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international forestry
The Forest Sector in Chile: An Overview and
Current Challenges
Christian Salas, Pablo J. Donoso, Rodrigo Vargas,
Cesar A. Arriagada, Rodrigo Pedraza, and Daniel P. Soto
Chile has a strong forest sector based on plantations of exotic species and an extensive area of temperate
rainforests with unique ecological features and a wealth of biodiversity and endemism. We present an overview
of the forest sector of Chile focused on forest resources, silviculture, economy, social and environmental aspects,
and forestry education and research. The Chilean forest sector is internationally known for its success. Although
this is one of the most important economic activities of Chile, management between exotic species plantations
and natural forests is very asymmetric. Currently, highly intensive silviculture is applied to forest plantations of
Pinus radiata (radiata pine) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus nitens) but only limited operational
silviculture is applied to natural forests, even though there is considerable research to support it. There are still
unresolved issues related to: conversion from natural forests to other land uses; pulp mills, and new efforts are
needed from the government and large forestry companies to account for social and environmental demands.
There is a good amount of university-level forestry education; however, there is an oversupply of professional
foresters.
Keywords: temperate rain forests, Nothofagus, forestry plantations, sustainability
Chile has garnered national interest
in recent decades for a variety of po-
litical and economic circumstances,
including relatively fast economic growth
compared with that of the rest of Latin
America. For that reason, it has acquired a
privileged position in the developing world
and has established trade agreements with
the United States and the European Union,
among other large markets and now is in the
Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD). On the other
hand, the relatively recent reestablishment
of democracy in Chile after 17 years of dic-
tatorship has exposed the large social and
economic differences within the Chilean
population (Schatan 2001). The forest sec-
tor, particularly that associated with com-
mercial plantations of exotic species, has
played a key role in the economic growth of
Chile but has also been controversial because
of the contrasting perceptions about the
current model of forestry among entrepre-
neurs, scientists, politicians, environmen-
tal nongovernmental organizations, land-
owners, and the general public.
Previous attempts to characterize the
Chilean forest sector have been incomplete.
Among the first English peer-reviewed pub-
lications on the forest sector of Chile are
those of Recart (1973), Husch (1982), Je´lvez
et al. (1990), and Gwynne (1993). These
mostly focused on forestry plantations and
did not pay much attention to natural forests
and the social aspects of forestry in Chile.
Later, Lara and Veblen (1993) focused on
the levels of substitution of natural forest ar-
eas by forest plantations and presented a
rather pessimistic view of forest plantations
in Chile. Paredes (2005), when referring to
forest certification in Chile, gave a particu-
larly negative view of natural forests for tim-
ber production. Finally, some recent studies
focused on Chile (e.g., Clapp 2001, Wilson
et al. 2005) have only presented brief over-
views of forest conservation. Therefore, we
aim to provide a more comprehensive and,
hopefully, objective and updated forestry
overview of Chile.
Forest Resources of Chile
General Features of Chile
Continental Chile has an area of 75
million hectares (ha) in southwestern South
America and stretches from 17° to 56° S lat-
itude, a length of 4,330 Km from the North
to Cape Horn in the southernmost tip of
Received June 12, 2014; accepted November 25, 2015; published online January 14, 2016.
Affiliations: Christian Salas (christian.salas@ufrontera.cl), Universidad de La Frontera, Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Temuco, Chile. Pablo J. Donoso
(pdonoso@uach.cl), Universidad Austral de Chile. Rodrigo Vargas (rodrigo.vargas@ufrontera.cl), Universidad de La Frontera. Cesar A. Arriagada
(cesar.arriagada@ufrontera.cl), Universidad de La Frontera. Rodrigo Pedraza (rodrigo.pedraza@conaf.cl), Corporacio´n Nacional Forestal. Daniel P. Soto
(daniel.soto@oregonstate.edu), Oregon State University.
Acknowledgments: We thank Kyle Meister and Chadwick Oliver for their helpful comments on an earlier draft. We also thank the editors and reviewers for their detailed
comments that enhanced the quality of the article. This study was supported by the research projects FONDECYT no. 1151495 and CONICYT-PAI no.
821320069.
REVIEW ARTICLE
562 Journal of Forestry • September 2016
J. For. 114(5):562–571
http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/jof.14-062
Copyright © 2016 Society of American Foresters
South America (Figure 1). Chile borders
Peru to the north, Bolivia and Argentina to
the east, Cape Horn to the south, and the
Pacific Ocean to the west. One-third of its
17 million citizens live in Santiago, the cap-
ital and the country’s largest city. From east
to west, Chile is squeezed between the Andes
Mountains range (or the Andean “Cordil-
lera”
1
), the Central Depression, and the
Coastal Cordillera. Chile is sometimes re-
ferred to as a geographical “island,” because
of its peculiar geographical isolation
(Armesto et al. 1995), being located between
the physical barriers of the Atacama desert to
the north, the Antarctic Sea to the south, the
Andes to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to
the west.
