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Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 493 of 509
Review Open Access
Rose hip (Rosa canina L): A functional food perspective
Cui Fan, Callen Pacier, and Danik M. Martirosyan
Functional Food Center/Functional Food Institute, Dallas, TX, USA
Submission date: November 28, 2014; Acceptance date: December 22, 2014; Publication date:
December 24, 2014
Corresponding Author: Danik Martirosyan, PhD, Functional Food Center/Functional Food
Institute, 7575 Frankford Rd, Suite 3527, Dallas, TX, 75252, USA
ABSTRACT:
Rose hip (Rosa canina L.) is the pseudo-fruit of the rose plant, which is widely known as a
valuable source of polyphenols and vitamin C. Both in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated
that this fruit exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiobesogenic activities. The health
benefits of Rose hip (RH) have been attributed to its wide range of bioactive compounds including
the anti-inflammatory galactolipid: (2S)-1,2-di-O-[(9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoyl]-3-O-
β-D-galactopyranosyl glycerol (GOPO), vitamin C, phenolics, lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and
other carotenoids. As cyclooxygenase inhibitors, RH compounds may reduce the risk of cancer,
heart disease, and various inflammatory conditions. The aim of this review is to present an
overview of the functional, medical, and physiological properties of RH.
Keywords: Rosa canina, Rose hip, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, GOPO, lycopene, and vitamin
C
INTRODUCTION:
Rose hip is the pseudo fruit of the rose plant. RH of some species, especially Rosa canina L. (dog
rose), are considered valuable sources of polyphenols and vitamin C [1]. An interesting
characteristic of RH is that its chemical composition differs depending on the cultivar, growing
region, climate, maturity, cultivation practice, and storage conditions. Significant variations in
organic acids, phenolics, sugars, water-soluble vitamins, and minerals of RH have been reported
over the years by various researchers [2].
The physiological functions of Rosaceae fruits may be partly attributed to their abundance of
phenolics. Phenolics possess a wide spectrum of biochemical activities including antioxidant, anti-
mutagenic, and anti-carcinogenic properties. The total phenolic content of Rosa canina has been
found to be 96 mg GAE/g DW [2]. The physiological functions of Rosaceae fruits may also be
partly attributed to their abundance of ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid possesses a wide range of
biochemical activities including antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic properties. The ascorbic acid
content of RH was found to range from 140-1100mg/100ml, with the particular species Rosa
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 494 of 509
canina having 880mg/100ml [2, 3]. Those figures clearly show that RH is among the richest
sources for ascorbic acid and phenolics, and may be the richest known fruit source [2, 4, 5].
In addition to vitamin C, RH contains other nutrients: carotenoids, tocopherol, bioflavonoids,
tannins, pectin, sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and essential oils [2]. The nitrogen content
of Rosa canina RH is 0.98% [2]. The concentrations of phosphorus and potassium are 4860 ppm
and 5467 ppm, respectively. The calcium and magnesium contents of RH are 2867 ppm and 1254
ppm, while iron, copper, manganese and zinc concentrations are 27, 27, 56 and 30
ppm.
Other essential components of RH include essential fatty acids which are long chain,
polyunsaturated fatty acids that humans must ingest since our bodies cannot synthesize them.
Linoleic and α-linolenic acids (ALA) are essential fatty acids which regulate blood pressure, blood
viscosity, neural function, membrane fluidity, immune, inflammatory, and many other
responses [2]. The total fat content of Rosa canina is 1.78% [2]. Fatty acid analysis showed
that Rosa canina contains seven major fatty acids: lauric acid (12:0) with 4.80%, palmitic acid
(16:0) with 16.4%, linoleic acid (cis-C18:2 ω6) with 16.0%, α-linolenic acid (cis-C18:3 ω3) with
40.5%, nonadecylic acid (19:0) with 4.74%, cis-C19:1 ω6 with 5.79%, and cis-C22:2 ω6 with
6.60% [2]. These results are in accordance with previous studies which found the dominant fatty
acids in RH seeds to be linoleic and α-linolenic acid [2, 6].
