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Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
Vol. 15 (1), January 2016, pp. 121-127
Utilization of wild Citrus by Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya
Anamika Upadhaya, S S Chaturvedi & B K Tiwari*
Department of Environmental Studies, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793022, Meghalaya
E-mails: anamika ya@gmail.com; sschaturvedinehu@gmail.com; bktiwarinehu@gmail.com
Received 10 October 2014, revised 12 February 2015
Uses of wild and semi-wild Citrus are inculcated in the culture of tribal people of Meghalaya owing to its ubiquitous
distribution and availability. In this paper, the traditional uses of Citrus hystrix DC syn. Citrus macroptera Montrouz.,
Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka and Citrus indica Yu.Tanaka by the Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya are
documented. The study was conducted in 16 villages of the state having significant area under forest with Citrus species as
natural component of forest vegetation using standard socio economic research methods. Distribution of these species are
mostly confined to sacred groves, community conserved forests, core zone of protected areas and home gardens. Fruits and
its parts are used for various medicinal and culinary purposes by these tribes. Owing to its distribution, Citrus latipes
(Swingle) Yu.Tanaka is more commonly used by the Khasi people; Citrus indica Yu.Tanaka is more used by the Garo
people while Citrus macroptera Montrouz. is equally popular among people of both the tribes. Wild Citrus spp and
traditional knowledge associated with it are faced with a great threat of loss and call for protection and conservation.
Documentation of traditional knowledge associated with Citrus spp could be a treasure for the future generation.
Keywords: Wild, Utilization, Khasi tribe, Garo tribe, Citrus macroptera Montrouz., Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka,
Citrus indica Yu.Tanaka, Meghalaya
IPC Int. Cl.8: A61K 36/00
Wild edibles have been an important source of food
for mankind; in fact, earlier to the advent of
agriculture humans were exclusively nurtured by food
from the wild. All over the world, there has been an
increasing interest in the scientific study of man-plant
interaction in the natural environment. Indigenous
peoples, commonly designated as aboriginals, natives,
autochthonous, fourth world, first nations, first
people, adivasi (original settlers), vanyajati
(forest-castemen), adimjati (primitive castes), janjati
(folk communities) and tribals are the people holding
ancient knowledge relating to such interactions. Food is
integrated into a culture as a reflection of their history,
their belief system and the ecological and social context
of the community. Since ancient times, wild plants have
remained a sustainable source for subsistence for most
indigenous communities1. Patterns of wild plant use
depend on the socio-cultural milieu of the population
being studied2. A World Health Organization (WHO)
estimate suggests that up to 80% of the world’s
population, mostly in developing countries, relies on
traditional medicine practices for their health care needs.
This is particularly true of the poorer sections of the
population because natural remedies are not only
cheaper than modern medicines, but are often the only
medicines available in remote rural regions3.
Citrus fruit belong to three closely genera, viz.
Citrus, Fortunella and Poncirus of subfamily
Aurantioideae, family Rutaceae. In India, 27 species
of Citrus have been reported to occur and of these
23 species are found in northeastern India4. Citrus
indica Yu.Tanaka falls under subgenus Citrus and
Citrus macroptera Montrouz. and Citrus latipes
(Swingle) Yu.Tanaka under subgeneus Papeda. Citrus
thrives well in the tropical and sub-tropical climates
and are therefore grown throughout the world in areas
lying between approximately 40°N and 40°S latitude
which is also known as “Citrus Belt”. Citrus has its
center of origin in the Indian Center and therefore,
indigenous species of Citrus are found in almost all
parts of India5. C. latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka and
C. indica Yu.Tanaka are found in North east India,
C. megaloxycarpa and Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.)
Swingle syn. Citrus × pseudolimonum Wester are
found in foothills of the Himalayas and
C. pennivesiculata and C. maderaspatana are found in
the south India. Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka is
native and endemic to Khasi hills of Northeastern India.
_____________
*Corresponding author
INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 15, No. 1, JANUARY 2016
122
C. macroptera Montrouz. is distributed in Thailand,
Indochina, Phillippines, New Guinea, New Caledonia
and Polynesia and is considered to be native to these
regions of South east Asia. C. indica Yu.Tanaka is
endemic to North eastern Himalayas and reported to be
occurring wild in Naga Hills of Nagaland, Kaziranga
Reserve forest in Assam and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
Meghalaya, one of the hilly states of North eastern
India, is exceptionally rich in biodiversity. The Khasi
and Jaintia Hills of the state are described as some of
the richest botanical habitats of Asia. The state falls
in the region considered to be the centre of origin of
Citrus species and is very rich in Citrus germplasm6.
