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Investigating Employee Turnover in the Construction Industry: A Psychological Contract Perspective
Abstract
Employee turnover has long been, and will continue to be, a significant concern in the construction industry. Organizations that can retain skilled employees have a stronger competitive advantage. In two independent studies in China and the Philippines, the authors investigated the role of psychological contract breach in predicting employee turnover in the construction industry. The results reveal that psychological contract breach results in emotional exhaustion, which in turn predicts employees’ turnover intentions (Study 1) and actual turnover (Study 2). The results further suggest that younger as opposed to older construction workers who experience psychological contract breach are more likely to experience greater levels of emotional exhaustion and exit their organizations. Accordingly, to retain skilled work- ers, construction organizations should understand and continuously manage employees’ psychological contract expectations and provide more support to younger workers. This paper offers significant theoretical contributions because it is one of the few in the construction literature that examine both employee turnover intentions and actual turnover from a psychological contract perspective.
... The construction industry environment is so aggressive to the worker; that is, the sector is well known for its high turnover rate [82][83][84]. In Brazil, this rate is 7.3%, according to the General Registry of Employees and Unemployed [85]. ...
... The work of [86] relates the precarious reality of construction sites to turnover, claiming it as a reason that drives employees to seek better working conditions. Another study [83] of construction workers in China and the Philippines found that, in both countries, the high turnover intention is associated with psychological contract breach and, consequently, emotional exhaustion. Although no representative studies were found regarding turnover among permanent and outsourced workers in the construction industry, these aspects could be related. ...
... On the other hand, job stability can meet the worker's self-esteem demand [92]. Conversely, given the high turnover present in the construction industry [83], it is evident that employees in this sector struggle to develop a sense of belonging, leading to the perception that they are not valued, either by the companies or by society itself [93]. Therefore, to improve local worker engagement and reduce turnover in the sector, it is necessary to develop greater organizational self-esteem through significant changes within the company that empower workers to have more control over their tasks [94]. ...
The construction industry is known to present various stress-inducing conditions for its workforce, especially for workers under different employment arrangements. This research aims to investigate the influence of employment status (permanent and temporary workers) on the perception of well-being at work (WBW). The study also aims to assess whether variables such as satisfaction, commitment, and involvement are statistically significant in evaluating construction workers’ WBW. The research was conducted at various construction sites located in the Brazilian Amazon. A total of 376 responses were obtained using the Work Well-being Inventory (IBET-13) questionnaire. A multiple linear regression model was constructed to understand the relationship between self-perceived well-being (dependent variable) by employees and employment status, satisfaction, commitment, and involvement at work (independent variables). The results suggest that the employment arrangement does not significantly impact the evaluation of well-being, indicating that other factors may mediate the relationship between WBW and mental health, as well as contribute to explaining this result, such as current legislation, occupational characteristics, and unique aspects of the Brazilian reality. The research findings can contribute to the development of strategies that promote a more sustainable and healthy construction environment for workers.
... Employee turnover is costly, particularly for the construction industry, given its knowledge and labor-intensive features (Chih et al. 2018, Ugural andGiritli 2021). The high turnover rate has been recognized as one of the critical problems affecting construction organizations (Chih et al. 2016, Wang et al. 2020. Poor performance, high technology loss, and low construction industry competitiveness can be heavily attributed to employee turnover (Jones et al. 2010(Jones et al. , U� gural et al. 2020. ...
... But the way in which the construction workforce is managed and developed is impeding its ability to improve performance . The industry has long faced staff shortages and employee turnover issues (Chih et al. 2016, Nawaz Khan et al. 2020, Bigelow et al. 2021) which have been exacerbated by the global Covid-19 pandemic (Ministry of Business 2021, Jeon et al. 2022). At the same time, the industry has not been a favorable destination for job seekers (Song et al. 2020) due to the lack of innovation (Wilkinson et al. 2017), gender bias, low work-life balance (Morello et al. 2018), and harsh working conditions (Ling and Toh 2014). ...
... The conservation of resource (COR) theory was the dominant theory used to explain the construction workforce turnover ( Figure 4). COR, proposed by Hobfoll (1989), was used to provide explanations for the influence of psychological contract breach, emotional exhaustion, and resources such as age, supportive and ethical leadership, and family embeddedness on construction workforce turnover (Chih et al. 2016, Chih et al. 2018, Li et al. 2019, Liu et al. 2020, Nawaz Khan et al. 2020. However, there is a lack of theory behind a significant number of studies (52% of studies), prompting researchers to conduct theory-based investigations to gain a clearer understanding of factors affecting employee turnover in the construction context. ...
... The construction sector is considered one of the most stressful industries, and emotional exhaustion occurs more commonly among construction professionals because of their highly demanding work nature 12,35 . Mitigating employees' emotional exhaustion has become a major concern among construction organizations because of its positive association with employee intention to leave 12,35,36 . When engineers are subjected to role stress and lack the means to alleviate it, they may leave their job as a coping mechanism 12,35 . ...
... www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Previous studies have found a significant positive association between emotional exhaustion and employees' intention to leave 12,24,35,36 . Furthermore, the relationship between role stress and employees' intention to leave is mediated through emotional exhaustion, indicating that an increase in role stress increases emotional exhaustion among employees, which subsequently increases their intention to leave 13,23,24,37 . ...
... This study also confirms the significant positive direct relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnover intention. This finding is in line with some previous construction studies 12,35,36 . Engineers working in construction projects face several work demands due to the dynamic nature of construction jobs; when they perceive an increase in energy depletion or exhaustion due to these demands, their attachment to their jobs decreases, increasing their turnover intention. ...
Construction jobs are stressful, and high employee turnover is one of the significant issues affecting the growth and development of construction firms worldwide. This study examines the relationship between role stress and intentions to leave, as well as the role of emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction as mediators in the role stress and intention to leave of engineers working in the construction sector. The sample of this study consists of three hundred and sixty engineers working in private construction firms across southern parts of India. The relationship between the study variables is examined using structural equation modeling. The result of the study reveals a significant positive relationship between role conflict and intention to leave, whereas the direct relationship between role ambiguity, role overload, and intention to leave is not significant. In terms of mediation, emotional exhaustion plays a significant mediator between all the components of role stress and intention to leave. At the same time, the role of job satisfaction is significant only between role ambiguity and intention to leave. Role ambiguity negatively influences job satisfaction, subsequently increasing engineers’ turnover intention. Emotional exhaustion caused due to role stress is identified as one of the significant predictors of engineers’ intention to leave. Thus, construction organizations should focus on redesigning construction jobs to reduce role stress and emotional exhaustion to retain engineers working with them.
... The average cost of employee turnover is up to 20% of a particular role's base pay (Craig 2019). Not only is voluntary turnover in construction costly in terms of knowledge and skill losses and in lowered team morale (Felps et al. 2009, Heavey et al. 2013, high turnover-levels also threaten project success (Parker andSkitmore 2005, Scott-Young andSamson 2008), company profitability (Florez et al. 2017), competitive advantage (Chih et al. 2016) and longer-term business sustainability (Ayodele et al. 2020, Park et al. 2021. ...
... Such gaps between what they expected and what they encountered in the workplace (Korte et al. 2019) constitute unmet job expectations (Maden et al. 2016). These unmet expectations can be perceived as a breach of psychological contract between the employer and their employee (Chih et al. 2016) which causes demotivation and job dissatisfaction (Taris et al. 2006). Hom et al. (2017) argue that effective onboarding practices and realistic job previews assist in counteracting unmet job expectations and easing newcomer assimilation. ...
... Given the shortage of PM professionals globally (Project Management Institute 2017), a steady supply of early career PM professionals is essential to replenish the project talent pipeline (Ramazani andJergeas 2015, Lloyd-Walker et al. 2016). High labour turnover has many adverse impacts on construction companies' competitiveness (Chih et al. 2016). This exploratory study identified the person-and job-related factors contributing to the turnover intentions of Australian early career PM professionals. ...
The construction industry is facing global skills shortages, with demand for certain roles (such as project managers) projected to outstrip supply over the next decade. With the industry serving as the backbone of the economy in many countries, this projected lack of skilled construction professionals poses dire consequences. This qualitative study investigated the early career transition of project management (PM) professionals into the construction industry. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 employer representatives and 20 early career professionals to ascertain the factors affecting the turnover intentions of early career PM professionals in construction. From the perspective of the early participants in this study, the major factors affecting their intentions to leave were related to workplace culture: (i) bad workplace behaviour; (ii) high levels of work-related stress; and (iii) poor work-life balance. While employers also noted that bullying and long working hours contributed to early career PM professionals’ intentions to leave the industry, they believed that the key contributing factor was that young employees were seeking higher salaries. These findings on the need to improve workplace culture have the potential to positively influence the issue of early career retention within the construction industry.
... Furthermore, it is expected that this study could provide construction firms in Vietnam, as well as other developing countries, with a better understanding of the effect of EMM on MD. Such understanding may be very useful to develop organizational manpower (e.g., young engineers) of construction firms in developing countries including Vietnam, whose construction industry is still a labour-intensive industry (Chih et al., 2018), but usually faces a high employee turnover rate (Chih et al., 2016). ...
... As such, in order to reduce these unexpected problems, construction firms need to exploit their own personnel by improving professional skills of current employees and developing young employees. Owing to the high turnover rate in today's construction industry (Chih et al., 2016), enhancing employee retention (e.g., increasing employees' satisfaction and long-term working commitment) could also be crucial to maintain construction firms' competitiveness (Kyndt et al., 2009) and business operations. Taking these altogether, in order to maintain superior MD performance without much pressure of new recruitment, construction firms should focus on improving professional skills of employees (Anantatmula, 2007;, increasing employee retention (Kyndt et al., 2009;Chih et al., 2018; and developing young employees (Dang et al., 2018;. ...
... Inferential statistics-including bivariate Pearson correlation analysis and hierarchical multiple regression analysis-are used to test the research hypotheses. These analysis methods were selected because they were widely used to investigate the relationships of independent and moderator variables with a dependent variable in many previous studies (e.g., Chih et al., 2016;Chih et al., 2017;Nguyen et al., 2019), which is similar in nature to this study's research objectives. In addition to this reason, the sample size of the collected data (i.e., 79 valid responses) was also considered to be more appropriate with these analysis methods than structural equation modelling, which usually requires a larger sample size (i.e., at least 100 for results to be reasonably reliable and above 200 to avoid the risk of sample non-normality; Bagozzi and Yi, 2012). ...
The construction industry should seek to enrich its workforces due to the increasing lack of trained and skilled employees. This study attempts to investigate the relationship between encouragement-based management mechanism (EMM) and manpower development (MD) in construction firms and examine the moderating effect of firm size on this relationship by conducting bivariate Pearson correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses to analyse empirical data collected from 79 construction firms in Vietnam. The results show that EMM positively affected MD, and this positive effect was stronger in small/medium-sized construction firms than in large firms. The findings could provide construction firms in Vietnam, as well as other developing countries, with a better understanding of the effect of EMM on MD. Hence, they could establish appropriate and wise encouragement-based strategies to enhance their manpower. This study could contribute to the extant literature on construction manpower development by providing empirical evidence of the EMM−MD relationship in the context of construction firms.
... In recent years, the construction industry has been growing rapidly. Meanwhile, there have been various problems puzzling the construction industry, such as high employee turnover [1], reduction of employee's performance [2], construction worker's unsafe behavior [3,4] and disputes of construction contracts [5]. ...
... Because PC is an unwritten contract without legal constraints, and these problems are often caused by the unwritten contract. Some scholars believed that PC provides a new way to solve these problems in construction management (CM) [1,2,9]. ...
... The PC fulfilment of employee will improve job performance and employer' satisfaction [31]. However, the PC breach will lead to high turnover [1], reduced job security and job performance [2]. From the above results, PC plays an important role in HRM. ...