Chile is within the Andean biogeo-
graphic region of Latin America (Morrone
2006). The Andean Cordillera decreases in
elevation from north to south, with its peaks
reaching about 7,000 m in northern and
central Chile (17°–34° S), 3,000 m in south-
central Chile (34°–45° S), and between
1,000 and 2,000 m in Patagonia (46°–55°
S). The climate and vegetation of Chile are
greatly determined by the orographic effects
of the Andes (Veblen et al. 1996a). The
Coastal Cordillera is lower in elevation than
the Andes, rarely exceeding 1,000 m
(Donoso 1996). In general, the Coastal Cor-
dillera is geologically older than the Andes.
The Central Depression (or central valley) is
a structural depression between the Coastal
and the Andean Cordilleras that has been
filled to great depths with sediments eroded
from the surrounding mountains (Donoso
1996). Soils in Chile are highly influenced
by volcanic activity, which is a product of a
very active volcanic system along the An-
dean Cordillera. In the foothills of the An-
des, soils are derived from recent volcanic
deposits of andesitic-basaltic origin, com-
posed of very deep ashes and have excellent
physical properties for tree growth. In the
Central Depression, there is a great variety of
geological material from the Andean Cordil-
lera (Toro and Gessel 1999). Volcanic activ-
ity is one of the main natural causes of forest
fires in Chile, the remaining being anthro-
pogenic or, very rarely, ignited by lightning
(Gonza´lez 2005).
Chile is divided into three major cli-
matic regions: the north region, which con-
tains the Atacama Desert, one of the driest
regions in the world, is characterized by a
hot and arid climate in the lowlands and oc-
casional summer rain in the Andean high-
lands; the central region, extending about
900 m from 30° to 38° S, has a Mediterra-
nean climate, with mild, wet winters averag-
ing 11 °C, and long, dry summers averaging
18° C; and the south region, from 38° to 55°
S, a region of mountains and fjords, with
strong winds and the Valdivian temperate
forests, the North Patagonian rain forests,
and the Magellanic temperate forests
(Donoso and Donoso 2007, Veblen 2007).
Annual rainfall is always affected by variable
elevation in the west-east axis that contains
the two Cordilleras (the Coastal and the An-
dean), but on average it ranges from less than
508 mm in the north (with some places lack-
ing rainfall records during the last few cen-
turies), to 305–990 mm in the central re-
Management and Policy Implications
This work provides insights about the Chilean forestry sector and guidance for understanding the
ecological, economic, social, and silvicultural complexity of its current framework. This review indicates that
most of the challenges affecting large forestry companies come from social and environmental concerns.
Improving the management of planted and natural stands, plus the relationship between large companies
and indigenous communities, should be the focus of policymakers. In Chile, current socioenvironmental
conflicts associated with large monoculture plantations and large clearcuts and the increasing high grading
of natural forests have called for a new approach in the forestry sector. This new approach should consider
the following: changes in silviculture and landscape management of forest plantations, including recovery
of native forest patches in regions with large and continuous areas of monocultures of exotic species;
adequate subsidies for promoting the conservation and management of natural forests, therefore reversing
the high grading process that is now occurring in these forests; and forestry education and research that
must serve these purposes to train professionals prepared for the challenges of a discipline with major
environmental, social, and economic implications on people and local communities. Chile, with its high
diversity and endemism, plus the opportunities for growing highly productive forests either from
plantations or native forests, could become a model for forest ecosystem management.
Figure 1. Chile in the world (A) and main cities and neighboring countries (B).
Journal of Forestry • September 2016 563
gion, and up to 990–5,000 mm in the
South. South of 40° S, rain occurs year-
round (di Castri and Hajek 1976).
Forestry Plantations
Chile is one of the top 10 countries
in the world in terms of land dedicated to
forestry plantations and the fifth in the
Americas (Cubbage et al. 2007), with 2.9
million ha (Corporacio´n Nacional Forestal
[CONAF] 2014). The principal species
used in forest plantations are Pinus radiata
(radiata or Monterrey pine), comprising
62% of the total of plantations, followed by
Eucalyptus species (mainly Eucalyptus globu-
lus and Eucalyptus nitens), representing 31%
(Instituto Forestal [INFOR] 2012). Most
plantations have been established from 37°
to 41° S in the southcentral region (Figure
2A), with 71% of the radiata pine planta-
tions located in the Coastal Range, 19% in
the foothills of the Andes, and 10% in the
Central Depression (Toro and Gessel 1999).