Fruits of Citrus are known to have long history of use
and appear in old documents of Chinese and Sanskrit
literatures of as early as 800 BC. They are valued
throughout their distribution for their fruits, essential
oils and medicinal properties7. Citrus species have
been traditionally used by indigenous tribal
communities for medicine world-wide5,7,8. Yet, very
few detailed accounts on the uses of Citrus species
exist9. In India, a vast reservoir of Citrus diversity
exists both in wild and cultivated forms, and
northeastern region, is considered as paradise of
genetic diversity and natural home of many Citrus
species. Several, past explorers have described the
region as hot spot of Citrus biodiversity and have
underlined that the erosion of its genetic resources is a
cause of concern6,10. It is well recognized that traditional
communities have knowledge on utilization and
conservation of Citrus in forests and homesteads,
however the same have not been documented and
researched. The present study has been carried out to
document and analyze traditional knowledge associated
with utilization of Citrus macroptera Montrouz., Citrus
latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka and Citrus indica
Yu.Tanaka by Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya.
Study area
Meghalaya lies between 25°4´N to 26°10´N and
89°48´E to 92°50´E longitudes with a total
geographical area of 22,429 sq km. For the collection
of data on the local and traditional knowledge
associated with utilization of selected Citrus species,
the state was divided into four broad agro-ecological
regions11 viz., Western Region, comprising of Garo
Hills and some adjoining areas of the West Khasi
Hills, Central and Upland Region, covering the East
Khasi Hills, parts of West Khasi Hills, Ri-Bhoi and
Jaintia Hills districts, Northern Undulating Hill
Region, including most parts of the Ri-Bhoi district
and some part of West Khasi Hills and Southern
Precipitous Region, popularly known as the War Area
which includes most of the southern part of the West
and East Khasi Hills, parts of Jaintia Hills and a small
area of South Garo Hills district.
Sixteen villages/towns; 2 from western region, 7
from central upland region, 3 from North undulating
region and 4 from South precipitous region, having
significant area under forest with Citrus species as
natural component of forest vegetation were selected
for detailed survey on traditional knowledge
associated with utilization of Citrus species.
Methodology
The household survey for the collection of data on
traditional knowledge associated with the Citrus species
was conducted during April 2008 to March 2009. The
data was collected using Focus Group Discussion, Key
Informant Interview, Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) and Household Survey,12. Stratified random
sampling on 15% of the total households in each village
was carried out for Household Survey. People were
interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire.
Questions were focussed on the uses of the different
plant parts of the Citrus species including culture and
tradition associated with Citrus.
The key informants included the village head-men
and village elders and other knowledgeable persons of
the village. Focus Group Discussion in each village
were held where groups were divided into the citrus
cultivators and users, the non-cultivators but users, the
young generation and the elders of the society. Forests
and the homesteads of the selected villages were
surveyed for the presence of C. Latipes (Swingle)
Yu.Tanaka, C. macroptera Montrouz. and C. Indica
Yu.Tanaka. The specimens of three Citrus species
were collected and identified from Botanical Survey
of India, Eastern Regional Centre, Shillong.
Results
The survey on distribution and traditional
knowledge relating to the three wild endemic and rare
Citrus spp found in Meghalaya revealed that
C. latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka and C. indica
Yu.Tanaka were mostly found in the natural forests.
C. latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka was found growing in
primary forest namely Sacred Groves of Mawphlang,
Ialong, Raliang and in the community forests of Mairang
and Upper Shillong while, wild population of C. indica
Yu.Tanaka was found in the core region of Nokrek
Biosphere Reserve, foot hills of Nokrek and in
UPADHAYA et al.: UTILIZATION OF WILD CITRUS BY KHASI AND GARO TRIBES OF MEGHALAYA
123
community forests of South Garo Hills. Villages
surrounding these forests were also seen to harbour
erstwhile naturally growing populations of the species
which were selectively retained by the villagers in their
homesteads while clearing forests for settlements.
