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ENCEPHALARTOS
ENCEPHALARTOS
Tydskrif van die Broodboom Vereniging van Suid-Afrika
Journal of the Cycad Society of South Africa
No. 119 March 2015 ISSN 1012-9987
18 Encephalartos March 2015 No. 119
ABSTRACT
Gymnosperms are an ancient group of naked seeded
plants. Cycas is a basal genus of Cycadophytes which
is represented by 9 species and one variety in India.
Cycas pectinata Ham. is the only species reported from
Northeast India and listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN
Red List. Geographically the species extends up to
Southeast Asia. The wild populations of Cycas pecti-
nata in Northeast India are disjunct, highly scattered
and have diminished to the extent of rarity primarily due
to deforestation, jhum cultivation, excessive harvesting
of leaves for food, medicine and secondly, due to its
wide use in religious and ceremonial rituals. The paper
documents the traditional uses of Cycas pectinata Ham
in the North-Eastern states of Assam, Manipur, Megha-
laya, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal.
Keywords: Cycas pectinata, traditional uses, threats,
Northeast India.
INTRODUCTION
Cycas pectinata was described by Buchanan-Ham-
ilton in 1826 in the hills towards the eastern side of
Bengal, which actually refers to the present eight states
of India, namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura.
The species further extends to southern China, Myan-
mar, Thailand and Vietnam (Pant, 2002; Jones 2002;
Whitelock, 2002, Osborne et al. 2007).
Cycas pectinata Ham. belongs to the infrageneric
Indosinensis Section of the genus Cycas. They are tall,
evergreen, palm-like trees. The trunk bears an apical
crown of long dark green leaves that are 1 to 2m long
with a few spines in the petiolar region. Leaflets are nar-
row, linear, flat, tapering into a minute spine and the
margin very slightly recurved. Male plants bear very
large, cylindrical ovoid male cones with numerous micro-
sporophylls with long apical spines. Female plants bear
compact closed cones with numerous broadly subulate
pectinate megasporophylls which bear 4 to 6 ovules.
Margins of the megasporophyll blade are deeply subu-
late pectinate and spiny, with the blade terminating in a
strong subulate acumen. Seeds are ovoid, glabrous and
orange to red-yellow colour in its mature state. Cycas
pectinata grows in warm open forest usually at eleva-
tion 600-1200m. Cycad population in Kamrup (Assam)
grows at elevation 60-250m.
ARTICLES
ETHNOBOTANY OF
CYCAS PECTINATA
HAM. IN
NORTHEAST INDIA
J.S. Khuraijam1 & R. Singh2
1Botanic Garden, CSIR-National Botanical Research Insti-
tute, Lucknow – 226001, India
Email: jskhuraijam@yahoo.com
2University School of Environment Management, GGS Indr-
aprastha University,
Dwarka 16C, New Delhi – 110 078, India
Email: rsinghipu@yahoo.co.in
Figure 1. A tall tree of Cycas pectinata Ham. on the bank of Brahmaputra River with IIT, Guwahati in the background, in North Guwahati,
Assam.
No. 119 March 2015 Encephalartos 19
ARTIKELS
A perusal of literature reveals that Cycas pectinata
occurs in Kamrup of Assam, Rangeet and Teesta Val-
ley in Sikkim, Darjeeling in West Bengal, Lushai hills
(now Mizoram) and Manipur (Hamilton, 1826, Griffith,
1854a,b, Hooker, 1854, Deb, 1958; Kanjilal et al.,
1940; Deb, 1981; Sahni, 1990; Srivastava, 1993; Pant
et al., 1994). Of all the species of Cycas reported from
India, Cycas pectinata is the least studied species. It
could be due to difficult terrain and inhospitable geo-
graphical range of its habitat, compounded by the politi-
cal disturbances in the region for the past few decades.