The galactolipid GOPO is another important compound of RH that deserves mentioning. This
bioactive compound has study evidence to support both antitumor and anti-inflammatory activity
with no known toxicity [7].
Although the evidence in favor of the use of Rosa canina is very promising, systematic studies
are required to fully understand its possible contributions to human health before recommending
its regular consumption. This review will present an overview of the functional, medical, and
nutritional properties of RH.
RETRIEVAL OF PUBLISHED STUDIES:
Electronic searches were conducted across PubMed and Google Scholar databases. No language or
other limitations were imposed. The keywords used for the search were: Rosa hips, Rosa canina,
GOPO, vitamin C, lycopene, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants, carotenoids, osteoarthritis, cancer,
and chronic disease. Reviews were initially selected and individual research papers were included
later.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF ROSE HIP:
Nutritional composition of wild RH is provided in table 1 [8]. As you can see, RH is rich in
vitamin C, as it provides 426 mg total ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in 100 g RH fruit. Recommended
Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin C is 90 mg for men and 75mg for women [9]. Tolerable
Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for Vitamin C is 2000mg per day for men and women [9]. RH also is
rich in lycopene, as it contains 6.8 mg lycopene in 100 g wild RH (Table 1). This review will focus
on vitamin C and lycopene, in addition to GOPO, linoleic acid and α-linoleic acid, due to their
functional properties that provide health benefits and because of high content of those nutrients in
RH.
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 495 of 509
Table 1: Full Report (All Nutrients): Rose Hips, wild (Northern Plains Indians)
Nutrient Proximates
Unit
Value per
100g
Data
points
Std. Error
1.0 "cup"
127.0g
Water*
g
58.66
1
--
74.5
Energy
kcal
162
--
--
206
Protein*
g
1.6
1
--
2.03
Total lipid (fat)*
g
0.34
1
--
0.43
Ash*
g
1.18
1
--
1.5
Carbohydrate, by difference
g
38.22
--
--
48.54
Fiber, total dietary*
g
24.1
1
--
30.6
Sugars, total*
g
2.58
1
--
3.28
Minerals
Calcium, Ca*
mg
169
1
--
215
Iron, Fe*
mg
1.06
1
--
1.35
Magnesium, Mg*
mg
69
1
--
88
Phosphorus, P*
mg
61
1
--
77
Potassium, K*
mg
429
1
--
545
Sodium, Na*
mg
4
1
--
5
Zinc, Zn*
mg
0.25
1
--
0.32
Copper, Cu*
mg
0.113
1
--
0.144
Manganese, Mn*
mg
1.02
1
--
1.295
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic
acid*
mg
426
1
--
541
Thiamin*
mg
0.016
1
--
0.02
Riboflavin*
mg
0.166
1
--
0.211
Niacin*
mg
1.3
1
--
1.651
Pantothenic acid*
mg
0.8
1
--
1.016
Vitamin B-6*
mg
0.076
1
--
0.097
Vitamin A, RAE
µg
217
1
--
276
Carotene, beta*
µg
2350
1
--
2984
Carotene, alpha*
µg
31
1
--
39
Cryptoxanthin, beta*
µg
483
1
--
613
Vitamin A, IU
IU
4345
1
--
5518
Lycopene*
µg
6800
1
--
8636
Lutein + zeaxanthin*
µg
2001
1
--
2541
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 496 of 509
*Nutrient Data Laboratory, ARS, USDA National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program, Wave 9j, 2005, Beltsville MD. (Modified)
GOPO AS AN ESSENTIAL BIOACTIVE COMPOUND IN ROSE HIP:
Larsen, Kharazmi, Christensen LP, and Christensen SB (2003) first isolated an anti-inflammatory
agent with inhibitory effects on chemotaxis of human peripheral blood neutrophils in vitro from
dried and milled fruits of Rosa canina [7]. This anti-inflammatory agent is a single compound
identified as (2S)-1,2-di-O-[(9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoyl]-3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl
glycerol (GOPO), which may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties of RH powder
(RHP) [7].