There are also approximately 16,000 ha of
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) planta-
tions (INFOR 2012), which have longer ro-
tations than radiata pine, but better growth
rates than in its natural range in North
America, just like radiata pine. In addition,
there are some Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa
pine) plantations in the South (in the North
Patagonia) of Chile, where these plantations
were established to rapidly recover large ar-
eas affected by extensive forest fires in the
past century (Morales 1996). There are
6,500 ha of native species plantations, with
Nothofagus (a native genus in Chile) species
the most common.
2
Plantations of the main
Nothofagus species (Nothofagus obliqua:
“roble,” Nothofagus alpina
3
: “raulı´”; and
Nothofagus dombeyi: “coigu¨e”) have cap-
tured research interest during the last 40
years. They have also generated much inter-
est in the United Kingdom, where growth
rates surpass those of most other native broa-
dleaves and approach those of the fastest
growing conifers (Pearce 1977). Less exten-
sive trial plantings with Nothofagus have
been done in France (Salas and García 2006)
and in Germany (Martin 1978). Currently
in Chile, efforts to assess the growth poten-
tial of planted Nothofagus in terms of growth
and timber quality indicate that these species
can achieve excellent volumetric growth
similar to that of radiata pine when intensive
silviculture is applied early on appropriate
sites (Donoso et al. 2009, Soto et al. 2009).
Natural Forests
Chile’s temperate forests (Armesto et al.
1995, Donoso 1995, Veblen et al. 1996a,
Donoso and Donoso 2007) are of high eco-
logical importance and currently under
threat, mainly because of illegal logging and
land use change (Lara et al. 1997, Altami-
rano et al. 2013). These temperate rainfor-
ests represent the second largest remaining
area of this type in the world (Donoso 1995,
Wilcox 1996) and are internationally recog-
nized for their ecological importance (Olson
and Dinerstein 1998, Stattersfield et al.
1998). Chile’s peculiar geographical isola-
tion, located between the physical barriers
described earlier, results in a high rate of
plant and animal endemism (Armesto et al.
1995). As indicated by Wilson et al. (2005),
despite their ecological importance, Chilean
temperate forests have experienced a long
history of destruction and are currently
threatened by land-use changes and mis-
management. Furthermore, the strong bio-
geographic isolation of the southern temper-
ate forest heavily restricts the possibilities of
recolonization after habitat destruction or
sudden climate change (Armesto et al.
1998).
Chilean temperate forests have experi-
enced a long history of anthropogenic dis-
turbance. The influence of the indigenous
Mapuche through timber cutting and clear-
ing fires before European colonization, prior
to the 19th century, was not that important
considering the small population (approxi-
mately 1 million) and the great forest cover
in southcentral Chile (Otero 2006). During
the colonization of Chile, Spaniards cleared
vast areas of forests for agriculture and pas-
ture, mainly those located in the Central De-
pression of Chile (Donoso 1983, Lara and
Veblen 1993, Donoso and Otero 2005).
This clearing, with the use of fire, continued
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of forestry plantations (A) and the three most abundant natural forest types (B) of Chile. The scale is given
in km (200 km !124 miles; 400 km !249 miles).
564 Journal of Forestry • September 2016
into the first half of the 1900s by other Eu-
ropean colonists, such as those from Ger-
many, Switzerland, and Italy (Donoso and
Lara 1999a). Many human-induced forest
fires destroyed immense areas covered with
natural forests, including more than 3
million ha in the austral region of Ayse´n
(Otero 2006). With the promulgation of
the Decree Law 701 (D.L. 701), of 1974,
which subsidized plantations, between
160,000 and 200,000 ha of native forest
were replaced by plantations of exotic spe-
cies during the 1970s and 1980s (Lara and
Veblen 1993). Since 1994, plantations
have replaced an additional 40,000 hect-
ares (Forest Stewardship Council [FSC];
FSC-Chile
4
).