Over the past three decades, psychological contract (PC) has elicited an increasing research attention in construction management (CM). However, a research trend of PC application in CM is unavailable. This study aims to address this gap by reviewing PC papers in CM from 1990 to 2019 to ascertain the status of this research area and identify future research directions. This review starts with the definition of PC, and then compares the difference between the PC for individuals and the PC for organizations. Subsequently, this paper identifies three research directions of PC application in CM, namely, human resource management, safety management and procurement management. Finally, this review proposes a dual-dimension framework and some suggestions for future theorizing about the PC application in CM. The findings of this study are believed to provide useful references for the future application of PC in CM.
... Although many industries may be more dependent on employee knowledge and skill than construction, construction must rank as one of the most dependent industries (Chih et al. 2016;Walker 2011). Previous studies have reported that the construction industry represents one of the largest employment sectors, but suffers from several major drawbacks when compared to others (Lobo and Wilkinson 2008;Srour et al. 2017;Ayodele et al. 2020). ...
... Over the past few years, the focus on TOI has shifted from why individuals want to leave their companies to why they want to stay (Ahn et al. 2014;Jiang et al. 2016;Zhang et al. 2012;Brooks et al. 2008;Tixier et al. 2014). In light of this shift from job-related predictors to psychological predictors, the relationship between employees and their employing organization has been widely investigated in the literature from the perspective of social identity (Chih et al. 2016(Chih et al. , 2017. According to Mowday et al. (1982), the basis of TOI is the degree to which an individual has a psychological link to the company that employs them. ...
... The question of how OID is reflected in employees' attitudes toward turnover has captivated a sizable number of researchers within the turnover literature [see, for example, Van Dick et al. (2004) for comprehensive meta-analyses]. However, to the best of our knowledge, very few publications are available in the construction literature that address the role of employees' identification or disidentification with the organization (Chih et al. 2016). This study lays out an argument that the tendency of the employees to remain with an organization depends on 1 their identification or disidentification with the organization, which may then affect their TOI. ...
Voluntary turnover of key employees with scarce skills and tacit knowledge has a potential influence on the competitive advantage of construction organizations. Although much research has been conducted to find out causes of turnover intention, there is limited research in the construction context, particularly considering the influence of the psychological perspective. In this study, using data from 351 construction professionals in the Turkish construction industry and utilizing a three-way moderated moderation model, we examined the interaction effects of psychological factors, operationalized in terms of organizational identification and perceived external prestige, on turnover intention within the boundary of gender differences. Analysis of the responses demonstrates that considering organizational identification, perceived organizational prestige, and gender independently may lead to the underprediction of the turnover intention of employees in construction organizations. The results indicate that organizational identification and perceived organizational prestige have an impact on construction professionals’ turnover intention in a condition boundary for gender differences. On this basis, this study may provide important insights for human resource practitioners in identifying potential employees that are likely to have lower turnover intention. It is also of relevance to managers in retaining valued professionals in construction firms.
... Further differing from large firms, in small/medium-sized A/E/C firms, core knowledge is likely to be held in the minds of a small number of employees, rather than being physically stored and shared in a systematic manner. This presents a potential high risk to knowledge loss when these employees leave the firm, which often occurs given the high turnover rate in the construction industry (Chih et al. 2016). As such, it is particularly important for small/medium-sized firms to develop their KMC to ensure that the core knowledge is held not only at the individual level, but also at the organizational level, and that such knowledge is applied to advance their market opportunities. ...
... To achieve this, a questionnaire survey was conducted with professionals working in A/E/C firms in Vietnam using a nonprobability sampling approach. This sampling approach is commonly used in applied research settings, including construction context (e.g., Chih et al. 2016;, in which a probability-based sampling approach is impractical due to the lack of a reliable sample frame and/or low response rate (Abowitz and Toole 2010). In particular, due to the lack of a reliable full list of A/E/C firms with details (e.g., firm sizes and employees) in Vietnam and for practical reasons (e.g., ensure a reasonable response rate), a convenience nonprobability sampling approach was used to recruit participants who were willing and able to offer insights to our research questions. ...
... In this research, multiple statistical analyses were performed to illustrate the surveyed A/E/C firms' current status of KM-related capabilities and market development performance; and to test the hypothesized theoretical relationships. In addition to their appropriateness for addressing our research questions, these methodological approaches were selected because they have been widely used by construction management scholars (e.g., Chih et al. 2016Chih et al. , 2017Nguyen et al. 2017) to examine the relationships among study variables that are similar in nature to our purposes (i.e., testing the effect of an independent variable and a moderator on a dependent variable). Specifically, descriptive statistics (e.g., mean and standard deviation) illustrated the levels of the surveyed A/E/C firms' KM-related capabilities (i.e., KMC, KMIC, and KMPC) and market development performance. ...
... The researches on employee turnover in construction industry is limited with studies concentrating mainly on quantity surveyors and architects (Chih et al, 2016) which is very narrow. Rarely has construction industry focused on its human resource. ...
... Even the limited studies carried out focus mainly on job satisfaction and job description rather than looking turnover as a serious problem (Chih et al, 2016). The study carried out by Leung et.al (2008) looked at relating affective commitment and job satisfaction, optimisation of job performance and their effect on project success (Leung et.al, 2008). ...
... All the existing studies on human resources in construction industry concentrated on analysing job satisfaction. Even the study on turnover analysed the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover and concluded that job satisfaction is related to turnover (Chih et al, 2016;Thomas, 2015). The key aspect which predicts turnover is still being researched. ...
The globalisation of construction industry and increasing competition has made
organisations realise the importance of human resource in maintaining the competitive
edge. Further, studies have indicated that constant changes in employees effects the
project success. This has made organisations look at causes effecting employee turnover
and look to make emends to ensure that retain performing employees. This study
investigated the key factor predicting the turnover intention, the precursor to turnover.
Quantitative approach was adopted for the research in the form of questionnaire survey
and the data was analysed using SPSS. The respondents of the survey are employed in
construction industry, predominantly having a designation of managers and above. The
investigation showed that communication was the key factor which influenced an
employee’s decision to quit the present organisation. The study infers that the
employees are more likely to think of leaving an organisation if they have not been
given clear description of their roles and responsibilities. The findings also showed that
pay and self-efficacy also are significant in predicting turnover. These findings are
significant in the field of construction and project management, since majority of the
respondents were managers and had direct bearing on the project. The organisations
need to look at the communication, at all levels and with regards to all aspects of work,
within the organisation, which has a bearing on both job satisfaction and turnover
intention. The organisations need to improve communication within the organisation.
This will help the organisations a great deal in retaining their employees and improving
the chances of delivering a successful project.
Key words: Turnover intention, construction industry, communication, job satisfaction,
psychological capital, project management
... It is a great competitive advantage for companies that can retain skilled employees. Most of the management scholars emphasized that hazardous work conditions, high accident rates, work stress, deep dissatisfaction with work, and the poor balance between work and life are common issues in the construction companies (Chih et al. 2016), which leads to a high rate of turnover. However, this article presents another aspect of the construction industry, which is rarely noticed by scholars, and this is the influence of ethical leadership on turnover intention and antisocial behavior of employees. ...
... In this regard, leaders in the construction industry have a responsibility to adopt and emphasize ethical practices, which helps increase employee satisfaction while performing complex, risky tasks on site. On the other hand, when employees are forced to perform in an unethical work environment, turnover intention and antisocial behavior can be promoted within the employees, and the consequent loss of talent can lead to the loss of productivity and the market reputation of the construction company (Chih et al. 2016). This article uses the broad term antisocial behavior to state negative behavior in an organization. ...
... Moreover, job embeddedness denotes a broad range of effects, not just emotional ones. As far as we know, past studies (Chih et al. 2016;Ma et al. 2017) mainly focused on the psychological mechanism of interpersonal factors leading to voluntary turnover. Various resource indicators are related to turnover intention. ...
Construction companies are often notorious for high employee turnover and antisocial behavior. In a hazardous work environment, arduous scheduling tasks, unethical supervision, and working with multiple team members put higher stress on employees to reflect antisocial behavior and lead to turnover intention. Therefore, this article attempts to investigate the association between ethical leadership and turnover intention and antisocial behavior through trust in the leader and procedural justice in the construction industry. From the perspective of resource conservation theory, this article assumes that the moderating influence of job embeddedness plays a role in the association between mediators (trust in leaders and procedural justice) and outcome variables (turnover intention and antisocial behavior). This article uses data collected from 275 employees of Hong Kong construction companies. The results indicated a negative association between ethical leadership and employee turnover intention in the construction industry. The results revealed that job embeddedness moderated the link between trust in leader and turnover intention, and the link between procedural justice and turnover intention. Moreover, the influence of job embeddedness was found nonsignificant in the case of antisocial behavior. This article provides useful insights for policy and decision-making authorities, especially site managers, on how ethical leadership can retain employees by strengthening trust and procedural justice in construction companies.
... In recent years, the construction industry has been growing rapidly. Meanwhile, there have been various problems puzzling the construction industry, such as high employee turnover [1], reduction of employee's performance [2], construction worker's unsafe behavior [3,4] and disputes of construction contracts [5]. ...
... Because PC is an unwritten contract without legal constraints, and these problems are often caused by the unwritten contract. Some scholars believed that PC provides a new way to solve these problems in construction management (CM) [1,2,9]. ...
... The PC fulfilment of employee will improve job performance and employer' satisfaction [31]. However, the PC breach will lead to high turnover [1], reduced job security and job performance [2]. From the above results, PC plays an important role in HRM. ...
Over the past three decades, psychological contract (PC) has elicited an increasing research attention in construction management (CM). However, a research trend of PC application in CM is unavailable. This study aims to address this gap by reviewing PC papers in CM from 1990 to 2019 to ascertain the status of this research area and identify future research directions. This review starts with the definition of PC, and then compares the difference between the PC for individuals and the PC for organizations. Subsequently, this paper identifies three research directions of PC application in CM, namely, human resource management, safety management and procurement management. Finally, this review proposes a dual-dimension framework and some suggestions for future theorizing about the PC application in CM. The findings of this study are believed to provide useful references for the future application of PC in CM.
... Employee turnover is defined as the voluntary termination of employment with an employer, which has become a significant concern in the global construction industry (Ayodele et al., 2020;Chih et al., 2016). Due to the high-risk, complex, and temporary nature of the construction industry, turnover can lead to substantial cost implications and decreased productivity for enterprises in the construction industry, as well as frustration and a lack of morale among professionals (Chih et al., 2016;Nauman et al., 2021). ...
... Employee turnover is defined as the voluntary termination of employment with an employer, which has become a significant concern in the global construction industry (Ayodele et al., 2020;Chih et al., 2016). Due to the high-risk, complex, and temporary nature of the construction industry, turnover can lead to substantial cost implications and decreased productivity for enterprises in the construction industry, as well as frustration and a lack of morale among professionals (Chih et al., 2016;Nauman et al., 2021). The Chinese construction industry is one of the largest construction markets globally, accounting for approximately 20% of all construction investment worldwide (Mordor Intelligence, 2023). ...
Purpose
Turnover intention is a critical predictor of an employee’s turnover behaviour. A high level of turnover rate significantly affects the productivity and morale of an enterprise. Previous research has indicated that job satisfaction plays a critical role in influencing an employee's turnover intention, but the underlying factors related to job satisfaction remain under-explored, which impedes the development of effective strategies for reducing turnover intention. In addition, little research examined job satisfaction and turnover intention in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically in the Chinese construction industry. This study aims to investigate the impact of job satisfaction on turnover intention among professionals in the construction industry.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire survey was employed to collect viewpoints from 449 professionals in the Chinese construction industry, followed by descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and structural equation modelling analysis to derive results.
Findings
The findings indicate that professionals in the industry generally have a slightly high level of job satisfaction while a slightly low level of turnover intention in the special period of the pandemic outbreak. Leadership and management, training and career development and interpersonal relationships are critical underlying factors leading to their turnover intention. Although demographic factors have no moderating effect between job satisfaction and turnover intention, among them, age, marital status and years of working experience have strongly positive relationships with job satisfaction while significantly negative relationships with turnover intention.
Originality/value
The findings provide valuable insights to fully understand the critical factors leading to turnover intention from the perspective of job satisfaction, which is helpful in developing effective measures to address the turnover problems for enterprises in the Chinese construction industry and those industries with similar characteristics in other regions.