Most of the areas where from species was reported ear-
lier are now transformed for the construction of roads,
dams, clearing of the forests for agriculture or for the
plantation of the cash crops or extension cities and thus
urbanisation. Consequently, the populations which ap-
peared to be continuous once are now fractured severely
and dwindled to the extent of extinction in the region. A
few remnant trees of those very old populations man-
aged to survive the wrath of development and these are
still standing tall in the hillocks of the Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Campus of Guwahati and surrounding
areas which are part of Kamrup and the region of Ham-
ilton’s discovery of the species.
Due to widespread distribution of the species in the
past, most of the ethnic communities of the region have
learned to utilise all the parts of this beautiful tree spe-
cies in their numerous socio-cultural rituals, festivals,
food and medicines (Kanjilal and Bor, 1940,; Thieret,
1958; Thieret, 1958; Whiting, 1963; Patiri and Bo-
rah, 2007; Kar and Borthakur, 2008; Singh and Singh,
2010). For example, earlier workers have reported the
use of the pounded stem of Cycas pectinata as hair-
wash to cure diseased hair roots by Assamese (Kanjilal
and Bor, 1940; Thieret, 1958, Whiting, 1963). Ferti-
lised ovules or immature seeds are eaten as food and
are also used as medicine for gastric trouble (Patiri and
Borah, 2007). Soft, young and not yet unfolded, succu-
lent leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable (Thieret,
1958; Kar and Borthakur, 2008). In southern Assam
and northern Tripura, microsporophylls are used to cure
asthma while megasporophylls are used for treating
piles (Das and Dutta, 2007). While extensively survey-
ing these states in Northeast India for the assessment of
the remaining populations of Cycas pectinata and to un-
derstand its taxonomic status for over last five years, we
have also collected and documented data on the uses of
this species which are still prevalent among the inhabit-
ants in the vicinity of the populations and so identified
the main threats. The paper incorporates these findings
and literature surveyed (mentioned above) as direct evi-
dence of how little work has been carried out in the past
on Cycas pectinata in the North Eastern states of India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study was carried out in the state of Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal
from 2007 to 2014. Natural populations of Cycas pec-
tinata in Kamrup, Naogaon and Bongaigaon districts in
Assam; Senapati, Chandel, Thoubal and Imphal East
districts in Manipur; South Sikkim and West Sikkim dis-
tricts in Sikkim, Darjeeling in West Bengal were selected
for conducting field data collection. Like all other plants,
Cycas pectinata is also known by different vernacular
names in different parts of these states (Table 1). Us-
ing these vernacular names, market places of Guwahati,
North Guwahati, Boko in Kamrup District, Naogaon,
Doboka, Longka in Naogaon District, Goalapara Town
in Goalpara District, Tezpur and reserve forest areas of
Nameri National Park in Sonitpur District and Diphu
in Karbi Anglong District of Assam, Shillong, Tura and
Nongpogh in Meghalaya, Imphal, Nambol, Bishenpur,
Kakching and Lamphel in Manipur and North Tripura in
Tripura were visited, which are far away from the site of
data and plant sample collection. Survey of cultivated
Cycas was also conducted in Guwahati University, Raip-
Table 1. Vernacular names of Cycas pectinata used by different ethnic people of Northeast India.
Sl.no Vernacular names Ethnic people/tribe State
1 Nagshampa, Nagphal, Nagphana Assamese Assam
2 Telchupi Rabha Assam
3 Or-oh Karbi Assam
4 Akphal, Nagmoni Bengali Assam, Tripura
5 Thaljimura, Thakal Nepali Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal
6 Dieng-sia-goda Khasi Meghalaya
7 Yendang Meitei, Kuki, Naga Manipur
8 Thakal Nepali Sikkim, West Bengal
Figure 2. Map of Northeast India showing study sites.
20 Encephalartos March 2015 No. 119
ara and Rangia in Kamrup District, Darrangiri in Goal-
para District, Diphu Govt. College and Recreation and
Biodiversity Park in Karbi Anglong District of Assam and
DM College and Khonghampat Orchidarium in Imphal
West District of Manipur.