Even though several classifications
of the Chilean natural forests exist (e.g.,
Schmithu¨sen 1956, Oberdorfer 1960, Ve-
blen and Schlegel 1982, Gajardo 1994), the
one provided by Donoso (1981) is the most
accepted by Chilean foresters, probably be-
cause it uses the dominant tree species and
forest structure to differentiate among forest
types. This classification also has been used
for defining forest types in the current
Chilean forestry legislation. Donoso (1981)
classified the natural forest of Chile into 12
forest types (Figure 2B), from the sclero-
phyllous forest type with fairly scattered
trees in central Chile to the simple Nothofa-
gus forest types in the Tierra del Fuego re-
gion. The genus Nothofagus, which accord-
ing to Hill and Dettmann (1996) is
generally considered one of the key genera in
understanding how southern biota have
evolved and migrated, is represented in all
but two Chilean forest types (Donoso
1995). Eight forest types are dominated by
broadleaved trees, in six cases by Nothofagus
species. Three forest types are named for
their dominant conifer species: Fitzroya cu-
pressoides (“alerce,” the second-longest lived
tree species of the world) (Lara and Villalba
1993), Araucaria araucana (“araucaria,”
a tree species associated with the indigen-
ous people called “Mapuche-Pehuenche”)
(Gonza´lez et al. 2006), and Pilgerodendron
uviferum (“Cipre´s de las Guaitecas”) (Lara et
al. 2006). The other forest type is dominated
by the Chilean palm Jubaea chilensis.
There are some natural forest types that
are especially suitable for forest manage-
ment. These are the roble-raulí-coigu¨e forest
type of the Central Depression and low ele-
vations in southcentral Chile (2 million ha),
the coigu¨e-raulí-tepa (Laureliopsis philippi-
ana: “tepa”) forest type of the midelevations
in the Andes of southcentral Chile (0.8 mil-
lion ha), the evergreen forest type of south-
central Chile (4.3 million ha), and the lenga
(Nothofagus pumilio) forest type in southern
Chile (3.3 million ha). The roble-raulí-
coigu¨e forest type is the most important for
timber production because of the high wood
quality of these three Nothofagus species and
its location on the most productive sites in
the Central Depression and foothills of the
Andes (Figure 2B). Because of their proxim-
ity to human populations and the gentle ter-
rain that they usually cover, these forests are
very accessible. Currently, the roble-raulí-
coigu¨e type is represented mostly in exten-
sive areas of secondary-growth forests that
originated after forest fires (both anthropo-
genic and natural from volcanic eruptions),
clear cutting, and landslides. The old-
growth forests of this type were largely
cleared for agriculture (Veblen et al. 1996a),
and only few remnants persist (Donoso
1995). The coigu¨e-raulí-tepa type is mainly
restricted to the Andes between 38° and 41°
S within 500 –1,000 m of elevation (Donoso
et al. 1986). The lenga forest type is espe-
cially important in Patagonia (from Coy-
haique to Tierra del Fuego). The ever-
green forest type covers the largest area,
ranging from 37° to 45° S, especially
above 500 m in both Cordilleras in their
northern reaches, and from sea level in
their southern extent.
Silviculture
Highly intensive silvicultural practices
are applied to forest plantations, using
chemicals and large-scale and mechanized
harvesting. Radiata pine in Chile is managed
as monoculture plantations, and manage-
ment practices vary considerably according
to factors such as final product, site, and
ownership (Je´lvez et al. 1990). Volume
growth rates of radiata pine vary between 18
and 35 m
3
/ha/yr (Toro and Gessel 1999)
with an average of 25 m
3
/ha/yr. According
to Gerding (1991), Meneses and Guzma´n
(2000), and Cubbage et al. (2007) and our
current knowledge, two silvicultural regimes
(pulp-oriented and clearwood-oriented) are
typically applied to radiata pine plantations
owned by forestry companies. For pulp-
wood, the stands are established with
1,600–2,500 trees/ha, thinned once, and
cut when they are between 18 and 25 years
old, yielding 350–800 m
3
/ha with about
800–1,000 trees/ha. For clearwood, stands
are planted with 1,200–1,300 trees/ha,
pruned two or three times to maintain a
clear bole up to 4–6 m, generally thinned
twice, and finally cut between ages 20 and
24, yielding 450–600 m
3
/ha from 450
trees/ha. In both regimes, plantation estab-
lishment is highly intensive, and the final cut
is only through clearcutting. However, there
are almost no limitations to the size or slopes
where clearcuts are done, which produces
large clearcut areas in the landscape of up to
499 ha (Figure 3A).
Large-scale forest operations increase
hydrologic and morphological risks (Mohr
et al. 2011). Inadequate planning and exe-
cution of clearcuts have resulted in negative
impacts on biodiversity, water and soil pro-
cesses, and aesthetic values, which has in-
creased opposition to these practices even
where silviculturally warranted (McGinley
et al. 2013). On the contrary to radiata pine
plantations owned by forest companies,
plantations owned by small landowners are
mostly unmanaged (Gerding 1991) and
therefore best suited to produce pulp logs.