... Characteristics such as long working hours, physical and job insecurity, and conflicts between work and family [30,31], in addition to workers' lack of qualifications and less healthy lifestyles, such as the use of alcohol and smoking [32,33], due to the itinerant nature of the sector [34], contribute to making construction one of the most stressful occupations [35]. Other challenges include the predominance of male cultural stigmas [31,36], high rates of absenteeism and turnover [37,38], low productivity [39][40][41], and the organizational commitment of workers [42]. These peculiarities reinforce the complexity and risks associated with the construction industry. ...
... Other characteristics inherent to the construction sector further corroborate its uniqueness and risk: it has an itinerant in nature, it encourages workers to adopt less healthy lifestyles [34]; its workers lack proper qualifications [41,61] and are susceptible to drinking alcohol and smoking [32,33]; it is cyclical due to its dependence on economic factors [62]; it is male-dominated and characterized by predominantly male stigmas and cultures [31,36]; and it has a high rate of absenteeism and turnover [37,38]; on the other hand, it has a low productivity index [39][40][41] as well as organizational commitment [42]. ...
Despite increased safety investments in the civil construction sector, high accident rates persist, often due to workers’ intentional unsafe behaviors influenced by poorly understood psychological factors. This study utilized validated interpretative structural modeling (VISM), an innovative technique, to investigate factors impacting the well-being and risk perception of construction workers in the Brazilian Amazon. The VISM model was developed through five steps: (1) identification of indicators; (2) definition of constructs; (3) identification of relationships between constructs; (4) validation of these relationships; and (5) creation of the model. The results underscore the effectiveness of VISM in crafting complex models with robust statistical validity, even in studies with sample limitations and intricate or circular relationships among constructs. The research identified various factors in this phenomenon, such as the importance given by management to workplace safety, job dissatisfaction, work-related stress, turnover intention, work–family balance, alcohol and cigarette use, physical health, perception of accident risks at work, and education and training in workplace safety. Another significant contribution lies in the model’s ability to discern both direct and indirect relationships among these well-being factors. This insight enables the formulation of strategies to enhance worker well-being and reduce workplace accidents, particularly those stemming from intentional unsafe behaviors.
... Work ethic This is a set of values centered upon the desire to carry out work diligently and with integrity and discipline. [16][17][18][19] Team Inclusion A valued member of the group trusted and relied upon to contribute to the decision-making in the group. [4,[20][21][22] Financial stability This is a measure of one's earnings and savings. ...
... The inspiration behind doing something and the intention to want to do work. [6,17,25,35,36] Health risk concern This fear for the health and safety of oneself on the job is due to factors beyond an individual's control. [19,30,37,38] Job satisfaction The feeling that comes with the accomplishment of a job well done and the need to celebrate a milestone with your co-workers. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic brought challenges such as social distancing, health fears, reduced interaction, and increased stress for construction workers. Understanding their changing social and psychological states is crucial for effective management and performance. This study investigated the impact of the pandemic on the managers’ and laborers’ social and psychological well-being states and identified the changes in their social and psychological well-being states affecting project performance before and after the pandemic. Construction professionals, including construction managers, superintendents, and laborers, participated in a survey exploring thirteen social and psychological well-being variables and three performance variables. Data analysis involved paired t-tests and multiple regression. The findings revealed increased levels of anxiety and depression among both managers and laborers after the pandemic, with laborers more severely affected. Managers considered a broader range of variables, while laborers primarily focused on social factors influencing project performance. These disparities suggested that managers should prioritize health and safety measures, fair compensation, team cohesion, and stress management, while laborers’ motivation, work environment, knowledge acquisition, and sense of belonging should receive priority attention. This study contributes to providing managerial implications and guidance for improving the construction workforce, including managers’ and site laborers’ performance in the post-pandemic period.
... In this respect, while commitment has been argued to be critical to project success, it has not been understood with respect to antecedents like authentic leadership and future prospects (see Doloi et al., 2011;Jha & Iyer, 2007;Rajhans, 2018). Fourth, younger construction workers are more likely to quit after experiencing a psychological contract breach vis-à-vis their older counterparts (Chih et al., 2016). Accordingly, this research seeks to examine how authentic leadership and future prospects could enhance the affective commitment of young construction professionals. ...
... Third, this study was conducted on a sample of early-career construction professionals in the Indian context. Research in countries such as South Africa, China and the Philippines has found that in the wake of poor workforce management, younger construction workers are more likely to quit (see Aghimien et al., 2021;Chih et al., 2016). However, such studies are scant in the Indian construction context. ...
Even as the great resignation unfolds, turnover among early-career employees is well documented in research. Compared to their mid-and late-career counterparts, early-career professionals are more likely to need support from supervisors and opportunities for intra-organisational growth. Similarly, early career professionals are more likely to prefer mobility and exploration of career opportunities. Therefore, mechanisms to enhance affective commitment of early-career professionals become salient. Accordingly, using a sample of 206 early-career construction professionals from India, this research examined the relationship between authentic leadership and affective commitment. Further, future prospects were tested as a mediating mechanism between these two variables. PLS-SEM was employed for analysis. Our hypotheses were supported. Specifically, it was found that authentic leadership has a positive influence on future prospects and affective commitment. Further, future prospects are positively associated with affective commitment. Finally, future prospects fully mediate the relationship between authentic leadership and affective commitment. Implications for research and practice are discussed, and limitations are acknowledged.
... Ayodele et al. [5] highlighted productivity in construction firms may be negatively affected by a high labor turnover rate because most of the resource utilization is largely dependent on the workforce. Hence, construction firms have to explore and grasp the underlying factors that contribute to employee retention [34,46,58]. In this case, understanding and evaluating the factors which mostly affect employee retention in construction firms become critical. ...
... Ayodele et al. [5] highlighted prod in construction firms may be negatively affected by a high labor turnover rate most of the resource utilization is largely dependent on the workforce. Hence, c tion firms have to explore and grasp the underlying factors that contribute to e retention [34,46,58]. In this case, understanding and evaluating the factors whic affect employee retention in construction firms become critical. ...
Employee retention is becoming a major concern in organizational management. To maintain business’ competitive advantages, companies need to keep employees working for their organizations. Thus, many firms are trying to find out how to retain their employees. This study aims to investigate determinants of employee retention of South Korean construction employees. From the review of the literature and discussions with industrial practitioners, eight significant determinants affecting employee retention in South Korean construction firms are identified. The fuzzy technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) is employed to prioritize the identified determinants. The fuzzy TOPSIS analysis shows that personal characteristics, personal development, promotion opportunities, and work-life balance are the four most critical determinants. Construction firms are suggested to focus on these determinants to improve employee retention rates within their companies and achieve sustainable development.
... Research indicates that construction project managers (CPMs) experience high levels of stress and burnout (Yang et al. 2018), partially as a result of the inherently stressful nature of the industry, but especially in cases in which perceived organizational injustices exist. One such study revealed that the emotional exhaustion component of burnout is a strong predictor of construction industry employees' intent to turnover and actual turnover (Chih et al. 2016). The major symptoms of CPM burnout are physical and mental fatigue caused by job stress. ...
... Such costs stem from separation costs, replacement costs, and training costs (Snell et al. 2016). Construction organizations that retain skilled employees generate a strong competitive advantage, whereas construction organizations that struggle with employee turnover may suffer from a lack of productivity and performance (Ayodele et al. 2020;Chih et al. 2016). Important to note is that burnout within the construction industry has been indicated to be a predictor of employee turnover and results in productivity loss (Jugdev et al. 2018;Lingard 2003). ...
... Apart from such a dangerous workplace environment, the construction companies usually operate in a competitive market, which then presents the employees with strict time schedules and tight budgets with very less profit margin [7]. In the complex construction work, employees face challenges due to safety issues and unethical leadership behavior that intensify the emotional fatigue and cause deviant work behaviors [8], [9]. The leader's unethical behavior affects the follower's job satisfaction, which is the basic requirement to complete the difficult task according to the required standard [7], [10]. ...
... The concept of JE has changed dramatically over time, starting with a voluntary turnover model [70], which so well brings out the reasons why individuals remain in their jobs for a longer period. The construction industry is infamous for the high employee burnout and the consequent turnover rate [8], due to which the construction sector is under continued stress to retain the human capital [12]. In pursuit of reducing employee burnout and increasing the JE, the inherent characteristics of the organization play an important role. ...
In construction companies, employee burnout rates and negative socioemotional behaviors (NSEBs) are severe problems for the management. Work-related problems are then visible in the employee's psychological behaviors and consequent outcomes. The literature on organizational behavior argues that moral leadership can evade burnout and NSEB. Following the arguments, this article attempts to examine the impact of moral leadership on the employee's burnout and NSEB through the mediating variables of job embeddedness, and distributive justice in the construction industry. By using the social exchange theory, this article analyzes the data of 302 employees from construction companies in Hong Kong to assess these relationships. The results showed a negative relationship between moral leadership and the construction employees’ burnout. This article provides construction companies and their managers with useful insights on the way the moral leadership mediate through job embeddedness and distributive justice to curtail the employees' burnout. The results of this article also motivate scholars to investigate the multidimensional role of moral leadership in their future research.
... Third, this research contributes contextually by focusing on BIM workers in China, a group and setting that have been underrepresented in organizational turnover research. Turnover intention is frequently used as a reliable proxy for actual turnover behavior in construction management studies due to the difficulty of tracking workers over time (Chih et al., 2016;Du et al., 2006). By applying established organizational behavior constructs (e.g., job satisfaction and commitment) to the emerging domain of BIM, our study bridges a gap between technology implementation literature and human resource management theory. ...
Building Information Modeling (BIM) has become integral to modern construction management in China, yet its successful implementation has been hindered by a shortage of skilled BIM personnel and high turnover rates. This study investigates the key factors influencing turnover intention among BIM workers in China through a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. Survey data were collected from 558 BIM practitioners and researchers across various regions in China. The SEM results revealed that three work-related factors—management and staff cooperation, working hours, and satisfaction with salary and incentives—significantly affected BIM workers' turnover intentions. Notably, the influence of these factors on turnover intention was fully mediated by two pivotal attitudinal variables: job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Among the predictors, excessive working hours emerged as the most salient driver heightening turnover intention, whereas strong team cooperation and competitive, fair rewards reduce the propensity to leave by enhancing worker satisfaction and commitment. The integrated model developed in this research advances understanding of BIM workforce retention and can be generalized to similar project-based contexts. The findings provide an evidence-based foundation for policymakers and industry leaders to devise strategies (e.g., improving working conditions, strengthening organizational support) aimed at increasing job satisfaction and commitment, thereby mitigating turnover intention among BIM workers.
... A common point, despite different interpretations over the years, is the obligation or responsibility of the contracting parties to make a commitment, which leads to the belief that there is a benefit to be gained from the relationship (Topa et al., 2022). Should either party violate the agreement, the contract is defined as breached and the relationship between the contracting parties could deteriorate and dissolve (Chih et al., 2016). Research highlights the importance of an honest relationship between companies and their customers. ...
In the fashion and apparel (F&A) industry, the combination of factors that harm the environment and society is countless, and consumers’ awareness has increased rapidly over time. Despite the demand for transparency and sustainability, some companies are still misleading consumers’ perceptions through greenwashing practices. While consumers’ green orientation is soaring, companies caught in greenwashing face swift backlash, amplified by widespread social media use where real “shitstorms” can possibly hit companies. Existing literature has not yet provided a clear explanation on the role played by brand attachment in extinguishing (vs fueling) the awareness of greenwashing among environmentally conscious consumers discovering deceptive practices. Contributing to consumer behaviour literature, our research delves into the psychological mechanisms shaping greenwashing perceptions among environmentally conscious consumers in the F&A industry.
... On one hand, knowledge is a high-value resource (Nguyen et al., 2022), and employees of large construction firms invest a lot of time and energy to acquire or accumulate in the early stage. When a psychological contract breach occurs (Siachou et al., 2021), in order to retaliate against the organization (Chih et al., 2016), the possibility of employees sharing their valuable knowledge resources within the organization will be significantly reduced, and the possibility of knowledge hiding will increase (Ruparel and Choubisa, 2020;Zhang and Huang, 2020). On the other hand, based on Chinese culture, Confucianism positively moderates the correlation between psychological contracts and individual responsibility (Kwon et al., 2018). ...