A number of clinical trials have shown positive effects of RHP on inflammation and arthritis
as shown in Table 2. [10-12]. In a placebo controlled, double blind crossover clinical trial
performed by Winther, Apel, and Thamsborg (2005), 94 patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or
knee were randomized into a placebo or experimental (5g/day of RHP) group for 3 months [10]. A
significant reduction in WOMAC (Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis
Index) pain (+/-) and consumption of 'rescue medication' after 3 weeks were observed [10].
Chrubasik C, Wiesner, Black, Müller-Ladner, and Chrubasik S (2008) conducted a one-year
survey on the use of RHP, in which patients with acute exacerbation of chronic back pain
experienced significant pain relief (though this study yielded positive results and will hopefully
lead to future RH research, it deserves mentioning that the attrition rate was only 50%, and no
control group was used) [11]. In addition, another clinical trial by Willich et al. (2010) showed that
moderate benefits were found for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients through significantly
improved scores on the Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ-DI) [12].
Schwager, Hoeller, Wolfram, and Richard (2011) further demonstrated that RHP and GOPO
attenuate inflammatory responses in different cellular systems including mouse macrophages,
peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs), and chondrocytes [13]. Mouse macrophages were used to
determine anti-inflammatory effects, PBLs allowed the measurement of anti-inflammatory effects
on various cell populations, and chondrocytes and reticulocytes (in which RNA-synthesis can be
visualized using dyes like new methylene blue) were used to delineate anabolic and catabolic
events related to osteoarthritis (OA). Additionally, RHP and GOPO were found to down-regulate
catabolic processes associated with OA or RA. These data provide more detailed molecular and
biochemical basis for cartilage protection provided by RHP [13].
Although RH contains significant quantities of GOPO (< 0.1%), this concentration is not
likely to account for all rheumatologic activity of RH. Other active principles are believed to act in
Nutrient Proximates
Unit
Value per
100g
Data
points
Std. Error
1.0 "cup"
127.0g
Vitamin E (alpha-
tocopherol)*
mg
5.84
1
--
7.42
Tocopherol, beta*
mg
0.05
1
--
0.06
Tocopherol, gamma*
mg
1.34
1
--
1.7
Tocopherol, delta*
mg
0.14
1
--
0.18
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)*
µg
25.9
1
--
32.9
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 497 of 509
concert to reduce the erosion of the extracellular matrix in joints or favor the rebuilding of
cartilage [14].
Table 2: Health Benefits of the Bioactive Compound GOPO in Rose Hip
Reference
Analysts
N
Animal/
patients
Duration
Interventin
Outcome
Studies
Larsen,
2003 [7]
Dried and
milled
fruits of
RH
N/A
N/A, bioassay
N/A
N/A
The galactolipid was
identified from Rosa
canina for its
inhibitory effect on
chemotaxis of
human peripheral
blood neutrophils in
vitro
Bioassay
Winther,
2005 [10]
RHP,
litozin
94
initial,
80 final
Patients with
osteoarthritis of
the hip or knee
3
months
Five 0.5g
capsules of
RHP as
litozin twice
daily for 3
months
Alleviated
symptoms of
osteoarthritis and
reduced need for
'medication'.
Clinical
trial
Chrubasik
,
2008 [11]
RH and
seed
powder,
litozin
152
initial,
77 final
Patients with
acute
exacerbations of
chronic pain
54
weeks
5g capsules
RH as litozin
daily, which
contains 3
mg of
galactolipid
Endorsed as an
option in long-term
management of non-
specific low back
pain
Clinical
trial
Willich,
2010 [12]
standardiz
ed RHP
89
initial,
74 final
Patients with
rheumatoid
arthritis (RA)
6
months
Capsulated
RHP 5g
daily
Improved HAQ-DI
patient scores
Clinical
trial
Schwager,
2011 [13]
RHP
N/A
Cellular systems
(macrophages,
peripheral blood
leukocytes and
chondrocytes)
N/A
N/A
RHP attenuates
inflammatory
responses in
different cellular
systems
In vitro
studies
LINOLEIC ACID AND α-LINOLEIC ACID:
Rose hip has proven potentially useful in the treatment of OA, one of the most common forms of
arthritis. The inflammatory process is mediated by pro-inflammatory enzymes and cytokines, low-
molecular-weight compounds (such as eicosanoids), and the enzymatic degradation of tissues [15].