Eucalyptus species are largely used for pulp,
and therefore they are neither thinned nor
pruned. They are usually harvested around
14–15 years, with growth rates of 30–40
and 40–50 m
3
/ha/yr for E. globulus and E.
nitens, respectively (Geldres and Schlatter
2004, Mun˜oz et al. 2005).
Management of natural forests in Chile
is allowed by law but is less prevalent than
forest plantation management. Although a
good amount of silvicultural research has
been conducted in second-growth stands of
roble-raulí-coigu¨e (e.g., Puente et al. 1979,
1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and Quiroz
1999), lenga (e.g., Schmidt and Caldentey
2001, Rosenfeld et al. 2006), and evergreen
forests (e.g., Donoso 1989a, 1989b, Donoso
et al. 1999a, Navarro et al. 1999), only small
areas have undergone silvicultural treat-
ments, especially thinning of second-growth
forests and selection cuttings (Figure 3D
and F). This might be due to the fact that
natural stands have been largely subjected to
illegal cuttings of the best trees and therefore
require further economic investment to be-
come potentially productive units through
thinnings, supplementary planting, and
other restoration activities. This economic
investment could be done mostly by forestry
companies but is much more difficult for
small landowners, given that there is a lack
of suitable policy initiatives to support this
long-term investment and the market for
natural forest products is not as well devel-
oped as it is for plantations. Some simulated
scenarios provide positive net present values
Journal of Forestry • September 2016 565
for long-term management of these forests
(Cubbage et al. 2007, Nahuelhual et al.
2007). The Chilean government, during
2008, approved a forestry law that would
give some economic support to landowners
willing to manage their natural stands under
a sustainable framework, but its application
has been negligible because of the small
amount of the subsidies.
Natural stands of roble-raulí-coigu¨e are
silviculturally important because of their
high timber value and good growth rates.
The greatest amount of silvicultural re-
search plots (Lara et al. 2000) and pub-
lished studies are concentrated in this type
of forest. These species are mainly distrib-
uted in second-growth even-aged stands
that are easy to manage because of their
relatively homogeneous structure. The mean
annual volume increment for unmanaged
roble-raulí-coigu¨e second-growth stands is be-
tween 5 and 15 m
3
/ha/yr (Donoso et al.
1993b, 1999b, Grosse and Quiroz 1999), but
can be as much as 22 m
3
/ha/yr under appro-
priate management (Donoso et al. 1993b).
Studies dealing with this forest type have been
focused on forest dynamics (Puente et al.
1979, 1981) and silvicultural research trials
(Puente et al. 1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and
Quiroz 1999). Overall, roble-raulí-coigu¨e
stands have both the potential to be managed
based on current knowledge and economic in-
terest.
Roble, raulí, and coigu¨e are promising
species for use in forest plantations. These
Nothofagus species are easy to propagate in
the nursery (Donoso et al. 1999b), establish
well (Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al.
2009) and are among the most valuable tree
species of the Chilean natural forests
(Siebert 1999, Díaz-Vaz et al. 2002). How-
ever, few studies have been done in roble-
raulí-coigu¨e plantations (Donoso et al.
1999b, Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al.
2013). In the last 30 years, some research
Figure 3. View of a typical clearcut in the landscape (A) and a high graded native forest in the Andes of southcentral Chile (B), a managed
plantation of radiata pine (C), a stand of evergreen forest type under uneven-aged management (D), a plantation of well-managed
Eucalyptus nitens in the Chilean Coastal Range, stream buffers with protection of native vegetation (E), and invasive species management
for restoration to conserve the endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island (F). Photographs were taken by Pablo Donoso (A and D), Daniel
Soto (B, C, and E), and Rodrigo Vargas (F).
566 Journal of Forestry • September 2016
trials with plantations of these species have
been established and during the last 10–15
years commercial plantations have been es-
tablished as well. According to Cubbage
et al. (2007), Nothofagus plantations could
be harvested in rotations of 30–35 years
with internal rates of return of 11–13%,
compared to 16% in radiata pine planta-
tions. A mixture of exotic and native species
plantations also has been promoted and
shows good empirical growth rates (e.g.,
Douglas-fir and Nothofagus) (Siebert 1999).
Furthermore, in a financial assessment study
conducted by Hildebrandt et al. (2010), a
higher proportion of raulí in a mixed plan-
tation with Douglas-fir was shown to be es-
pecially profitable under higher degrees of
risk aversion scenarios.
The Forest Sector and Chilean
Society
There are two public institutions re-
lated to the forest sector in Chile, the forest
service (CONAF) and the institute of forest
research (INFOR) both under the Ministry
of Agriculture. In addition to enforcing for-
estry laws and promoting the development
of the forest sector, CONAF supports the
conservation of natural protected areas and
the sustainable use of forest ecosystems.