This research aims to explore the influencing mechanism of a caring ethical climate on knowledge-hiding behavior in large construction firms according to the reciprocity principle of social exchange theory. This is an empirical study based on the analysis of survey data collected from 413 employees working in large construction firms in China. Hierarchical regression is applied to test the research model. This research finds: (1) Caring ethical climate has a negative influence on knowledge-hiding behavior; (2) Caring ethical climate has a positive influence on psychological contract; (3) Psychological contract has a negative influence on knowledge-hiding behavior; (4) Psychological contract mediates the relationship between caring ethical climate and knowledge-hiding behavior; (5) Task interdependence positively moderates the relationship between psychological contract and knowledge-hiding behavior. Based on the social exchange theory, this study provides significant contributions to the theory and practice of knowledge management in large construction firms by highlighting the influence of a caring ethical climate on knowledge hiding among employees. This paper provides suggestions for reducing knowledge hiding and enhancing knowledge sharing among employees in large construction firms, so as to improve the knowledge management ability of large construction firms and enhance their competitive advantages.
... The predominant burnout measure tool, the MBI, was developed in this phase. Such instruments allowed researchers to conduct longitudinal studies and study burnout related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover (Chih et al., 2016;Maslach et al., 2001). The final phase of burnout, the Expanding Phase, saw the expansion of quantitative tools as burnout was studied in numerous industries. ...
Concrete industry professionals operate in a fast-paced andhigh volume niche of the construction industry. Concrete is one of the most commonlyused materials in the construction industry and keeping up with demand often requiresworking long hours under stressful and dangerous conditions (Alvanchi, Lee, & AbouRizk, 2012; Bowen, Edwards,Lingard, & Cattell, 2014; Leung, Chan, & Olomolaiye, 2008; Maslach& Leiter, 1997; Yang, Li, Song, & Li, 2018). In this study, theresearchers used the Areas of Worklife Survey (AWS) and Maslach BurnoutInventory (MBI) to investigate factors contributing to burnout forprofessionals in the concrete industry. The internal consistency was tested foreach of the dimensions of the AWS and MBI. Structural equation modeling wasapplied to analyze the structural relationships between the dimensions of the AWSand MBI. The results showed that respondents experienced heavy workloads and,subsequently, elevated exhaustion, cynicism, and high professional efficacy. This is Part 1 of a 2 article series that examines theworklife and burnout phenomena for the concrete industry.
... Breaching psychological contracts, organisational injustice, and unfair treatment between managers or supervisors and workers are the outstanding issues in this regard. Newaz, Davis, Jefferies [86] and Chih, Kiazad, Zhou [87] stated that these issues can be moderated by practices that strengthen workers' perceptions of management commitment to psychological safety climate. For example, Bowen, Edwards, Lingard [61] recommend acknowledging discrimination in the workplace and addressing it with appropriate training of supervisors and line managers within the organisational level. ...
The construction industry has a lamentable reputation for having a high prevalence of suicides and mental health (MH) problems. Several government and academic reports have identified that construction workers are at a far higher risk of MH disorders than workers in other industrial sectors. While studies on construction workers’ MH have significantly increased in recent years, a systematic review of the potential causes of MH problems in the industry has hitherto eluded construction researchers. This study fills this ominous knowledge gap by conducting a realist systematic review of the literature published since 2003. The review conducted adopts the psychological safety climate model of PSC-12 to create a comprehensive list of MH causation (sourced from a rich literature synthesis) as a precursor to developing a theoretical model that identifies MH causations affecting distinct psychological safety climates within the industry. Emergent findings identify 43 MH causation factors with high job demand as the most significant contributor, followed by interpersonal relationships, low job control, low job support and physical status. In addition, it is found that organisation participation factors have been the major areas of focus, while management commitment and management priority are under-researched areas. Moreover, research gaps within the four dimensions of the PCS-12 model were explored to distinguish new potential research areas to address the knowledge gaps observed. In practical terms, the study collates and presents a comprehensive theoretical model of MH causations, providing a concise source of practical knowledge for practitioners.
... Therefore, a deficiency in work readiness during the early stages of one's career can harm overall career development (Caballero & Walker, 2010). This is also not good for the company as the high turnover of valuable human resources can negatively impact companies' competitiveness (Chih et al., 2016). ...
This study delves into the social community initiatives undertaken by Brazilian corporations through the lenses of social sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR). By scrutinizing a comprehensive dataset of 2,743 initiatives from 62 companies listed in the ISE Index, this research sheds light on various
dimensions of career readiness, technical training, and productive inclusion. Notably, the findings illuminate a pronounced disparity in how corporate efforts are allocated towards career readiness within the broader spectrum of social community initiatives. Moreover, the study uncovers a dynamic interplay
between career readiness programs and companies' focus on fostering diversity, equity, and inclusion— an intrinsic connection that adds depth to corporate strategies. Additionally, the research examines how companies report their social initiatives, advocating for transparent reporting practices. The collective insights provide a holistic exploration of the intricate landscape of corporate social initiatives, underscoring the pressing need for alignment between corporate commitments and societal needs for sustainable, long-term impact.
... For instance, older employees may have more experience and higher skill levels due to a longer history of employment as well as reduced financial needs, allowing them to be more selective when deciding whether to join an organization (Skirbekk 2008;Wong and Tetrick 2017). They may also remain longer with an organization than younger employees (Chih et al. 2016). Bigelow et al. (2021) explored age-based differences in attraction factors among electrical construction managers, using five age groups: under 30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60 and 61 or older. ...
Increasing skill shortages in the construction industry are a concern worldwide. The industry is seeking to find effective ways to encourage more women to pursue careers in construction. This study explores the factors that attract and retain women, comparing them based on age (under 35 years, 35–44 years, and 45 plus years) and role levels (managers, professionals, and nonmanagers). A total of 655 responses were collected through a nationwide survey of women in construction in Australia. The findings suggest that to attract women, career opportunities must be emphasized; and that career advising, attractive salary/wages, and training must be highlighted to attract young female talent. Further, working conditions are important factors considered by managerial and professional women when leaving the industry, particularly younger women. Organizational leaders and decision-makers seeking to recruit more women into construction may improve the effectiveness of their recruitment and retention initiatives by tailoring them to role level and age.
... Abusive supervision is a form of dark leadership (Martinko et al., 2013), which is present in the construction industry in developing countries and has detrimental outcomes for subordinates' performance (Chih et al., 2016). However, studies have paid little attention to investigating this phenomenon in the construction industry (Khan and Khan, 2021). ...
Purpose – Little research has focused on abusive supervision in the context of project management, despite its prevalence and detrimental influence on the psychological health of subordinates. Therefore, drawing on affective
event theory (AET), this study sought to investigate supervisor-level antecedents of abusive supervision by considering the mediating role of emotional exhaustion and moderating role of psychological resilience.
Design/methodology/approach – Utilizing a time-lagged design, data were collected through questionnaires from project managers and their immediate subordinates in construction projects. PROCESS macros were utilized to analyze a sample of 241 supervisor-subordinate dyads.
Findings – The findings revealed that time pressure and emotional exhaustion significantly predicted project manager abusive supervision. The authors also found that emotional exhaustion mediates the relationship between time pressure and project manager abusive supervision. Furthermore, the results show that highly
resilient project managers become less emotionally exhausted when facing time pressure. Lastly, psychological resilience moderated the indirect effect of time pressure on project manager abusive supervision through emotional exhaustion.
Originality/value – According to Fordjour et al., abusive supervision is a critical factor that deteriorates the psychological health of subordinates in the project. Nevertheless, this phenomenon remains uninvestigated. Therefore, this research contributes to the project management literature by investigating key predictors of
abusive supervision, thus filling both a theoretical and practical gap.
... Research findings show that when a psychological contract breach is detected, many negative employee attitudes and behaviors occur along with strong emotional responses (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, & Bravo, 2007). Psychological contract breach entails feelings of anger and betrayal (Morrison & Robinson, 1997), depression, anxiety (Conway & Briner 2002), emotional exhaustion (Chih et al., 2016), erosion of trust (Robinson, 1996), perceptions of injustice, relational trauma and leads to a feeling of powerlessness (Rousseau 1989(Rousseau , 1995. Also, psychological contract breach is associated with several negative workplace attitudes; these are lower employee satisfaction and organizational commitment and higher turnover intentions. ...
zet Günümüzde örgütlerin uyguladıkları değişimler ve yeni düzenlemeler, çalışanlar tarafından örgütle aralarındaki psikolojik sözleşmenin ihlali şeklinde algılanmaktadır. Bunun sonucunda, iş görenler aldatılmışlık hissine kapılarak öfke ve hayal kırıklığı yaşamaktadırlar. İçinde bulundukları bu duygusal durum örgütsel sinisizm davranışları sergilemelerine, işe yabancılaşmalarına ve örgüte olan duygusal bağlılıklarının azalmasına sebep olmaktadır. Böyle bir durumda hem işveren hem de çalışan açısından meydana gelebilecek olumsuz sonuçları önlemek için örgütlerin neler yapabileceği sorusundan yola çıkılarak kavramlar arasındaki ilişkiler ve mevcut yazın incelenmiştir. Yapılan yazın incelemesinde psikolojik sözleşme ihlali konusunda otantik liderliğin rolünü içeren az sayıda akademik çalışma bulunması nedeniyle bir boşluk tespit edilmiş ve bu yönde kuramsal bir model oluşturulmuştur. Kavramsal model, psikolojik sözleşme ihlali ile duygusal bağlılık arasındaki ilişkide örgütsel sinisizmin ve işe yabancılaşmanın aracı değişken rolü oynadığını ileri sürmektedir. Ayrıca, örgütsel sinisizmin işe yabancılaşma üzerinde pozitif bir etkisi bulunmaktadır. Otantik liderliğin ise psikolojik sözleşme ihlali ile örgütsel sinisizm ve işe yabancılaşma arasındaki ilişkilerde düzenleyici değişken rolü üstlenerek bu ilişkilerin gücünü azalttığı öngörülmüştür. Son olarak, çalışmanın sonuçları, kısıtları ve bundan sonraki çalışmalarda araştırılabilecek konular sunulmuştur. Abstract Nowadays, the changes and arrangements implemented by organizations are perceived by their employees as breaches of their psychological contracts. Consequently, employees who feel deceived experience anger and frustration. This emotional state causes them to exhibit organizational cynicism behaviors, feel work alienation, and become less affectively committed to their organizations. Therefore, the relationships among the constructs mentioned above are scrutinized and a thorough literature review is conducted to help organizations prevent these negative outcomes for both the employer and the employee. A gap has been identified in the literature due to the scarcity of academic studies on the role of authentic leadership in the context of psychological contract breach and a conceptual model has been developed accordingly. The conceptual model posits that organizational cynicism and work alienation mediate the relationship between psychological contract breach and affective commitment. Organizational cynicism is also expected to have a positive effect on work alienation. Authentic leadership is presumed to reduce the power of these relationships by playing a moderator role in the relationships among psychological contract breach, organizational cynicism, and work alienation. Finally, conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for future research are presented.
... Similarly, another research from information technology professionals suggested that job demand factors such as role ambiguity, role conflict, heavy workload, and work pressure are important antecedents of employee turnover (Van Heerden et al. 2022). Although most of these studies have been conducted on an executive sample, knowledge and insights about turnover intention of blue-collar workers has rarely been examined, besides a few exceptions in the construction sector (Chih et al. 2016). Second, we were able to trace a very few studies on workers' turnover intention (Armenakis et al. 1977). ...
Employee turnover causes significant cost to firms, both economically and otherwise. Knowing and understanding the reasons for employee turnover would help firms to reduce the same, and in the process, lessen costs significantly. This study aims to understand the role of various job stressors (i.e., role ambiguity, role conflict, work overload, work–family conflict) in predicting the turnover intention of workers in the spinning and weaving industry. We collected data from 311 workers, belonging to the spinning and weaving industries of the Kashan city in Iran. Then, we analyzed the data using both SPSS© and process macros. Our results suggest that there’s indeed a positive and significant relationship between the job stressors vis-a-vis the workers’ turnover intention. Overall, the findings do have strong potential for both theoretical and practical implications, especially in terms of developing people management interventions for reducing employee turnover.