Several studies have related COX-2 to the inflammatory process [16]. This enzyme is an isoform
of cyclooxygenase (COX), which is responsible for catalyzing arachidonic acid to prostaglandin.
The other isoform is cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1, or prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase
(PTGS1)), which regulates angiogenesis; cell signaling, and the induction of platelet
aggregation [15]. Organic solvent extracts of RH inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. This activity is
explained by bioassay-guided fractionations which isolate linoleic acid and ALA [17, 18].
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 498 of 509
CAROTENOIDS IN ROSE HIP:
Chromatographic analyses including thermal lens spectrometry (TLS) and high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) revealed total carotenoids in Rosa canina fruits. The total carotenoids in
the extracts are β-carotene, lycopene, rubixanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin. HPLC analysis was then
performed to quantify the above carotenoids. The investigators found roughly equal parts (around
20%) of rubixanthin, β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein [19]. In another study, Horvath et al. (2012)
identified six main carotenoids-epimers: neochrome, lutein, zeaxanthi, rubixanthin, lycopene, and
β,β-carotene [20]. It also showed that the carotenoid extracts have anti-Helicobacer pylori, in
vitro anti-tumor, multidrug resistance reversal, and radical scavenging activities [20].
Lycopene
Lycopene is a red, lipophilic antioxidant compound found in many fruits and vegetables. It is
generally regarded as safe for human consumption, with one study finding no adverse effects at 30
mg per day for up to 8 weeks [21].
Lycopene is widely used to prevent heart disease, atherosclerosis, cataracts, asthma, and
cancer of the prostate, breast, lung, bladder, ovaries, colon, and pancreas. Lycopene is also
employed for treating human papilloma virus (HPV) infection, which is a major cause of uterine
cancer. Despite these uses, there remains insufficient evidence for lycopene’s utility in preventing
the onset of these conditions [21]. Several groups reviewed the assertion that increased lycopene
consumption could decrease prostate cancer risk in vitro, in vivo and by clinical trials (see Table 3)
[22-26]. Despite promising preliminary evidence, this use of lycopene for prostate cancer remains
questionable.
There is conflicting evidence regarding the effect of lycopene on heart disease. A number of in
vitro studies have shown that lycopene can protect native low density lipoprotein (LDL) from
oxidation and can suppress cholesterol synthesis [27]. Epidemiological studies yielded strong
evidence for the role of lycopene in coronary heart disease (CHD) prevention [27], and women
with higher levels of lycopene in their blood have a lower risk of heart disease [28]. However,
other studies did not find any link between lycopene intake and the risk of heart attack and stroke
in women [28].
Table 3: Effects of Lycopene on Prostate Cancer, Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia & Breast Cancer
Reference
Inclusion Criteria
Outcome
Ilic, 2011[22]
Any quantity of lycopene, any duration
and in combination with any other
ingested supplements.
Insufficient evidence to support the use of lycopene
in the prevention of prostate cancer.
Ilic, 2012[23]
All published randomized controlled
trials (RCTs) comparing lycopene to
placebo (or other interventions) for the
treatment of BPH and prostate cancer.
Significant decrease in prostate-specific antigen
levels in prostate cancer patients. However,
insufficient evidence for lycopene for the
prevention or treatment of BPH or prostate cancer.