CONAF promotes the establishment of for-
estry plantations and the management of
natural forests as a way to contribute to the
economic, environmental, and social devel-
opment of Chile. INFOR generates scien-
tific and technological knowledge for the
sustainable use of forest resources, including
the statistical information for different as-
pects of the forestry sector.
Forest products provide Chile’s second
largest export income after minerals, with
US$5.9 billion in 2011, 7.3% of total ex-
ports, contributing 2.7% of the total GDP
and providing about 300,000 jobs (INFOR
2012). The forest sector is the third most
important economic activity in the country
and is based largely on forest plantations of
radiata pine and Eucalyptus (Je´lvez et al.
1990). Two major Chilean companies,
CMPC (Compania Manufacturera de Pape-
les y Cartones) and CELCO (Celulosa
Arauco y Constitucion), along with a few
other large companies, own 70% of the
plantations in Chile (INFOR 2005), con-
centrating the economic benefits in the
hands of a few (Collins and Lear 1995). Nat-
ural forests, which cover 14.1 million ha
(CONAF 2014), of which 21.6% are in-
cluded in Chile’s national system of pro-
tected areas (SNASPE), are mostly owned by
small- and medium-sized landowners. It is
estimated that these natural forests have
been mostly subjected to high grading (i.e.,
cut the best and leave the worst) and that
only between 5 and 25% have been man-
aged (Lara et al. 1997). Chile’s forest sector
is asymmetric (Donoso and Otero 2005) in
the sense that plantations are intensively
managed for pulp and other wood products
for export, with little value added (Gwynne
1993), whereas natural forests are misman-
aged and high graded, mainly yielding fire-
wood (Freˆne and Nu´n˜ez 2010).
The successes of the Chilean forestry
sector have not benefited most of the popu-
lation. Although the plantation subsector
contributes the most forest-based exports, it
has not increased the quality of life where
most of these plantations have been estab-
lished (Donoso and Otero 2005). Indeed,
the regions with more forest plantation
cover are the ones with the lowest human
development index values of the country
(Donoso and Otero 2005). Further details
regarding the conflicts of the Chilean forest
sector can be found in Reyes and Nelson
(2014). As pointed out by Ward (2007),
Chile’s competitive advantages (e.g., natural
resources and low-cost labor) come with
their own baggage, which must be consid-
ered when forestry competitiveness among
countries is compared (Sedjo et al. 1999).
For example, the relationship between
large forestry companies and the Mapuche
(i.e., the indigenous people in southcentral
Chile) has always been tense, with ongoing
disputes about land rights and documented
incidents of violence and protests (Montalba
and Carrasco 2005, Ward 2007, Freˆne and
Nu´n˜ez 2010). Mapuche confrontations
with corporate interests have grown more
violent, and according to Aylwin (2009 and
references therein), negligence from the gov-
ernment to resolve many of the Mapuche’s
historical demands have triggered these con-
frontations.
Indigenous people represent about
4.6% of the Chilean population (Instituto
Nacional de Estadísticas 2003), and the gov-
ernment created an indigenous subsecretary
(CONADI) in 1993 to support indigenous
people’s rights. However, several conflicts
remain.
Reducing the negative environmental
impacts of large-scale operations remains a
challenge for forestry companies. Despite
the fact that many people have portrayed
forestry companies as having a poor environ-
mental record, generally these forest compa-
nies have followed Chilean environmental
laws. Nevertheless, the Chilean laws are too
flexible in relation to a major and controver-
sial forest activity: clearcutting (Donoso
2009). Although the size of individual
clearcut units has decreased, especially
among FSC-certified companies, clearcuts
are much larger than those applied in North
America and elsewhere, reaching a maxi-
mum allowed of approximately 500 ha
(Ward 2007). The impacts of large-scale
clearcuts in Chile have been addressed in
Donoso (2009) and Huber et al. (2010).
Another controversial issue has been
the conversion of native forests to forest
plantations (i.e., substitution). Even though
native forest replacement was more com-
mon in the past (Lara et al. 1997), it contin-
ues in the present (Miranda et al. 2015,
Zamorano-Elgueta et al. 2015). For in-
stance, according to the monitoring pro-
gram led by CONAF in the region between
40° and 41° S, the average annual loss of
natural forest has been about 2,000 ha.