... The elder workers in Mainland China reported higher SC and SCB, which perceive more support and encouragement from organization and are more willing to wear the safety equipment than their younger counterparts [70]. These elder workers also realize that few job opportunities are available to them, thereby driving them to show higher commitment to their work and more willingness to obey safety regulations of the supervisor [71,72]. By contrast, the negative relationship of age with SC and SCB in the construction industry of Hong Kong was clarified, which is mostly attributed to the declining trajectories of the working ability and retirement pathways of the Hong Kong workers [73]. ...
The construction industry has rapidly developed with continuous prosperity in Hong Kong and Mainland China, although accidents still occur with unacceptable frequency and severity. For promoting the safety issue of workers in construction industry, safety citizenship behavior (SCB) and safety consciousness (SC) were considered two influential constructs and further studied with integration of sociodemographic theories by scholars. However, no study has compared the SC and SCB of construction workers in terms of the demographic influence between Mainland China and Hong Kong. To fill this research gap, this study investigated the territorial difference between these two regions by conducting a cross-sectional questionnaire survey with recruitment of 253 Mainland construction workers and 256 Hong Kong construction workers. Significant similarities and differences of SC and SCB performance were revealed in terms of the workers with different genders, education levels, weekly working hours, and ages. This study provides insights into the comparison of demographic influence on SC and SCB of construction workers between Hong Kong and Mainland China, which is unique as it can yield useful managerial knowledge relevant to the personal safety of targeted groups of construction workers with particular demographic characteristics in both regions and contribute the implementation of safety interventions in line with the specific distinction in the territorial aspect.
... This is because employees' perceptions of unfulfilled organizational promises can lead to OD, JI, and EH. To this end, prior studies suggest several measures that both can either prevent or mitigate the negative consequences of organizational contract breaches (e.g., Chih et al., 2016). For instance, providing authentic information during recruitment process, career development, making realistic promises, and helping managers to effectively manage and understand employees organizational promises perceptions. ...
This research intends to increase awareness of the existence of psychological breach contracts on emotional exhaustion in the context of a prolonged COVID-19 pandemic, with the function of organizational distrust (OD) and job insecurity (JI) serving as mediating factors. We used partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to look at the 437 questionnaires that private sector workers in Pakistan filled out during the COVID-19 outbreak. The findings of direct and indirect effects show that (PBC) psychological breach contract directly leads to emotional exhaustion (EH) and has a significant indirect relationship through job insecurity (JI). Moreover, psychological contract breach (PBC) directly leads to emotional exhaustion (EH) and has a significant indirect relationship through organization distrust (OD). The study shows both theoretical and practical implications, as well as areas where more research needs to be done.
... Based on organizational justice literature, employees strive to reduce inequity when they perceive unfair treatment. One way this plays out is employee turnover (Adams, 1965), which has become a significant concern in the construction industry worldwide (Chih et al., 2016). Employees who are responsible for important tasks may leave a project because they perceive that an HL assignment is inappropriate; these sudden departures can greatly detract from project performance (Tripathi et al., 2019). ...
Based on social comparison theory and organizational justice, this research explores how Guanxi with the horizontal leader (HL) influences coworker turnover intention. We used the snowball sampling method to collect survey data from 203 employees in 22 project teams. Overall, Guanxi with the HL had an indirect influence on turnover intention through perceived distributive justice pertaining to HL identification. Additionally, procedural justice had a negative, cross-level moderating effect on the relationship between Guanxi with the HL and perceived distributive justice. However, the individual-level moderating role of interactional justice was not supported. Theoretical and managerial implications of these findings are discussed.
... Opportunities for career development topped the list with a fourth rank. This is in line with many studies that examined why it is more common for people of a relatively young age to change their job between companies in a similar industry (Chih et al., 2016). Of those who ranked this factor highly, 51% fell into the age group of 18-30. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to identify critical factors that affect labour turnover in the New Zealand construction sector and develop a framework for addressing this issue.
Design/methodology/approach
A mixed-method approach was adopted. A questionnaire survey combined with interviews was used to capture the personal experiences and views of 157 construction workers regarding labour turnover.
Findings
The statistical analysis revealed that level of pay, employment relationships, employee welfare, opportunities for career development, commuting distance to work and domestic relationships were the top five factors considered as primary determinants leading to the turnover decisions of most of those surveyed. Factor analysis further categorised the critical factors in three categories, namely, (1) nature of the job, (2) employee satisfaction and (3) employer commitment to staff retention and development.
Practical implications
While high labour turnover rates take a toll on many construction businesses, the findings from this research will hopefully provide guidance on areas of improvement to create a sustainable construction workforce at both organisational and sectoral levels.
Originality/value
Although the study is New Zealand-focused, it increases understanding of the factors affecting labour turnover in the construction sector, and the framework developed will provide construction organisations with directions in workforce retention and development to reduce the effects of labour turnover on organisational performance.
... The elder workers in Mainland China reported higher SC and SCB, which perceive more support and encouragement from organization and are more willing to wear the safety equipment than their younger counterparts (Stoilkovska et al., 2015). These elder workers also realize that only few job opportunities are available to them, thereby driving them to show higher commitment to their work and more willingness to obey safety regulations of the supervisor (Yu, 2016;Chih et al., 2016). By contrast, the negative relationship of age with SC and SCB in the construction industry of Hong Kong was clari ed, which is mostly attributed to the declining trajectories of the working ability and retirement pathways of the Hong Kong workers (Ng and Chan, 2015). ...
Background: The construction industry has rapidly developed with the continuous prosperity in Hong Kong and Mainland China, though accidents still occur with unacceptable frequency and severity. For promoting the safety issue of workers in construction industry, safety citizenship behavior (SCB) and safety consciousness (SC) were considered two influential constructs and further studied with integration of sociodemographic theories by scholars. However, no study has compared the SC and SCB of construction workers in terms of the demographic influence between Mainland China and Hong Kong.
Methods: To fill this research gap, this study investigated the territorial difference between these two regions by conducting a cross-sectional questionnaire survey with recruitment of 253 Mainland construction workers and 256 Hong Kong construction workers.
Results: Significant similarities and differences of SC and SCB performance were revealed in terms of the workers with different genders, education levels, weekly working hours, and ages.
Conclusions: This study provides insights into the comparison of demographic influence on SC and SCB of construction workers between Hong Kong and Mainland China, which is unique as it can yield useful managerial knowledge relevant to the personal safety of targeted groups of construction workers with particular demographic characteristic in both regions and contribute the implementation of safety interventions in line with the specific distinction in territorial aspect.
... For example, such violations may deleteriously affect trust in future exchanges (Rousseau 1989). Similarly, the impacted party may experience anxiety (Conway and Briner 2002), emotional exhaustion (Chih et al. 2016), and perceptions of relational trauma (Rousseau, 1995). In summary, the literature is relatively consistent in its support for the idea that violations of the psychological contract may be concerning, especially if it has consequences. ...
The microfinance business model focuses largely on lending to the woman in the household, rather than the man. The belief is that women are more trustworthy borrowers than men, and that lending to women may have increased social impact. Yet in several cases, women do not have control over the loan backed business despite being the borrower of record. Such takeover of the business by the man constitutes an ethical violation. We find that high dependency ratios in the family are correlates of such ethical violations. Further, we also find that ethical violations have a significant economic cost, consistent with prior scholarship in the family-business domain. While access to microfinance increases household welfare, this beneficial impact reduces by over 50% in the presence of an ethical violation. Our results suggest that microfinance lenders need to move beyond the traditional role of just being a lender to providing advice on issues like family planning, and money management, and enforcement, thus moving closer to the solidarity economy paradigm of integrating savings and credit into broader canvases of social relationships and social structures.
... For construction organisations, one of the most crucial findings in this regard is the positive association of WFC and FWC with turnover intention (Amstad et al. 2011). As industry-specific skills and knowledge take time to master in the construction industry, the turnover of qualified workers can lead to loss of productivity and a significant upsurge in accidents (Jones et al. 2010, Chih et al. 2016. Thus, construction organisations need to figure out how work-family conflict influence turnover intention and how to reduce work-family conflict. ...
Work-family conflict and high turnover intention of construction workers have been and will continue to be significant concerns in the construction industry. To explore antecedents of work-family conflict and identify which workers are more likely to exit their organisations when they experience work-family conflict, this study examines how family-supportive supervisor (FSS) affects construction workers’ work-family conflict and turnover intention, and how identity salience moderates the relationship between work-family conflict and turnover intention. Data were collected from a sample of 271 construction workers. The results revealed that family-supportive supervisor reduced work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to-work conflict (FWC), which in turn predicted turnover intention. The results further suggested that construction workers with low work identity salience or high family identity salience were more likely to exit their organisation when they experienced WFC. Moreover, workers with high work identity salience reported a greater level of turnover intention when they experienced FWC. Findings will help managers in construction organisations deepen their understanding of work-family conflict.
Recent studies focus on machine learning (ML) algorithms for predicting employee churn (ECn) to save probable economic loss, technology leakage, and customer and knowledge transference. However, can human resource professionals rely on algorithms for prediction? Can they decide when the process of prediction is not known? Due to the lack of interpretability, ML models' exclusive nature and growing intricacy make it challenging for field experts to comprehend these multifaceted black boxes. To address the concern of interpretability, trust and transparency of black-box predictions, this study explores the application of explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) in identifying the factors that escalate the ECn, analysing the negative impact on productivity, employee morale and financial stability. We propose a predictive model that compares the best two top-performing algorithms based on the performance metrics. Thereafter, we suggest applying an explainable artificial intelligence based on Shapley values, i.e., the Shapley Additive exPlanations approach (SHAP), to identify and compare the feature importance of top-performing algorithms logistic regression and random forest analysis on our dataset. The interpretability of the predictive outcome unboxes the predictions, enhancing trust and facilitating retention strategies.
Purpose
The objectives of this paper are to examine the impact of psychological contract on project performance in private construction projects and to investigate if the positive effect of psychological contract on project performance can be mediated by inter-organisational teamwork.
Design/methodology/approach
Multiple regression analysis and mediation analysis were applied in this study to conduct the proposed hypotheses. Data were collected via questionnaire surveys from the construction professionals working for contractor firms on private construction projects.
Findings
The result of the multiple regression analysis indicated that psychological contract between contractors and owners is significantly related with project performance in construction projects. This study examined five psychological contract components, but the most important element was found as trust which can influence every aspect of project performance. Fairness is another key factor that can improve project performance in terms of budget and quality. Further, the findings of the mediation analysis revealed that inter-organisational teamwork has a mediating effect on the relationship between psychological contract and project performance.
Originality/value
This paper presents the important role of psychological contract between contractor and owner organizations in construction projects that can affect project performance. The study also highlights the significance of inter-organisational teamwork as a mediator to the relationship between psychological contract and project performance.
Purpose
Work–family conflict (WFC) is rife among construction professionals, leading to a significant negative impact on their work engagement. Building on an extant body of research, this study provides nuanced insights into the link between WFC, work–life balance (WLB) and work engagement and identifies the boundary conditions of these relationships.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 257 dyads of construction professionals and their immediate supervisors from a sample of five construction firms based in India using an online survey.
Findings
The results found that WLB mediates the relationship between WFC and work engagement, and the relationship is controlled by professionals' gender and perceptions of psychological contract breach (PCB). An important finding is that PCB accentuates the negative influence of WFC on work engagement via WLB. The study also reveals that the negative impact of WFC on WLB is stronger for women.
Practical implications
The findings are relevant for construction firms since they are primarily dominated by men and continue to struggle to attract more women professionals. The study insights provide avenues to expand existing research on the relationship between WFC and work engagement and offer managerial implications for improving construction professionals' work engagement in the high-pressure context of the construction industry.