C. Macroptera Montrouz., on the other hand, was found
in the semi-wild state cultivated and protected in the
forest-gardens of South precipitous region.
Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka
C. latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka is locally known as
Soh Kymphor Shrieh in Khasi language and Sa Bah in
Jaintia language. The medicinal uses of C. latipes
(Swingle) Yu.Tanaka by the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya
are given in Table 1. Different parts of the plant are
used for treating different ailments. Leaves are used
for treating cold, headache and bodyache. Leaves are
Table 1 — Traditional uses of C. Latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka, C. macroptera Montrouz. and C. indica Yu.Tanaka by Khasi and Garo
tribes of Meghalaya
Fruits Tribes Parts used Uses Method of uses
Common cold
Leaves of the plant are boiled in water until water turns green in color and
this water is used for bathing when suffering from cold.
Leaves Headache and body
ache
Leaves of the plant are boiled in water until water turns green in color and
this water is used for bathing to get relief from headache and bodyache.
Stomach disorder
Fruit is peele
d and boiled in small amount of water. It is then cooled and
strained through the muslin cloth and stored. This concoction is diluted in
water and given for stomach ailments like gas in the stomach, constipation,
etc.
Skin diseases
Fruit is peeled and
boiled in small amount of water. It is then cooled and
strained through the muslin cloth and stored. The concoction is applied
over chapped skin to get relieve from dry skin. It is also used in frost bite
and also as a stain removal for the skin.
Fever
Juice mixed with mustard oil is embalmed on forehead and nose to get
relieve from cold and fever.
Citrus latipes
(Swingle)
Yu.Tanaka
Khasi
Fruit juice
Cuts and wounds Juice is applied on cuts and wounds as antiseptic.
Stomach disorder A small amount of fresh or stored juice
is taken in a cup of water with a
pinch of salt to cure ailments.
Fever
Juice is applied on forehead or on pate (top of the head) in case of children
during fever to bring down the temperature.
Headache and
Body-ache
Garo
people apply the juice on forehead and also all over the body to get
relief from pain.
Antidote Garo people take it orally as an antidote during food poisoning.
Cuts and wounds Juice applied on cuts and wounds act as antiseptic
Khasi
and
Garo
Juice
Skin diseases Khasi people rub the juice on cracked and chapped skin to heal.
Peel
Culinary
Fresh peel is used during the season or it is also preserved for later use.
Peel is used in various traditional cooking of non-
vegetarian dishes to add
flavor. It is used with pork, beef, fishes and also chicken.
Khasi
Pulp Pickle Pulp is sun dried and pickled with different spices and oil.
Juice Culinary Juice is used to flavor the fried pork. It is said to neutralize the fat.
Peel Culinary
Fresh peel i
s used during the season or it is also preserved for later use.
Peel is used in various traditional way of cooking non-
vegetarian dishes to
add flavor. It is used with pork, beef, fishes and also chicken. One
delicacy of garo with this fruit is called as “Wak Chambal Phura”
Pickle
Peel is scraped, fruit cut into pieces, sundried a little and preserved in
glass bottle with warm mustard oil and other local spices. This preparation
is sundried for a few days before it is ready to use.
Citrus
macroptera
Montrouz.
Garo
Whole Fruit
Wangala dance
The fruit is tied with strings on the hips and swung which depicts the
protection of crop field from the pests.
Food poisoning Whole fruit or Juice is taken orally as an anti-dote for food poisoning.
Citrus indica
Yu.Tanaka Garo Juice/fruit Stomach disorder A small amount of fresh or stored juice
is taken in a cup of water with a
pinch of salt to cure the ailments.
INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 15, No. 1, JANUARY 2016
124
boiled in water until the water turns green and this water
is used for bathing to get relief from common cold,
fever, bodyache and headache. Fruit is peeled and boiled
in small amount of water, it is then cooled and strained
through muslin cloth and stored. This decoction is used
for treating stomach disorders and also skin problems.
The decoction is diluted in water and is orally taken to
get relief from ailments like gas in stomach,
constipation, etc. The same decoction is also applied
over chapped skin to get relief from dry skin problem
and for removal of stain from the skin. Fruit juice is
mixed with mustard oil and embalmed on forehead and
nose during cold and fever to lower the body
temperature. It also acts as antiseptic when applied on
cuts and wounds. C. latipes (Swingle) Yu.Tanaka fruit is
bitter sour in taste and is not commonly consumed raw,
but in Khasi villages of Laitjem and Sadew, fruits are
eaten between meals as snacks, usually blended with
finely cut tender leaves of mustard or radish, with excess
of chillies and sugar and salt for taste (Fig. 1).