Data Collection
A thorough review of literature was conducted. Her-
baria at Central National Herbarium (CNH) at Kolkata
and Eastern Circle of Botanical Survey of India at Shil-
long were consulted to locate the cycad populations
in the Northeastern states. Ethnobotanical data were
collected by interviewing the indigenous people of the
region. Digital photography and recording was done to
describe and document the data collection. Information
on the medicinal uses of cycad was collected from the
reluctant local healers or Maiba (in Manipur) or Vaidyas
(in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura).
RESULTS
Uses of Cycas as food
In all the north-eastern states except for Tripura,
the soft uncoiled circinate photosynthetic leaves are
still commonly used as green vegetables and for mak-
ing special dips and chutneys. Large numbers of soft
and fleshy young circinate leaves in Cycas emerge in
flushes in mature trees during vegetative growth. These
are collected either from their indigenous habitats and
sold in the markets or from the plants usually cultivated
in the courtyards of the houses. In Manipur, different
ethnic communities (Meitei, Kuki, Naga) prepared spe-
cialized local cuisines called Yendang Eromba and Yen-
dang Kanghou from these tender leaves which are sold
in the local markets at the time of leaf flushes during
vegetative growth. The emergence of leaf flushes during
March-April coincides with the new year of Meitei com-
munity. It is considered auspicious for each household
of Meitei community to cook Yendang Eromba and Yen-
dang Kanghou using Cycas leaves, which are offered to
God along with other indigenous food preparations to
the celebrate the Manipuri (Meitei) New Year Day, Chei-
rouba. However, in Sikkim and northern West Bengal,
cuticles of these fronds are peeled off and along with
other ingredients, they are eaten raw in paste form with
rice. Raw or roasted ovules are eaten like potatoes in
Assam and Meghalaya, where the plants are indigenous.
Review of the literature of cycad toxins revealed that al-
most all the cycads contain cycasin, with the level of
cycasin reported for the species belonging to the genus
Cycas (Duncan, 1991). However, in northeast India, we
have observed that none of the communities have any
health associated complaints which can be correlated to
direct consumption of Cycas.
Uses of Cycas as medicine
Both vegetative and reproductive plant parts are
used as medicine in all the states where we conducted
our studies. Mature green leaves are used as medicine in
ARTICLES
Figure 3. (a) Assam: A village headman posing proudly with his female Cycas plant in Bongaigaon district; Sale of male cones in the local
markets of (b) Meghalaya, (c,d) Tripura; (e) Decapitated young female cone in the market of North Tripura district.
No. 119 March 2015 Encephalartos 21
ARTIKELS
Assam and Manipur. In the Thoubal district of Manipur, a
decoction of mature leaves is used to cure cystolithiasis
or presence of stone in bladder, while in the Kamrup dis-
trict of Assam it is used to cure stomach ache. Raw young
microsporophylls are eaten to reportedly increase male
potency in the region bordering Assam and Meghalaya.
In Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura, male cones are sold in
the markets by local healers, where they sell microsporo-
phylls at INR 2-5 per piece. These microsporophylls are
chewed along with water on an empty stomach to cure
stomach ache and ulcers. There is the belief among local
residents in Meghalaya, that to hang megasporophylls at
the entrance door of their houses, will drive away snakes
and avoid nightmares in young girls.
