sports performance. However, the contribution differed depending on skill level. Most important, deliberate practice accounted for only 1% of the variance in performance among elite-level performers. This finding is inconsistent with the claim that deliberate practice accounts for performance differences even among elite performers. Another major finding was that athletes who reached a high level of skill did not begin their sport earlier in childhood than lower skill athletes. This finding challenges the notion that higher skill performers tend to start in a sport at a younger age than lower skill performers. We conclude that to understand the underpinnings of expertise, researchers must investigate contributions of a broad range of factors, taking into account findings from diverse subdisciplines of psychology (e.g., cognitive psychology, personality psychology) and interdisciplinary areas of research (e.g., sports science).
The expert-performance approach guided the collection of survey data on the developmental history of elite professional ballet dancers from three different countries/cultures (USA, Mexico, and Russia). The level of ballet expertise attained by age 18 was found to be uniquely predicted by only two factors, namely the total number of accumulated hours of dance practice through age 17 and the age of first having the “idea of becoming a professional dancer.” Older starting ages were associated with a more rapid increase of weekly training, so starting ages were not correlated with amount of practice accumulated at age 17 or attained ballet performance by age 18. Different detailed developmental paths leading to elite ballet performance are described and their theoretical implications discussed.
Recent research in many different domains of expertise has shown that the large differences in performance between experts and novices are frequently reproducible under standardized conditions and can often be captured with representative tasks in the laboratory. Furthermore, these differences in performance are predominantly mediated by complex skills acquired over a decade, as a result of high daily levels of activities which are specially designed'to improve performance (deliberate practice). The effects of extended deliberate practice are remarkably far‐reaching and include physiological adaptations and qualitative changes in performance mediated by acquired cognitive skills. Most importantly, expert performers have acquired mental representations that allow them to plan and reason about potential courses of action and these representations also allow experts to monitor their performance, thus providing critical feedback for continued complex learning. The study of elite performance also reveals how acquired representation and skills provide the necessary tools for the ultimate eminent achievement, namely the generation of creative innovations to the domain. This paper is a revised and updated version of my keynote address at the international conference on Creativity & culture: Talent development in the arts and sciences sponsored by European Council on High Ability, Vienna, Austria, 19-22 October (22 October).
Traditional conceptions of giftedness assume that only talented individuals possess the necessary gifts required to reach the highest levels of performance. This article describes an alternative view that expert performance results from acquired cognitive and physiological adaptations due to extended deliberate practice. A review of evidence, such as historical increases in performance, the requirement of years of daily deliberate practice, and structural changes in the mediating mechanisms, questions the existence of individual differences that impose innate limits on performance attainable with deliberate practice. The proposed framework describes how the processes mediating normal development of ability and everyday skill acquisition differ from the extended acquisition of reproducibly superior (expert) performance and how perceived "giftedness" gives children access to superior training resources, resulting in developmental advantages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Deliberate practice, mental representations, and skilled performance in bowling
- K R Harris
Harris, K. R. (2008). Deliberate practice, mental representations,
and skilled performance in bowling (Doctoral dissertation).
Summing up hours of any type of practice versus identifying optimal practice activities: Comments on Macnamara
- K A Ericsson
Ericsson, K. A. (2016). Summing up hours of any type of practice versus identifying optimal practice activities: Comments
on Macnamara, Moreau, and Hambrick (2015). Perspectives
on Psychological Science, 11, 351-354.