Originality/value
The study significantly advances the underdeveloped literature on work–family interface, especially in the unique work settings of the construction industry, by establishing WFC as a predictor and revealing how engagement at work is affected. It highlights the importance of boundary conditions such as gender and PCB. It is one of the first to assess the relationship between WFC, WLB, PCB and work engagement among construction professionals in India.
Psychological well-being problems have raised concerns in the construction industry with reported high levels of mental health illness and suicide rate. Worse yet, the global COVID-19 pandemic has deteriorated the situation and caused more anxiety and depression cases. When basic psychological needs are not met, workers tend to experience less autonomous engagement at work. Thus, it is vital that management in the construction industry develop procedures, mechanisms, and interventions to improve worker experience. In this chapter, construction workers’ experiences at work are examined by conceptualising the construct of psychological well-being in the context of construction community. Three types of well-being outcomes and their antecedents are discussed: Hedonic (i.e. job satisfaction, life satisfaction), Eudaimonic (i.e. work-life balance, job engagement) and Negative (i.e. Stress, burnout, psychological symptoms). The association between construction worker well-being experience and motivation at work is highlighted, emphasizing the importance of managerial commitment for a motivated and engaged workforce. More practically, hands-on prevention-focused leadership practices are suggested to support resilience and mitigate risks to health and well-being in times of disturbance. Management implications are recommended for decision makers to improve worker well-being and engagement in the construction community.KeywordsPsychological well-beingConstruction industryMotivationWorker experienceLeadership
This study proposed a research model based on the transactional theory of stress and coping to examine the relationship between excessive enterprise social media (ESM) usage and employee creativity. The research model proposed that excessive ESM usage positively influences Techno-overload and technology-family conflict which influence ESM fatigue. Furthermore, ESM fatigue negatively influences employee creativity. The model was tested using a sample of 367 individual employees from the information technology industry in China. Results reveal that excessive ESM usage is significantly related to employees' perceptions of Techno-overload and technology-family conflict which contribute to generating ESM fatigue. Results further reveal that ESM fatigue is negatively related to employee creativity. The contributions of this research to the theory and practice are discussed in the later section.
Purpose
From a psychosocial perspective, this study aims to understand the impact of psychosocial safety climate (PSC) on the intent to stay of construction workers and provides practical recommendations for construction enterprises to retain construction workers.
Design/methodology/approach
This study proposes the conceptual framework explained by the conservation of resources (COR) theory and develops a mediation model of “PSC – job satisfaction – intent to stay” within the framework supported by the stimulus–organism–response (SOR) model. Then, a questionnaire survey of 489 construction workers in Guangzhou was conducted and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was performed on the data collected.
Findings
Results show that PSC has a significant and positive effect on job satisfaction and intent to stay. In addition, job satisfaction partially mediates the effect of PSC on intent to stay. Hence, the theoretical model of “PSC – job satisfaction – intent to stay” has been empirically tested and supported.
Originality/value
This study is the first to investigate the effect of PSC on intent to stay and enriches the research on the retention of construction workers. The COR theory explains well the mechanism of PSC influence on intent to stay, thus expanding its application to the construction field. Moreover, this study provides practical recommendations for construction enterprises to retain workers so as to build a stable and productive workforce.
Together with the whole country, the construction industry in the Mekong Delta region (in the South of Vietnam) is developing very fast. However, this region faces more difficult challenges in attracting qualified labor forces than other areas. To meet the region’s needs, there should be coordination between management units, training units, investors, and construction organizations to provide strategies to attract more construction employees. Using a questionnaire which includes 36 potential factors regarding the retention of employees in construction, 160 responses were collected from different organizations in the Mekong Delta region. The results indicated several important factors which could affect employee retention such as base salary, salary payment term, labor contract, labor market mobility, and opportunities to participate in large construction projects. Using factor analysis, this study also identified eight main influential constructs of employee retention in the Mekong Delta area’s construction fields, namely organizational conditions and policies (C1), motivation (C2), working environment (C3), demanding (C4), income (C5), job opportunities (C6), welfare (C7), and job nature (C8). The findings of this study could provide useful information about how to develop and attract qualified human resources in the Mekong Delta region, as well as other similar areas in other developing countries.
Construction projects are cost-intensive, complex, and challenging ventures that often place employees in a harsh work environment filled with safety hazards. Employees facing such rigid characteristics must also adhere to strict time schedules to complete construction tasks; as a result, construction employees experience high stress that can deplete their psychological resources. Consequently, construction employees develop intentions to quit the organization, commonly known as turnover intentions. This study evaluates the role of ethical leadership in reducing employee turnover intentions in the construction industry. In this study, work exhaustion and psychological contract breach are considered prime antecedents of employee turnover in the construction industry. We collected data from satellite town development projects in Pakistan and performed regression path analysis to assess hypothesized relationships between construction employee turnover intention and its antecedents. The moderating effects of ethical leadership in reducing the impacts of work exhaustion and psychological contract breach were studied. Results revealed that work exhaustion and perceived psychological contract breach positively correlate with construction employee turnover intention; however, ethical leadership significantly reduced the impacts of work exhaustion and psychological contract breach on employee turnover intention. The findings and practical implications of this study can be used to help construction managers act ethically in their managerial duties to retain employees and continue to motivate employees to complete project tasks.
The roofing industry faces severe workforce shortages, especially for management positions. This study fills an essential gap to the existing body of knowledge by providing critical data for the roofing sector by identifying areas of improvement to attract and retain management professionals in the roofing industry. The study used a survey instrument to collect and analyze the roofing professional’s perspective regarding various satisfaction, attraction, and retention factors in the roofing industry. The study also examines other factors such as the impact of experience and education on compensation and the career recommendation for the future workforce. Findings suggest that overall work and yearly compensation were key factors for attraction and retention. The areas where the roofing industry needs improvement include the costs of comprehensive benefits and a well-defined path for promotion and career evolution, two key factors that studies show younger workers are looking for when choosing an industry.
Mining is a high-risk industry and a crucial economic driver that has a crucial role in the economies of countries worldwide. The implications of the labor market on the sustainability of the mining industry have increased the importance of sustainable human resource management at the strategic level of mining and safety management. In this article, from the perspective of management research in an energy production enterprise, we investigated the relationship between employee loyalty and employee satisfaction through a survey that targets employee loyalty, work quality, and job satisfaction and the relationship between enterprise image and switching costs. Based on service profit chain theory, we established a research model for mining employee loyalty, and 500 miners in a typical extreme mining environment in China were surveyed. The study hypotheses were tested using a structural equation model and an employee loyalty model, followed by empirical testing of the models. Employee loyalty was significantly associated with enterprise image and employee satisfaction, work quality indirectly affected loyalty through satisfaction, and the impact of switching costs on employee loyalty was not significant. We provide strong empirical evidence to help enterprises improve sustainable human resource management and regulatory policies, with important implications for safety production. Our study also provides a useful reference for further studies of sustainable human resource management in mining.
Expect for formal contracts, there are informally unwritten psychological contracts (PC) in the relationship between buyer and supplier for construction projects. The PC can affect the construction project performance and even cause project failure, but its process and formation are complex and not comprehensive in existing researches. This paper analyzes the PC between buyer and supplier by using evolutionary game and repeated game to tackle this gap. The results show the following: (1) the goodwill and interest have an important impact on PC fulfillment. (2) The PC is vulnerable; for example, once either one fails to perform PC, the other will also destroy PC, and then the construction project will enter a vicious circle. (3) In the process of repeated game, the effect of goodwill will gradually disappear, and the interest will play a major role. (4) If the project performance is only linked to one participant, it will lead to breach from another player. Some measures may help both sides to complete PC, such as making both sides profitable, increasing the emphasis on business reputation, and improving the relevance of construction projects performance.
Proposed as a theory of motivation, the basic tenet of conservation of resources (COR) theory is that humans are motivated to protect their current resources and acquire new resources. Despite its recent popularity in the organizational behavior literature, several criticisms of the theory have emerged, primarily related to the central concept of resources. In this review, we address concerns regarding the conceptualization, conservation, acquisition, fluctuation, and measurement of resources. We highlight gaps in the COR literature that can be addressed by integrating research from other areas of psychology and management. In this manner, we hope to push the COR literature forward by resolving several concerns and providing suggestions for future research that might address other concerns.
Despite strong advancements in construction safety performance over the past few decades, injuries still occur at an unacceptable rate. Researchers have shown that risk-taking behavior, originating mainly from inaccurate perception and unacceptable tolerance of safety risk, is a significant factor in a majority of construction injuries. Based on psychology research that suggests cognitive interactions between emotions and risk perception, the hypothesis was formed that there are objectively measureable differences in construction safety risk perception between people in different emotional states. To test this hypothesis, a controlled experiment was designed and conducted that (1) induced various positive and negative emotions in 69 subjects using validated movie excerpts; (2) measured emotional states using a validated post-film questionnaire; (3) exposed participants to construction hazards within a high fidelity virtual environment; and (4) measured subjects' perceptions of the risk related to these hazards adopting a validated frequency-severity-based questionnaire. Once these data were collected, a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to identify uncorrelated groups of related emotions. A Kruskal-Wallis test followed by multiple Mann-Whitney U tests was then used to test for differences in risk perception between participants belonging to these different emotional groups. The results of these analyses indicated that the mild negative group (sad and unhappy subjects) and the intense negative group (fearful, anxious, and disgusted subjects) perceived statistically significantly (p = 0.003) more risk than the positive group (happy, amused, joyful, and interested subjects). The two negative groups were also found to perceive more risk than the neutral group (p < 0.02). However, no statistically significant difference in risk perception was found between the positive and neutral groups or between the two negative groups. According to situational awareness literature, the implication of these findings is that individuals in positive and neutral emotional states may be more prone to engage in risk-taking behaviors than their counterparts because they perceive less risk in the same environment. (C) 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Job satisfaction is the sense of well-being, good feeling and positive mental state that emerge in an incumbent worker when his obtained reward consequent upon his performance is congruent with his equitable reward. Extant literature in other sectors of the economy points to the fact that factors such as poor working conditions, below competitive salaries, a lack of promotional opportunities are some of the factors contributing to employee dissatisfaction.The aim of this study is to ascertain the levels of job satisfaction amongst quantity surveyors in consulting firms in Lagos, Nigeria. Biographical and job descriptive index questionnaires (JDI) were administered to gather the data. The JDI measures job satisfaction on five facets, namely, pay, promotions, supervision, co-workers and the work itself. A total of 100 questionnaires were collected and used for the study. The survey covered quantity surveyors in consulting firms in Lagos and the respondents were selected using stratified random sampling technique. Data collected were analysed using mean item score, spearman rank correlation, correlation matrix, linear regression analysis where appropriate. Findings of the study revealed that the respondents were satisfied with the relationship with co-workers, nature of work and the supervision they receive. Major sources of dissatisfaction are promotion and salaries of the respondents. This finding is a bold step and necessary benchmark for resolving major sources of dissatisfaction among quantity surveyors in consulting firms. The roles of other contextual factors on job satisfaction need to be contemplated for future research.
Forecasting the supply of labor in the construction industry is pivotal to long-term economic growth. A labor supply model using a stock-flow approach was developed in this research for use in the construction industry. The model was tested using Hong Kong census statistics and data derived from interviews with 3,000 randomly selected construction workers. The findings were determined using a stockflow model, which enabled the determination of future aging distribution trends and workforce supply for specific trade types. The developed stock-flow model can be effectively used in countries in which registration schemes for construction workers are in use.
Building on the theoretical foundations of conservation of resources theory, this research provides insights into the relationship of abusive supervision with work–family conflict (work-to-family and family-to-work). Further, it is the first attempt to incorporate the emotional labor to burnout link as the mediating process between abuse and conflict. Using a sample of 328 individuals working fulltime we examined both the direct relationship of abuse with conflict as well as the indirect relationship through surface acting (emotional labor) and burnout. Our results suggest that abusive supervision influences conflict and the relationship is partially mediated through the surface acting to burnout path.