Citrus macroptera Montrouz.
C. macroptera Montrouz., locally known as
Soh Kwit in Khasi language and Chambal in Garo
language mostly grows on the southern slopes of
Meghalaya. The villages where this species was
recorded are: Mawlong, Wahlong, and Tyrna. Sohra
is the local market for surrounding areas, where the
growers from interior villages sell the fruits on the
weekly market day. In Garo hills it is widely
distributed and mostly grows on hill slopes as a
component of natural vegetation.
The medicinal uses of C. macroptera Montrouz. by
the Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya are given in
Table 1. The fresh or stored juice of this fruit is used
to get immediate relief from various common
ailments, viz., stomach disorder and fever. Juice
diluted in water, mixed with salt and sugar is orally
taken for stomach ailment like flatulence,
constipation, etc. It is also used to get relief from high
fever. Topical application of juice all over the body or
just on forehead during high fever brings down the
temperature. Some families mix juice with mustard
oil and lime and apply on forehead or on pate (top of
the head) in case of children during fever to bring
down the body temperature. It also acts as an
antiseptic when applied on cuts and wounds. People
of Garo tribe use juice as an antidote for any type of
food poisoning in human and also cattle and pets. The
fruit is boiled with the food and given to the pets.
C. macroptera Montrouz. is cherished for its
culinary properties by the people of Meghalaya
(Table 1). Peel is used in the preparation of
non-vegetarian dishes and some pulses. It is used for
tangy flavour and aroma in the dishes and also
believed to neutralize the fats. Fresh peel is used
during the season and for later use peel is dried and
kept. C. macroptera Montrouz. is intricately woven in
the lives of Garo people of Meghalaya. Other than its
medicinal properties it is highly valued for its culinary
value (Table 1). Both juice and peel is used in the
traditional cooking of the non-vegetarian dishes.
Commonly used with pork, it is also used with beef,
fish and chicken. Juice is added in the fried meat for
the flavour and is said to neutralize the fat. Fresh peel
is used during the season and for the off season it is
dried in the sun and preserved. One delicacy of Garo
tribe with this fruit is “Wak Chambal Phura”, where
pork is prepared with rice flour and peel of the fruit.
Fruit is also relished in the form of pickle. For pickle
preparation, peel of the fruit is scraped; fruit is then
cut into pieces and bottled with lots of salt. The other
way of making pickle is by cutting the fruit into
pieces and drying it in the sun and pickled with
species and mustard oil (Fig. 2).
C. macroptera Montrouz. also has an important
role in the most famous “Wangala dance”, which is a
folk dance performed by Garo people during harvest
festival. This festival is observed by Ambeng, the
traditional Garo tribe, living in Meghalaya and Assam
in India and Greater Mymensingh in Bangladesh. The
festival is celebrated for the thanks giving to the
Sun-God (Misi Saljong) for good harvest. A part of
the dance called “Chambal moa” depicts the
protection of crop field from birds and other
Fig. 1- Citrus latipes (Swingle) Yu. Tanaka plant with fruits
UPADHAYA et al.: UTILIZATION OF WILD CITRUS BY KHASI AND GARO TRIBES OF MEGHALAYA
125
predators. In this section the dancers tie
C. macroptera Montrouz. fruit behind their back with
string and swing in a very rhythmic way chasing away
the birds and the other animals from the crop field.
Khasi people preserve the juice of C. macroptera
Montrouz. by simply storing it, whereas Garo people
boil the juice for a long time and cool it to room
temperature before storing it in glass bottles. The
stored juice can be used for at least one year or more
if it is kept in air tight containers.