In the last 10–15 years, Chilean for-
estry companies have become more con-
cerned about environmental issues in their
forest management operations. The total
area of FSC-certified plantations in 2004
was 306,949 ha (Paredes 2005), mainly as-
sociated with either small plantation-based
or natural forest-based companies. Today,
this number is about 1.5 million ha (FSC-
Chile
4
) after the incorporation of large com-
panies into this system in recent years. Of
the forestry plantations in Chile, 52% are
now FSC-certified. However, two main
concerns remain: plantations continue to
be managed with traditional harvesting
schemes (e.g., large clearcuts on steep slopes
and intensive widespread use of chemicals to
control competing vegetation), whereas en-
vironmental standards are mostly imple-
mented in the matrix surrounding industrial
plantations (e.g., creation of conservation
areas) but not within plantations; and an in-
creasingly empowered society is demanding
environmental standards that are well be-
yond FSC standards to ensure water supply
from planted watersheds near local commu-
nities, landscape quality (i.e., aesthetic and
connectivity), and good maintenance of
public roads.
Forest product facilities (mainly pulp
mills) have experienced a number of envi-
ronmental problems. For example, a recent
ecological disaster that involved the deaths
Journal of Forestry • September 2016 567
of multiple black-necked swans (Cygnus
melancoryphus) in a sanctuary in southern
Chile was linked to effluent from a local
pulp mill. One of the two largest forestry
companies, CELCO, built a US$1 billion
bleached kraft-type paper pulp mill on the
Rio Cruces near the city of Valdivia in
southern Chile. Since this mill began full
operations in February 2004, it has received
multiple complaints from the public con-
cerning noise, noxious odors, and water pol-
lution (Marcotte 2006). An 30 km portion
of the Rio Cruces north of Valdivia corre-
sponds to a large wetland, now a Nature
Sanctuary, derived from massive flooding af-
ter a major earthquake in 1960 (Lagos et al.
2008). In January 2004, there were more
than 6,000 black-necked swans in the Sanc-
tuary, however, during April to May 2004,
dozens of these swans were found dead
(Mulsow and Grandjean 2006). Studies
have reported that the pulp mill effluent
produced the decline of a subaquatic plant
that is the main source of food of black-
necked swans living in that Sanctuary, prob-
ably contributing to the death of these birds
(Mulsow and Grandjean 2006, Lagos et al.
2008). The justice system found CELCO
responsible for the pollution of the Sanctu-
ary. Overall, the public (especially the in-
habitants of Valdivia) has developed a nega-
tive perception of the CELCO pulp mill
(Marcotte 2006).
Forestry Education and
Research
Forestry education has a long tradition
in Chile. Formal training in forestry in Chile
came with the founding of two forestry
schools in the mid-1950s: the Universidad
de Chile and the Universidad Austral de
Chile. During the “boom” of the forest sec-
tor, from the 1980s to the mid-1990s, sev-
eral new forestry schools were opened in the
country, producing an oversupply of forest-
ers. There is a highly unbalanced proportion
between the amount of forestry schools and
both forested area and population size in
Chile. Although in developed countries,
there is one forestry school per 4 –10 million
inhabitants, at the end of 2004 in Chile
there was one forestry school per 1.5 million
inhabitants (Donoso and Otero 2005). Sim-
ilarly, in Chile, there is one forestry school
per 1.5 million ha, but this number is be-
tween 7 and 13 million ha in developed
countries. In the last decade, foresters have
difficulty in finding jobs, and several of the
newer forestry schools have stopped offering
forestry degrees (forest engineering) because
of a decline in enrollment, as also pointed
out by Nyland (2008) for the United States.
We estimate that in the future only between
two and four forestry schools will offer the
traditional forestry curriculum, whereas ca-
reers in natural resources and environmental
sciences continue to emerge. Nevertheless,
there is high uncertainty regarding the job
market for new careers in this area, because
Chile’s job market is mostly dominated by
traditional professions. For instance, civil
engineers are still largely preferred by com-
panies and government organizations for
many of their environmental duties.
There are three doctoral programs in
forestry (i.e., Universidad Austral de Chile,
Universidad de Chile, and Universidad de
Concepción). In general, doctoral degrees
held by Chilean forestry professors have
been mostly obtained from German univer-
sities (e.g., University of Gottingen, Univer-
sity of Freiburg, and University of Munich)
and Spain (e.g., Universidad Polite´cnica de
Madrid, Universidad de Co´rdoba, and Uni-
versidad de Oviedo). However, in the past
15 years the proportion of professors being
trained in universities from the United
States (mainly Colorado State University,
Oregon State University, and North Caro-
lina State University) has been increasing. In
the future, we expect an increasing number
of doctoral programs in areas related to for-
est science (e.g., environmental sciences,
ecology, and natural resources) rather than
pure forestry programs. Regardless, there is
still uncertainty about where the future doc-
toral graduates would work, given that new
forestry schools and/or departments are not
being created, INFOR has funding prob-
lems, and forestry companies do not usually
hire individuals with doctoral degrees. We
believe that master-level programs are much
needed, because their graduates can work di-
rectly in different fields and are more related
to the private sector. Masters programs can
also be focused on different subdisciplines
that can be applied to forestry problems,
such as cartography, energy, economy, envi-
ronmental education, and others.