As more employees are juggling work and family demands, it is important for researchers to study the consequences of role stress and work–family conflict. In this study, predictions for a sample of university professors were based on past research and Hobfoll's (1989) Conservation of Resources Theory. Using a time-lagged research design and path analysis, we assessed the relationships of work and family stressors with outcomes of work, family, and life distress, physical health, and turnover intentions. The proposed path model was generally supported. In addition, we extended the work of other researchers by testing the moderating effects of self-esteem. Self-esteem was not found to be a moderating variable, although its main effects explained variance in the outcomes. Last, we describe and analyze qualitative data about the changes this sample experienced between the first and second data collection.
This study sought to identify job characteristics associated with burnout in the context of the construction industry and then formulated job redesign as an intervention strategy of burnout. A survey was undertaken to explore the experience of burnout among 403 construction professionals working in the Hong Kong construction industry. The results of the study show that long working hours, role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of autonomy, and job security are significant job determinants of burnout. Job redesign was formulated based on these findings and implemented in a company. Levels of burnout experienced by the same respondent both before and 1 year after the job redesign demonstrate a significant difference, implying that job redesign does contribute to lower levels of burnout. The importance, ways, and constraints of job redesign as an intervention to manage burnout at organizational levels are discussed. The results of this study should be of direct benefit to policy makers by providing them with a foundation for designing effective organizational interventions to manage burnout and minimize a serious and often hidden cost.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current paper investigated age‐related differences in the relations of psychological contract breach with work outcomes over time. Based on affective events theory, we expected job satisfaction to mediate the longitudinal relationship of contract breach with changes in job performance. Moreover, based on socio‐emotional selectivity theory, it was predicted that reactions to contract breach on job satisfaction and job performance would be stronger among younger workers than older workers. This two‐wave panel study among 240 employees investigated interactions of age with psychological contract breach in relation to changes in job satisfaction and job performance over time. Moderated structural equation modeling showed that job satisfaction partially mediated the longitudinal relationships between contract breach and job performance. Moreover, the analyses supported socio‐emotional selectivity theory; older workers reacted less intensely to psychological contract breach towards job satisfaction and job performance, indicating a general decreased responsiveness of older workers towards the psychological contract. It is concluded that age plays an important role in how contract breaches relate to changes in work outcomes over time.
Three studies evaluated the reliability and validity of the Investment Model Scale, an instrument designed to measure four constructs, including commitment level and three bases of dependence–satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. In all three studies, reliability analyses revealed good internal consistency among items designed to measure each construct. Also, principal components analyses performed on scale items revealed evidence of four factors, with items designed to measure each construct loading on independent factors. Studies 2 and 3 examined associations of model variables with instruments measuring diverse qualities of relationships and assorted personal dispositions. As anticipated, Investment Model variables were moderately associated with other measures reflecting superior couple functioning (e.g., dyadic adjustment, trust level, inclusion of other in the self), and were essentially unrelated to measures assessing personal dispositions (e.g., need for cognition, self-esteem). In addition, Study 3 demonstrated that earlier measures of Investment Model variables predicted later levels of dyadic adjustment and later relationship status (persisted vs. ended). It is hoped that the existence of a reliable and valid Investment Model Scale will promote further research regarding commitment and interdependence in ongoing close relationships.
A survey of waged and salaried, project-based construction workers was conducted. The survey measured work-family enrichment, a type of positive interaction between work and family life. A six-item work-family enrichment scale confirmed the bi-directional nature of work-family enrichment. Job-related correlates of work-to-family enrichment were identified. Flexibility, perceptions of control, time adequacy and supervisor support were all positively correlated with work-to-family enrichment. Regression analyses were performed to examine the extent to which the relationship between these job-related resources and work-to-family enrichment were mediated by perceptions of work schedule fit. Work schedule fit fully mediated the relationship between flexibility and control and work-to-family enrichment. The relationship between supervisor support and time adequacy were only partially mediated by work schedule fit, though a significant mediation effect was still observed. The research suggests that jobs may be designed to facilitate work-family enrichment in the construction industry, in particular through the provision of supervisor support, flexibility, time adequacy and control.
A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the influence of psychological contract breach on 8 work-related outcomes. Breach was related to all outcomes except actual turnover. Based on affective events theory, we developed a causal model integrating breach, affect (violation and mistrust), attitude (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions), and individual effectiveness (actual turnover, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance). Structural equation modeling was used to test the model. The results indicated that affect mediates the effect of breach on attitude and individual effectiveness. Two moderators were also examined including the type of breach measure (global vs. composite) and the content of the psychological contract breach (transactional vs. relational). Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Personnel Psychology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.
MOST THEORIES IN THE AREAS OF PERSONALITY, CLINICAL, AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PREDICT ONLY THE DIRECTION OF A CORRELATION, GROUP DIFFERENCE, OR TREATMENT EFFECT. SINCE THE NULL HYPOTHESIS IS NEVER STRICTLY TRUE, SUCH PREDICTIONS HAVE ABOUT A 50-50 CHANCE OF BEING CONFIRMED BY EXPERIMENT WHEN THE THEORY IN QUESTION IS FALSE, SINCE THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESULT IS A FUNCTION OF THE SAMPLE SIZE. CONFIRMATION OF 1 DIRECTIONAL PREDICTION GENERALLY BUILDS LITTLE CONFIDENCE IN THE THEORY BEING TESTED. MOST THEORIES SHOULD BE TESTED BY MULTIPLE CORROBORATION AND MOST EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATIONS BY CONSTRUCTIVE REPLICATION. STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE, PERHAPS THE LEAST IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTE OF A GOOD EXPERIMENT, IS NEVER A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR CLAIMING THAT (1) A THEORY HAS BEEN USEFULLY CORROBORATED, (2) A MEANINGFUL EMPIRICAL FACT HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED, OR (3) AN EXPERIMENTAL REPORT OUGHT TO BE PUBLISHED.
This study examines factors affecting employees' perceptions that their psychological contract has been breached by their organization, and factors affecting whether this perception will cause employees to experience feelings of contract violation. Data were obtained from 147 managers just prior to their beginning of new job (time 1) and 18 months later (time 2). It was found that perceived contract breach at time 2 was more likely when organizational performance and self-reported employee performance were low, the employee had not experienced a formal socialization process, the employee had little interaction with organizational agents prior to hire, the employee had a history of psychological contract breach with former employers, and the employee had many employment alternatives at the time of hire. Furthermore, perceived breach was associated with more intense feelings of violation when employees both attributed the breach to purposeful reneging by the employer and felt unfairly treated in the process. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Because construction operations depend on labor activity, absenteeism on a job site can damage project performance in many ways. Traditionally, construction managers have viewed absenteeism as a problem of individuals and have not paid much attention to absenteeism as a group-level phenomenon. As a result, individually focused formal rule enforcement (e.g.,issuing a penalty) has been used to reduce absenteeism in construction projects, but this approach often results in the insufficient encouragement of attendance motivation. To better manage workers' attendance on job sites, another aspect in absenteeism that has recently received attention is behavioral control of workers, including how workers perceive formal and social rules for absence, build attitudes toward these rules, and control their absence behavior accordingly. With this background, the objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between workers' perceptions/attitudes toward formal/social rules and their absence behavior by using real-world data. To fulfill this objective, a survey questionnaire was developed, data were collected from three different job sites, and statistical analyses were performed using logistic regression models. The results of the analyses show that construction workers who perceive salient social norms in their team are less likely to be absent from the job site, which implies that worker absence behavior is under the influence of social controls. It is also found that the primary mechanism by which social controls on workers' behavior take place in construction is self-categorization. The results of this research extend the current knowledge of the mechanism and the role of social controls in shaping construction workers' absence behavior. From the results, it is inferred that even a modest investment in promoting social cohesion and creating a positive prototype in teams can be an effective means of maintaining low absenteeism on a job site.
This article reports the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis of turnover antecedents, extending an earlier one by Hom and Griffeth (1995). As such, this updated meta-analysis represents the most wide-ranging quantitative review to date of the predictive strength of numerous turnover antecedents. Importantly, the present investigation identifies various moderators of antecedent-turnover correlations. The implications of these findings for both theory and practice are discussed.
We used self-categorization theory--which proposes that people may use social characteristics such as age, race, or organizational membership to define psychological groups and to promote a positive self-identity--to develop and test hypotheses about the effects of demographic diversity in organizations on an individual's psychological and behavioral attachment to the organization. Individual-level commitment, attendance behavior, and tenure intentions were examined as a function of the individual's degree of difference from others on such social categories as age, tenure, education, sex, and race. We expected that the effect of being different would have different effects for minorities (i.e., women and nonwhites) than for members of the majority (i.e., men and whites). Analyses of a sample of 151 groups comprising 1,705 respondents showed that increasing work-unit diversity was associated with lower levels of psychological attachment among group members. Nonsymmetrical effects were found for sex and race, with whites and men showing larger negative effects for increased unit heterogeneity than nonwhites and women. The results of the study call into question the fundamental assumption that underlies much of race and gender research in organizations--that the effect of heterogeneity is always felt by the minority.
Drawing on conservation of resources ( COR ) theory, this study examines conditions under which psychological contract breach relates to employees’ use of work‐role innovation as a means to acquire or conserve resources. Specifically, we used the organizational embeddedness dimensions of links, person–organization ( P – O ) fit, and sacrifices ( M itchell et al ., , A cademy of M anagement J ournal , 44 , 1102) to capture the kinds of resources that are likely to determine whether breach relates to more (resource acquisition) or less (resource conservation) innovation. We expected breach to relate to more innovation among employees with more links, better P – O fit, or fewer sacrifices. Using survey data from 90 university professionals and alumni in Australia, we found that links, P – O fit, and sacrifices moderated the breach–innovation relationship as hypothesized. Specifically, breach was related to more innovation after 6 months among employees with more links, better P – O fit, or fewer perceived sacrifices, as compared to those with fewer links, lower P – O fit, or greater perceived sacrifices. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.
Practitioner points
To promote constructive employee responses to resource loss, organizations should find ways to increase employees’ instrumental social and psychological resources.
Employees’ social resources (links) can be increased through social events, mentoring programmes, or the use of role models during on‐the‐job socialization.
Building employees’ psychological resources ( P – O fit) starts with recruitment and selection. Realistic information about the organization's values should be provided to job candidates, so they can make informed choices about their compatibility with this value system.
Binding employees to the organization with material and psychological job benefits (e.g., bonuses and interesting projects) might not encourage constructive employee responses to resource loss.
Global aging population is one of the most significant changes in the recent decade. Increasing life expectancy and a declining birth rate creates an aging workforce. This paper aims to evaluate health and safety of older construction workers (aged 55 or above). Their difficulties, needs, behaviour and suitability are investigated. It is found that there is a severe aging problem in the construction industry. There is 1 older worker (aged 55 or above) for every 2 younger workers (aged under 55). The major injury of older workers tends to be musculoskeletal disorders instead of accidents, which are mainly due to their abundant experience. Their experience helps them to be aware of dangers and injuries, yet, it also causes them to ignore safety measures as they are over-relying on their own experience and judgment. Furthermore, findings also reflect that there is lack of special training for older workers from either companies or government. There is a demand to improve the current training arrangement, which can specifically cope with the needs and problems of older workers, and raise workers' self-safety attitude for improving the whole safety environment.
Forgiveness and reconciliation have been shown to be beneficial alternatives to revenge as responses to an interpersonal offense in the workplace. Prior research on these topics, however, is often narrow in scope, focusing on only the victim. Moreover, existing research is often unclear about the relationship between forgiveness and reconciliation. In response, this article proposes a conceptual framework of forgiveness, reconciliation, and their respective antecedents which is both multi-level and interdisciplinary. This framework is used to review the nascent management-related research on forgiveness and reconciliation, and to augment this research from other fields, especially social psychology. Future research directions and managerial implications are proposed based on the multi-level model and research from other fields.
Purpose
A perennial problem faced by construction professionals, educators and researchers is what needs to be done to improve project performance? In addressing this question, the need for the switching of lenses from the dominant operations paradigm to one that focuses on organizational behavior is advocated. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a growing area of behavioral investigation which is considered to be positively related to occupational success, satisfaction, emotional health and adjustment. This paper aims to look at its influence.
Design/methodology/approach
In this paper emotions are examined and the usefulness measures of EI are discussed and critiqued. The paper then looks more closely at the way in which EI may relate to success in a common position within the construction industry, that of the construction manager.