Haseen,
2009[24]
RCTs, nonrandomized controlled trials
or before-after studies involving
lycopene supplementation in any form
in prostate cancer patients, regardless of
their disease stage and treatment
Insufficient evidence to recommend the use of
lycopene supplements in routine clinical practice
for prostate cancer patients.
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 499 of 509
Reference
Inclusion Criteria
Outcome
modality.
Holzapfel,
2013[25]
In vitro studies, in vivo animal studies,
and clinical trials involving the potential
role of lycopene for the prevention and
therapy of prostate cancer.
In vitro chemopreventive effects on prostate cancer
cells. Animal studies are inconsistent; the
preclinical data strongly suggests an
antitumorigenic acitivity of lycopene and its
different formulations, either alone or in
combination.
Ahn, 2005[26]
Long Island Breast Cancer Study
Project (1996-97) and genotype data on
catalase polymorphism.
Fruit consumption found to prevent breast cancer,
there was no benefit to women already taking
supplements. This is especially true in women with
catalase loss-of-function polymorphisms.
VITAMIN C:
Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid, is an essential water-soluble vitamin. Humans, unlike
most animals, are unable to synthesize vitamin C endogenously [29]. Vitamin C has several
biological functions: it is required for the biosynthesis of collagen, L-carnitine, and
norepinephrine. Vitamin C is also an important physiological antioxidant and has been shown to
regenerate other antioxidants within the body, including alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) [30].
Intake recommendations for vitamin C and other nutrients can be found in the Dietary
Reference Intakes (DRIs), developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) of the National Academies (formerly National Academy of Sciences) [9]. The
recommended intake for vitamin C is 90mg/day for male adults and 75mg/day for female
adults [9]. Fruits and vegetables are the best sources of vitamin C.
Cancer
Vitamin C can limit the formation of carcinogens such as nitrosamines in vivo [31, 32], modulate
immune response [31, 33], and possibly attenuate oxidative damage (antioxidant function) that can
lead to cancer [29]. There is a reverse association between dietary vitamin C intake and cancers of
the lung, breast, colon or rectum, stomach, oral cavity, larynx or pharynx, and esophagus in most
case-control studies [31, 33]. However, the evidence is inconsistent whether dietary vitamin C
intake affects the risk of cancer. In addition, according to most clinical trials, vitamin C
supplementation alone or with other nutrients provides no benefit for cancer prevention [30].
Furthermore, compared with controls, cancer patients have lower plasma concentrations of vitamin
C [31].
Intravenous administration of high-dose vitamin C is widely used for cancer. Casciari et
al. (2001) studied the effect of ascorbate on doxorubicin efficacy and found that low doses were
cytoprotective while high doses increased cancer cell death [34]. Padayatty et al. (2006) compared
oral vitamin C therapy with intravenous administration of the same dosage and proved that the
intravenous methods yielded plasma concentrations about 25-fold higher [35]. A group of case
reports and clinical trials support intravenous administration of vitamin C for cancer therapy (see
Table 4).
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 500 of 509
Table 4: Vitamin C and Cancer Treatment: Case Reports and Clinical Trials
Reference
N
Patients
Duration
Intervention
Outcome
Padayatty,
2006 [35]
1
Renal tumor
10 months
IV 65g twice/week for 10
months (no chemotherapy
or radiation)
The pulmonary metastatic
renal cancer spontaneously
regressed.
Padayatty,
2006 [35]
1
A primary bladder
tumor with
multiple satellite
tumors around it
4 years
IV 30g twice/week for 3
months, then 30g/1-2
months for 4 years (no
chemotherapy or
radiation)
In good health with no
symptoms of recurrence or
metastasis 9 years after
diagnosis.
Padayatty,
2006 [35]
1
A diffuse large B-
cell lymphoma at
Stage III
19 months
IV 15g twice/week for 2
months, then 15g once to
twice/week for 7 months,
and then 15g/2-3 months
for about 1 year (no
chemotherapy; 5 weeks of
radiation therapy).
In good health with no
clinical sign of lymphoma 10
years after diagnosis.