Citrus indica Yu.Tanaka
C. indica Yu.Tanaka is commonly known as
Memang Narang in Garo language. In Khasi and
Jaintia language it is called as Soh Kumphlair and Sa
Kymphrai, respectively. The fruit grows mostly in
Garo Hills below 1000 msl. Natural or wild
population of C. indica was not recorded during the
study from Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Medicinal uses of
C. indica Yu.Tanaka by Garo tribe of Meghalaya are
given in Table 1. C. indica Yu.Tanaka has uses
similar to C. macroptera Montrouz. and according to
users, the former is more potent but rare, as a result
C. macroptera Montrouz. is used more frequently.
C. indica Yu.Tanaka is used as an antidote for any
type of food poisoning. Either fresh fruit or juice is
administered to the patient and in case of dried fruit
being used the dose is increased. This fruit is also
reported to cure hypertension, snake bite, jaundice
and small pox. Juice is also used as energy drink for
persons suffering from fatigue and dehydration. In
villages of lower elevation of Khasi and Jaintia Hills,
C. indica Yu.Tanaka is grown in the homestead for
its aesthetic and ornamental value. This plant was
preferred in the home gardens as the flowers had
pleasant fragrance and fruits remained in the tree for
longer time from October to February. Fruits are
small and beautiful with orange to scarlet red colour.
The fruit is highly valued for its medicinal and
culinary properties by the people of Meghalaya.
Since, these fruits are available only during certain
season of the year, various traditional techniques are
used to preserve fruit as a whole or in parts that are
used. Both Khasi and Garo tribes have their
indigenous ways of preserving it. Garo people dry the
whole fruit and store it for later use. The fruit is dried
in the sun either by tying in the string or by placing it
outside. The other way of drying the fruits is by
traditional smoking method. In this method fruits are
placed on the bamboo rack called “gamchang” made
over the traditional fire place (Fig. 3).
Discussion
Citrus is one of the most consumed fruit and is well
known for its food value and nutritional and
medicinal properties13. The acid lime has antiseptic,
astringent, restorative properties. It is a digestive
stimulant and encourages the appetite when eaten
with meals. Citrus antioxidants are also anti-
carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergens14.
Carbohydrate, protein, dietary fibres, minerals,
vitamins, and antioxidants content in C. Latipes
(Swingle) Yu.Tanaka, C. macroptera Montrouz. and
C. indica Yu.Tanaka have been reported to be higher
than the commercial Citrus species15. Being rich in
nutritional content and part of regular diet of the rural
tribal people, these species significantly contribute to
the health care system of the region.
Fig. 2- Citrus macroptera Montrouz plant with fruits
Fig. 3- Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka twigs with fruits
INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 15, No. 1, JANUARY 2016
126
Identification of a particular plant by the
indigenous people for their potential use is based on
their techno-ecological knowledge16. The study on
traditional knowledge revealed that these species are
extensively used in food and traditional healthcare
system prevalent among the tribal people of
Meghalaya. Malik et al.8 while studying the
germplasm of C. indica Yu.Tanaka and C. macroptera
Montrouz. of North eastern India have briefly
outlined the uses of these species. The survey further
revealed rapid decline in the natural populations of
wild Citrus. This can be attributed for various reasons
like unsustainable use of these plants, destruction of
their natural habitats and also due to promotion and
cultivation of commercially important Citrus species.
The old practices have diminished considerably in the
last century, producing an impoverishment of plant
diversity in people’s diets21. Many studies on
indigenous communities have shown that wild plant
knowledge decreases through generations18,2 which is
also happening in the present case. The present study
corroborated that the decrease in the tradition of
gathering wild edibles like Citrus by the folk
communities studied is attributed to diverse social,
economic and ecological factors. In places where
environmental transformation has led to changes in
food practices, many indigenous communities have
abandoned or changed their traditional customs and
thereby lost their plant knowledge over time2,18,20.
Threat of the loss of traditional knowledge associated
with the plant and also erosion of their genetic pool
calls for the need for collection and conservation of
the Citrus species mostly found in the wild. Research
on propagation, cultivation and conservation and
further inventorying the traditional knowledge
available is urgently needed. For conservation of rare
plant species, cultivation is often considered an
alternative to wild collection21. Though C. indica
Yu.Tanaka is being domesticated in a small scale
other species still remain confined to natural forests.
Loss of natural forest is causing a threat to the Citrus
germplasm in the state and reduced availability of the
resource is emerging as a threat to the knowledge
associated with this plant.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the University Grant
Commission for the financial assistance to A Upadhaya
in the form a Junior Research Fellowship. We thank the
Khasi and Garo people of Meghalaya for sharing their
knowledge and rendering help during field surveys.
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