There is no guaranteed funding for
INFOR, the government-dependent insti-
tution for forest research. CONAF, the na-
tional forest service, is mainly in charge of
applying forestry laws and managing
SNASPE, but not for conducting research as
the US Department of Agriculture Forest
Service does. INFOR focuses its research al-
most exclusively on short-term projects, and
its production of peer-reviewed publications
is poor in comparison with those for tradi-
tional forestry schools (Acun˜a et al. 2013).
Technological funding has been mostly
granted to silviculture and industry technol-
ogy-oriented topics, with only a small part
focused on natural forests. However, there
was an increase in projects granted to forest
management of natural forests in the period
from 2000 to 2004 (Díaz 2006). On the
other hand, ecological restoration in de-
graded forests and recovery of areas replaced
by fast-growing plantations in the past are
important targets/challenges for researchers,
companies, public service agencies, and
landowners. Some experiences in ecological
restoration are ongoing, but few of them
have been published; some examples are the
work in Pilgerodendron uviferum forests by
Bannister et al. (2013), in the endangered
endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island
by Vargas et al. (2013), and in the coigu¨e-
raulí-tepa forest type in the Andes (Donoso
et al. 2013).
Researchers at INFOR usually apply for
the same type of grants available for all for-
estry research projects in Chile, therefore,
competing with research centers such as uni-
versities. Although INFOR has been obtain-
ing a larger proportion of grants for techno-
logical projects in the last decade (Díaz
2006), their researchers lack independent
funding for their own projects, e.g., nonpro-
duction-oriented research, such as ecology
and wildlife. Furthermore, INFOR does not
have experimental forests where they could
carry out long-term research (Donoso and
Otero 2005).
Research on forest plantations has cov-
ered many topics in forestry or at least the
most important for forest production, such
as nursery establishment (e.g., Gerding et al.
1986, Rubilar et al. 2008), genetic improve-
ment, integrated pest management (e.g.,
Lanfranco et al. 1994), thinning and prun-
ing treatments, harvesting, forest planning
(e.g., Weintraub and Abramovich 1995,
Meneses and Guzma´n 2000), growth simu-
lators, and carbon markets (e.g., Espinosa et
al. 2005), among others. On the other hand,
research in natural forests has been largely
focused on ecological aspects, such as forest
dynamics (e.g., Donoso 1995, Veblen et al.
1996b), silvics (Donoso 2006), genetics
(Donoso et al. 2004), and silviculture
(Donoso and Lara 1999b, Donoso and Pro-
mis 2013). However, more extensive quan-
titative-oriented studies, particularly for nat-
568 Journal of Forestry • September 2016
ural forest stands, remain to be conducted
(Salas and Real 2013).
Concluding Remarks and Future
Challenges
Forestry in Chile has evolved with
highly different rates of development for
plantations of exotic species and for native
forests. Political efforts should focus on de-
veloping sustainable forest management for
plantations and natural forests with public
funding for research in natural forests and
private funding for forestry plantations. The
declining enrollment in forestry schools is
mainly a result of an oversupply of profes-
sional foresters, which results in unemploy-
ment and low salaries. The main challenges
to the Chilean forest sector can be summa-
rized as follows: (a) to improve the relation-
ship between large forestry companies and
indigenous and local communities; (b) to
promote the silvicultural management of
natural forests; (c) to enhance the potential
of natural forest for climate change adapta-
tion and ecosystem services (e.g., carbon se-
questration, provision of quality water, tour-
ism, and nontimber forest products); (d) to
develop a high-value wood market for native
species; (e) to reduce the allowable size and
maximum slope for clear-cutting; and (f) to
improve or create laws and regulations to
address these challenges. We believe that ad-
vancing and promoting these issues will con-
tribute to sustainable forest management of
Chilean forests and plantations.
Endnotes
1. We use the Spanish word “Cordillera” when
referring to either the Andes Mountains range
or the Coastal Mountains range.
2. The area of native species plantations only
covers the period between 1998 and 2013.
This area was computed based on data avail-
able at sit.conaf.cl/, the CONAF system of
land use information.
3. Two other scientific names, Nothofagus pro-
cera and Nothofagus nervosa, are also some-
times used; however, we prefer to use Nothofa-
gus alpina, following the clarification given by
Grant and Clement (2004).
4. Information available from FSC-Chile web-
site cl.fsc.org.
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