Hoffer,
2008 [36]
24
initial,
21
final
Patients with a
solid tumor or
hematological
malignancy with
locally advanced,
metastatic or
recurrent disease
10-30
weeks
IV 0.4, 0.6, 0.9 and
1.5g/kg, three times
weekly (chemotherapy
within the last 2 years;
but, none within 4 weeks
of study).
1.5g/kg was recommended as
phase II dose, safe and free of
important toxicity in patients
with advanced untreatable
malignancies
Monti,
2012
[37]
14
initial,
9 final
Untreated patients
with metastatic
stage IV pancreatic
cancer
8 weeks
IV 50, 75 and 100g three
times/week with IV
gemcitabine (1000 mg/m2
over 30 minutes on day 1,
once weekly for 7 weeks,
followed by a 1 week of
rest) and oral erlotinib
(100 mg per day).
No increased toxicity was
observed with the addition of
ascorbic acid to gemcitabine
and erlotinib in pancreatic
cancer patients
Riordan,
2005 [38]
24
initial,
11
final
Late stage terminal
cancer patients
(mostly rectal
tumors with
metastatic disease).
8 weeks
IV 150 to 710 mg/kg/day
for 8 weeks (prior
chemotherapy; but, not
within 4 weeks of study).
The adverse effects were few
and minor; determined
relatively safe for terminal
cancer patients.
Drisko,
2003 [39]
1
Advanced
epithelial ovarian
cancer with stage
IIIC papillary
serous
adenocarcinoma
40 months
IV 60g twice/week during
chemotherapy, 60g
once/week for a year, then
60g every 10 to 14 days
Maintained a normal CA-
125* value; no recurrence
3.3+ years after diagnosis.
Vitamin C may be a safe
method to improve
chemotherapy efficacy.
Drisko,
2003 [39]
1
Advanced
epithelial ovarian
cancer with stage
IIIC mixed
papillary serous
and seromucinous
adenocarcinoma
36 months
IV 60g daily for a week,
then 60g twice/week for
36 months post-diagnosis
(prior chemotherapy; but,
not during IV Vitamin C
treatment).
Maintained a normal CA-
125* value; no recurrence 3+
years after diagnosis.
Vitamin C may be a safe
method to improve
chemotherapy efficacy.
Jackson,
1995 [40]
1
A grade I
adenocarcinoma of
the pancreas with
metastasis
13 weeks
39 8h IV infusions in
doses ranging from 57.5
to 115g over a 13-week
period given in 1000mL
of Ringer's Lactate** (no
chemotherapy or
radiation).
No side effects and no tumor
progression six months after
diagnosis. A recurrence of
the tumor occurred after the
amount and frequency of IV
vitamin C was significantly
reduced.
* Protein tumor biomarker, **Non-pyrogenic IV solution
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 501 of 509
Cardiovascular Disease
A number of epidemiological studies show that high intake of fruits and vegetable could reduce the
risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, results from most clinical intervention trials have
failed to show beneficial effects of vitamin C supplementation on the primary or secondary
prevention of cardiovascular disease (Table 5). In the Women’s Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study,
8,171 women aged 40 years or older with a history of CVD were given 500 mg/day vitamin C for
a mean of 9.4 years. The study found no significant effect on CVD [41]. In addition, in the
Physicians’ Health Study II with 14,641 male participants aged 50 years or older (5.1% of them
had CVD), vitamin C supplementation of 500 mg/day for a duration of 8 years had no effect on
CVD [42].
