Article

The genesis and performance characteristics of Roman chariots

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Abstract

The Roman chariot wheel built upon knowledge gained by earlier wheelwrights in Europe and elsewhere to create multi-spoked, relatively simple and economical wooden wheels with or without iron tires. To understand the design, construction and physical characteristics of a chariot it is necessary to consider two classes of structural elements: the wheels, and the suspension system. For each element or subassembly there are many possible good design choices. The major issues, in order of significance, are: safety, comfort, performance as measured by acceleration capability, and the economic constraints of structural methods and horsepower availability. Specifically, any wheel must be rigid yet light in weight, and not just light but topology-optimized for minimal rotational inertia as well as for resistance to bending loads which are encountered when turning and on sloping ground. The flexibility requirements of a suspension system are the opposite to those of the wheel, with the general need for springiness, not rigidity. The best tools for dealing with these complex issues belong to the mechanical sciences of statics, dynamics, and the mechanics of materials; 2 an experience in engineering design and failure analysis is also useful. Another useful method for investigating chariots involves the creation of small flexible models — which the ancients must have used too; in these models, the flexibilities of some components must be exaggerated to demonstrate instantly the numerous specific aspects of a chariot’s inner dynamics and to answer questions about the suspensions. For present purposes, our chariot may be defined as a light, fast and manoeuvrable vehicle with two spoked wheels, on which the driver stands. 3 The fundamental advantage of a spoked wheel was the greatly reduced mass and corresponding linear inertia, and the reduced rotational inertia. Minimizing rotational inertia is crucial for racing wheels, though not for other vehicles such as carts or stage coaches: for an infinitesimal mass element, its rotational inertia with respect to the axis of rotation is defined as the mass times the square of its distance to that axis. For a rigid body, its rotational inertia is the summation of all of its elemental inertias. Remarkably, some ancient engineers understood, 4

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... First, a charioteer drove a chariot (currus circensis) that was optimized for speed and maneuverability, especially in its lightweight materials and in the design of its wheels, but that was also easy to overturn. 120 Second, a charioteer needed to exert special command over the horses that raced on the inside of the track as they were key for tight cornering (these horses often garner special mention in their honorific and funerary inscriptions; see further below). Third, a charioteer was assisted by his respective factions' auxiliary rider on horseback (hortator), who appears to have communicated orders from the stable to the racetrack from a position behind or alongside the charioteer ( Figure 5). ...
... The ability of rapid tight turning should be strategic in the oriental way of fighting, as arrows or javelins should be shot towards the enemy from the side or the rear of the chariot. The same goes for the races, which were run along elongated ring tracks, with alternated straights and tight curves (Rossi et al., 2016, Sandor, 2012. In addition, the run of the horses did impress to the yoke both longitudinal and vertical oscillations. ...
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The dynamical behaviour of the Bronze Age war chariots was studied, considering the different assembly solutions that were found in evidences and pictures. In particular, the chariots with the axle in rear position, typical of Near-East and Egypt, were compared with the European ones, which generally had the axle in central position under the chariot cockpit. Furthermore, the role of the floor, usually realized in woven leather or other organic fibres, was investigated. Dynamical finite element and multibody simulation software was used for studying the behaviour of the chariots in occasional overloading events, such as bumps or curves. An experimental device was set up for studying the difference of the response of a woven floor with respect to a wooden one. Finally, a finite element frequency response analysis was carried out to investigate the behaviour in full run over a rough ground. The results showed that position of the axle did not significantly influence the response of the chariot to occasional overloads. On the contrary, it had a strong influence on the stability of the passengers: rear axle chariots were much more effective in cutting the vibrations transmitted to the passengers when running at high speed. This effect was amplified by an increased floor flexibility, which was achieved with a woven floor. These findings could explain the diffusion of the rear-axle chariots in the Near-East and Egypt, where the chariotry was the most important part of the armies: indeed, the effectiveness in cutting the vibrations at high speed should be a crucial factor for ensuring the required precision to the transported archers. On the contrary, the likely marginal role of the chariots in the European armies could lead to the diffusion of central axle model, which ensured a lower burden on the draught horses.
... Sandor [4], [5] and Rovetta et al. [7] addressed some technical issues in the Tutankhamun-class chariots, mainly related to the elasticity and damping properties of the chariot members and connections. Sandor again [8] and Rossi et al. [9] analyzed the technical evolution of road transport devices from the Bronze Age to the Roman Empire. ...
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... First, a charioteer drove a chariot (currus circensis) that was optimized for speed and maneuverability, especially in its lightweight materials and in the design of its wheels, but that was also easy to overturn. 120 Second, a charioteer needed to exert special command over the horses that raced on the inside of the track as they were key for tight cornering (these horses often garner special mention in their honorific and funerary inscriptions; see further below). Third, a charioteer was assisted by his respective factions' auxiliary rider on horseback (hortator), who appears to have communicated orders from the stable to the racetrack from a position behind or alongside the charioteer ( Figure 5). ...
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