THREATS TO
CYCAS
IN NORTHEAST INDIA
Human activities have greatly impacted cycad
populations in Northeast India. Habitat destruction
and transformation of the land for agriculture and other
developmental processes are the major threats to the
natural populations of cycads in the region. Shifting or
jhum cultivation is an age-old practice in these states
and accounts for the loss of important cycad populations
in states like Manipur, Sikkim and Assam. The last few
decades had been quite crucial in the transformation of
natural landscape due to urbanization and human settle-
ments, particularly in Kamrup District in Assam, where
formerly the species reportedly occurred in abundance
(Hamilton, 1826) and Imphal in Manipur. The two dis-
tricts have been severely hit by the urbanization spasm
which led to the heavy loss of flora and fauna, includ-
ing cycad populations. With human settlement, illegal
trade of rare plants like cycads and orchids increased
significantly. As result, large numbers of adult plants are
now uprooted and exported to international exotic plant
collectors. Natural cycad populations of Naogaon in As-
sam are targeted by illegal unskilled traders of Bengali
Muslim origin, who collect immature male and female
cycad cones from the reserve forests to sell as medi-
Table 2. Cycas pectinata : Plant parts and their uses in Northeast India.
Sl. no Plant Parts used Uses State
1. Young Leaves Food Assam, Manipur, Sikkim and West Bengal
2. Mature leaves Decoration, rituals Assam
Medicine Assam and Manipur
3. Microsporophylls Medicine Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura
4. Megasporophylls Medicine Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura
5. Seeds Food Assam and Meghalaya
Figure 4. Manipur: (a) Unfolded young tender leaves in natural habitat of Thoubal district, Manipur; (b,c) Bundles of young circinate leaves being
sold in the Imphal market; (d,e) Preparation of Yendang Eromba.
22 Encephalartos March 2015 No. 119
cines in the weekly markets or Haats of Guwahati, Shil-
long, Goalpara, Tezpur, Silchar and North Tripura at the
rate of INR700-800 (US $ 15–20).
CONCLUSION
Cycads have been widely us ed as ornamental plant s,
food and medicine. However, due to over-exploitation,
unsustainable harvesting and habitat destruction, the
cycad population across the globe are now facing threats
to its survival (Donaldson, 2003). In Southern states
like Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh,
Cycas leaves are extensively harvested for decoration
in festivals and social ceremonies (Singh and Mudgal,
1997; Saneesh and Varghese, 2007; Radha and Singh,
2008; Singh, 2008). Cones, stem and leaves are exten-
sively used as medicines for curing many ailments and
diseases (Drury, 1873; Whiting, 1963; Thieret, 1958;
Radha and Singh, 2008; Singh, 2008; Singh and Singh,
2010, 2011).
During festivals in northern Eastern Ghats of Odisha,
apical crown of leaves are generally hacked with an in-
tact stem part for decoctions and use in rituals (Singh
and Singh, 2011). Such unsustainable and mindless
collection and destruction of the growing region of the
plants hampers the growth of this already slow growing
group of plants. Likewise over-collection of young leaves
in the state of Assam, Manipur and Sikkim in north-
eastern India disturb the phenological cycle and growth
of the plants. Selective collection of male cones from the
natural populations over a period of time has resulted in
the dwindling of sex ratio in these populations. This has
led to a reduction in the seed production and mainte-
nance of the population size in all the cycad populations
in Northeast India (Singh and Singh, 2010). This can be
tackled only by implementation of strict measures for
sustainable harvesting techniques. Ex-situ conservation
should be promoted to propagate cycads at large scale
to meet the future demands of the local consumption.
Attempts should be made by both the state governments
and research organisations actively involved in the sus-
tainable conservation programme, to maintain the sex
ratio of Cycas pectinata in its natural habitats for its
natural regeneration. Communities living near the cycad
population should be involved in all the conservation
initiatives, as their participation will help safeguard the
cycad populations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
State Forest Departments and officials of Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Tripura are gratefully
acknowledged for their unconditional cooperation and
support. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govern-
ment of India [AlCOPTAX (J-22018/09/2004)], Critical
Ecosystem and Partnership Fund (CEPF) and Ashoka
Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment provided
grant-in-aid for the research to Dr. Rita Singh. The first
author thanked GGSIPU, Delhi for support through the
Doctoral Research programme of the university and
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of In-
dia for Senior Research Fellowship.
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