Findings
Recommendations are made on the ways in which research and practice can contribute to project success through attention to the link between EI and project performance.
Practical implications
In construction, there is a real need to examine how individuals, teams and the structure of projects influence behavior, if the improvements being sought within the industry are to be realistically achieved. Potentially EI, in conjunction with other assessment tools, could be used by construction organizations to significantly improve the performance of construction managers and their teams.
Originality/value
Several researchers in construction have begun to examine EI but have limited understanding about its underlying origins and the problems associated with many of the tools that have been developed. The paper provides invaluable guidance about how EI could be used to improve the performance of construction projects.
Young workers represent the workforce of the future. We discuss research on two major influences on young people's work-related values, attitudes, and behaviours, namely family influences and work experiences. Particular emphasis is given to the role of young people's work experiences in shaping their future work-related attitudes, values, and behaviours (an under-researched area in occupational/ organizational psychology). To begin outlining a research agenda based on young workers, changes in the world of work and emerging areas of importance for the future generation of workers and their organizations are also highlighted (i.e. the rise in non-standard employment, leadership, workplace health and safety and unions).
This study tests the effects of psychological contract breach on several employee outcomes: workplace deviant behaviours directed at the organization (WD-O) and its organizational members (WD-I), in-role performance, and organizational citizenship behaviours directed at the organization (OCB-O) and its co-workers (OCB-I). It also examines the moderating effects of equity sensitivity in the relationship between breach and these outcomes. Data were collected from 162 sales executives and their direct supervisors. We found that breach was related to all behavioural outcomes. Equity sensitivity and breach also interacted in predicting OCB-I, OCB-O and WD-I. The negative relationships between breach and OCB-O and OCB-I were stronger for employees with an outcome-focused approach to organizational relationships than for those with an input-focused approach. In addition, breach had stronger positive effects on WD-I especially for those individuals who are output-oriented compared to those who are input-focused.
The past 20 years have seen a period of fundamental change for many construction businesses as they have restructured, downsized, de-layered, merged and de-merged to survive turbulent markets and rapidly changing demand cycles. Such change places significant new pressures, challenges and constraints on the employer/employee relationship. This paper argues that these changes are likely to have reconstituted employee expectations of the less formal aspects of the employment relationship, known collectively as the psychological contract. Explores this inductive research which examines the psychological contract of 30 construction project managers.
Purpose
There is evidence that those working within the construction industry are exposed to a number of stressors which potentially negatively impact well‐being, namely; long working hours, high workload, poor work‐life balance, low sense of professional worth and lack of job security. Additionally there is some evidence architects may also be vulnerable to an erosion of professional status, low pay and limited scope to use their creative skills. This paper aims to explore the job satisfaction of architects who are currently employed within the UK.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire is used to elicit data from 110 practising architects on their occupational well‐being and work‐life balance.
Findings
The results reveal that between 20 and 40 percent of respondents are dissatisfied with their rate of pay, practice management, promotion prospects, working hours and opportunity to use their abilities. Additionally the majority of respondents report some work‐life balance difficulties and approximately one‐third were considering leaving their current employer. The causes of poor well‐being are associated with organisational factors rather than factors intrinsic to the work of an architect. Further analysis demonstrates that those who are self employed may experience better occupational well‐being.
Research limitations/implications
The small sample size means that any generalisations to the entire architectural profession should be treated with caution. A cross‐sectional approach can only highlight the existence of relationships between variables; it cannot comment on their exact nature.
Originality/value
The implications for the profession are discussed and tentative recommendations put forward as to how the profession may address the situation.
Investigated how a moderator variable affects the form of the relationship between 2 other variables, paying particular attention to the relationship of the strength of a moderator to statistical significance and the magnitude of the increment in
R–2 associated with the moderator. The increment in
R–2 is viewed as an incomplete measure of the strengh of moderator effects. A standardized measure of the strength of moderator effects based on the rate of change in the slope of the regression surface is proposed. The relation of sample size and statistical power to this measure was also investigated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined reactions to psychological contract breach from two separate perspectives, that is, employee's reactions to perceptions of employer breach and supervisor's reactions to perceptions of employee breach of the psychological contract. In addition to the main effects, we also hypothesized that the benevolence (or kindness) of the supervisor and the traditional values (or respect for authority) of the employee would attenuate the negative effects of psychological contract breach. We tested these hypotheses with a sample of 273 supervisor-subordinate dyads from the People's Republic of China. The results showed that employer breach correlated negatively with employee outcomes of organizational commitment (OC), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and work performance, but this negative relationship was weaker for employees with traditional values. The results also demonstrated that employee breach correlated negatively with responses from the supervisor, in terms of the mentoring provided to the employee and the leader-member exchange (LMX) quality. However, more benevolent supervisors reacted less negatively in terms of the mentoring than did the less benevolent supervisors. Implications for future research are offered. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study examines factors affecting employees' perceptions that their psychological contract has been breached by their organization, and factors affecting whether this perception will cause employees to experience feelings of contract violation. Data were obtained from 147 managers just prior to their beginning of new job (time 1) and 18 months later (time 2). It was found that perceived contract breach at time 2 was more likely when organizational performance and self-reported employee performance were low, the employee had not experienced a formal socialization process, the employee had little interaction with organizational agents prior to hire, the employee had a history of psychological contract breach with former employers, and the employee had many employment alternatives at the time of hire. Furthermore, perceived breach was associated with more intense feelings of violation when employees both attributed the breach to purposeful reneging by the employer and felt unfairly treated in the process. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study examined the antecedents and outcomes of psychological contract breach as well as why and how psychological contract breach is related to these outcomes. Respondents were Hong Kong Chinese employees (N=152). Results showed organizational change and history of contract breach to be related to psychological contract breach which, in turn, was related to turnover intentions, psychological withdrawal behaviour, and civic virtue. Further, trust in employer fully mediated the relationship between psychological contract breach and the work outcomes of psychological withdrawal behaviour and civic virtue but partially mediated the psychological contract breach-turnover intentions relationship. Lastly, interactional justice failed to moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and the work outcomes. Copyright Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003.
This article reports the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis of turnover antecedents, extending an earlier one by Hem and Griffeth (1995). As such, this updated meta-analysis represents the most wide ranging quantitative review to date of the predictive strength of numerous turnover antecedents. Importantly, the present investigation identifies various moderators of antecedent-turnover correlations. The implications of these findings for both theory and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Journal of Management is the property of Sage Publications, Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Leader-member exchange (LMX) has been characterized as a form of social support capable of buffering the effects of negative work experiences. However, employees with high-quality relationships with leaders in the organization may have stronger negative reactions when psychological contracts are breached. Thus, while a social support perspective would suggest that LMX minimizes the adverse impact of psychological contract breach on employee performance, a betrayal perspective proposes that high LMX would aggravate the negative effects. Using cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs, results across three samples provided support for the betrayal perspective. That is, breach had a stronger negative relationship with organizational citizenship behaviours and in-role performance under conditions of high LMX. Implications of these results and future research directions are discussed. 2009 British Academy of Management.
Employee turnover affects performance and competitiveness of companies. Traditional voluntary employee turnover models attempting to predict voluntary turnover are based on job satisfaction. A recent model that breaks away from this tradition is the unfolding model of voluntary employee turnover (UMVT) which takes account of additional factors such as labour market forces, economy and habit. UMVT has been tested in various industries. However, in the construction sector UMVT is tested for the first time in this study. A convenience sample of 320 construction professionals was taken from the Global Construction Consultants, Davis Langdon. The sample provided useable online survey data from 104 respondents who had voluntarily left their previous employers in the last four years. The results reveal that UMVT's ability to interpret voluntary employee turnover among construction professionals was weak. In contrast to previous studies of UMVT, a significant number of respondents (80.8%) followed paths other than the original five theorized paths. As a result, a new extended version of the UMVT is proposed that includes two new paths that have been theorized, which add to the understanding of voluntary employee turnover and may, in the long term, help support human resource management in construction professional practices to predict and manage voluntary employee turnover.
A survey was undertaken to explore the experience of 'burnout' among engineers working in the Australian construction industry. The most widely recognized model of burnout, comprising emotional exhaustion, cynicism and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment was found to be valid. However, Australian engineers experience a strong sense of the social worth of their professional activity, independently of believing in their own individual competence as engineers. There was also a widespread belief that the rewards enjoyed by engineers as a result of their professional endeavours are not commensurate with their level of skill and responsibility. The results of the study also show that burnout cannot be attributed to a single cause but occurs as a result of a complex interaction of individual characteristics and issues in the work environment. As such, there is no single 'cure' for burnout and multiple intervention strategies are probably needed. However, the relative importance of job characteristics compared to personality characteristics in predicting burnout suggests that job re-design may be an effective preventive strategy. Cynicism and emotional exhaustion were strong predictors of engineers' intention to leave their jobs. This suggests that measures to prevent burnout could also help to reduce turnover and its associated costs.
Research on psychological contract breach has referenced social exchange as its dominant theoretical foundation. In this study, we draw insights from the group value model as a theoretical extension to explain employees' negative responses to psychological contract breach. According to the group value model, fair treatment by group members communicates symbolic messages about the relationship between the organization and the employee, and has implications for whether employees can take pride in their organizational membership. When people are treated unfairly, they lose trust in the organization and dis-identify from the group. This in turn results in less willingness on the part of the employees to engage in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs). We tested these relationships across three studies. In Study 1, we conducted a longitudinal test of the role of trust as a mediator between breach and organizational identification. In Studies 2 (cross-sectional) and 3 (longitudinal), we tested the complete model in which we examined the role of trust and identification in mediating the link between breach and OCBs. All three studies provided support for the mediated model. Furthermore, as predicted by the group value model, the hypothesized relationships emerged in response to relational but not transactional contract breaches. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. Copyright (c) Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2008.
This study evaluated injured construction workers' perceptions of workplace safety climate, psychological job demands, decision latitude, and coworker support, and the relationship of these variables to the injury severity sustained by the workers.
Injury severity was assessed using the Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ), which evaluates functional limitations. Worker perceptions of workplace variables were determined by two instruments: (a) the Safety Climate Measure for Construction Sites and (b) the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ).
The overall model explained 23% of the variance in injury severity, with unique contributions provided by union status, the Safety Climate Score, and Psychological Job Demands. A positive significant correlation was found between injury severity and the Safety Climate Scores (r = .183, P = .003), and between the Safety Climate Scores and union status (r = .225, P < .001).
There were statistically significant differences between union and nonunion workers' responses regarding perceived safety climate on 5 of the 10 safety climate items. Union workers were more likely than nonunion workers to: (a) perceive their supervisors as caring about their safety; (b) be made aware of dangerous work practices; (c) have received safety instructions when hired; (d) have regular job safety meetings; and (e) perceive that taking risks was not a part of their job. However, with regard to the 49-item JCQ, which includes Coworker Support, the responses between union and nonunion workers were very similar, indicating an overall high degree of job satisfaction. However, workers who experienced their workplace as more safe also perceived the level of management (r = -.55, P < .001) and coworker (r = -.31, P < .001) support as being higher.
The findings of this study underscore the critical need for construction managers to alert workers to dangerous work practices and conditions more frequently, and express concern and praise workers for safe work in a manner that is culturally acceptable in this industry. Workplace interventions that decrease the incidence and severity of injuries, but that are flexible enough to meet a variety of potentially competing imperatives, such as production deadlines and client demands, need to be identified.
Absenteeism and turnover
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- C Cammann
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Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., and Klesh, J. (1983). " Assessing
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Wiley, New York.
PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation moderation and conditional process modeling
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Hayes, A. F. (2012). "PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling [White paper]." 〈http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf〉.
Assessing organizational change: A guide to methods, measures and practices
- C Cammann
- M Fichman
- D Jenkins
- J Klesh
Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., and Klesh, J. (1983). "Assessing
the attitudes and perceptions of organizational members." Assessing
organizational change: A guide to methods, measures and practices,
S. Seashore, E. Lawler, P. Mirvis, and C. Cammann, eds., Vol. 138,
Wiley, New York.