Table 5: Effects of Vitamin C Supplementation on CVD
Reference
N
Patients
Duration
Intervention
Outcome
Cook,
2007 [41]
8171;
73% mean
compliance
Female, 40 years or
older with a history of
CVD or 3 or more
CVD risk factors
9.4 years
500 mg/d ascorbic
acid
No overall effect
on cardiovascular
events
Sesso,
2008 [42]
14641;
71% adherence
Male, 50 years or
older, including 745
men (5.1%) with
prevalent CVD at
randomization
8 years
500 mg/d vitamin
C
Vitamin C
supplementation
did not reduce the
risk of CVD
Common Cold
In the 1970s, Linus Pauling suggested that vitamin C could successfully treat and/or prevent the
common cold [43]. Although a number of controlled studies have been performed, the results have
been controversial [44, 45]. The evidence to date suggests that regular intakes of vitamin C at
doses of at least 200 mg/day does not reduce the risk of the common cold in the general
population, but higher intakes might be helpful in people exposed to extreme physical exercise,
cold environments, and those at risk of vitamin C inadequacy (such as the elderly and chronic
smokers) [45, 46].
IS ROSE HIP CONSIDERED A FUNCTIONAL FOOD OR FUNCTIONAL FOOD
INGREDIENT?
To answer this question we first have to define functional foods. As of today there is no generally
recognized definition of functional foods. Even the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not
yet defined functional foods. However, several other organizations have proposed definitions for
this rapidly growing food category, including the International Food Information Council (IFIC),
the Institute of Food Technologists and the Functional Food Center Inc.
The IFIC defines functional foods as those that include any “food or food component that may
have health benefits beyond basic nutrition” [47]. In addition, a recent report of the Institute of
Food Technologists considered functional foods as “food and food components that provide a
health benefit beyond basic nutrition (for the intended population). These substances provide
essential nutrients often beyond quantities necessary for normal maintenance, growth, and
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 502 of 509
development, and/or other biologically active components that impart health benefits or desirable
physiological effects” [48]. Furthermore, Dr. Martirosyan of the Functional Food Center (Dallas,
TX, USA) recognizes functional foods as “natural or processed foods that contain known or
unknown biologically active compounds; which, in defined amounts, provide a clinically proven
and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic
disease” [49].
At the recent 17th International Conference of the Functional Food Center (FFC) and
5th International Symposium of the Academic Society for Functional Food and Bioactive
Components (ASFFBC) (which were held on November 18–19, 2014 at University of San Diego,
San Diego, California, USA, organized jointly with USDA (United States Department of
Agriculture), ARS (Agricultural Research Service)), Dr. Danik Martirosyan spoke about the
importance of and the reasoning behind bringing the discovery, utilization, and control of bioactive
components and functional foods as the main topic of the conference. He started his speech with
the discussion of the “Functional Food Definition” according to the Functional Food Center. The
definition of functional foods by the FFC (as stated above) was accepted by the audience and
participants at the 10th International Conference of the FFC at the University of California, Santa
Barbara, USA on March 13-15, 2012.
The definition put forward by the FFC is different from others in that it accentuates bioactive
compounds as the central part of functional foods. There can be one or many bioactive compounds
in a given functional food and researchers are trying to find out the relationship in which they work
together to be effective. Another important concept in the definition, according to Dr. Martirosyan,
is the importance of the amount of bioactive compound(s) to convert an ordinary food into a
functional food. Different amounts of bioactive compounds work in different situations and
sometimes too much bioactive compound in a food can be toxic. In general a physiologic dose of
bioactive compounds is regarded as safe. Concerning supraphysiological or pharmacological
doses, safety aspects and health benefits must be documented. Therefore, it is crucial to have a
thorough discussion on the use and control of bioactive compounds and functional foods.
According to the definition of functional foods by the FFC, RH can be considered a functional
food ingredient if it meets certain criteria. The quantity of RH in given recipes needs to be
substantial enough to provide health benefits, and that particular RH species must contain certain
amounts of bioactive compounds such as vitamin C, GOPO, or lycopene, which will be effective
for the prevention or management of certain chronic disease.
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF ROSE HIP:
Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activity
The anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of RH have been well documented in
numerous studies (Table 6). RH helps to alleviate symptoms of OA, RA and other diseases, as
described below:
OA is the most common form of arthritis. It is a chronic condition in which cartilage breaks
down. This causes the bones to rub against each other, leading to stiffness, pain, and loss of joint
mobility. Recent studies found that inflammatory mediators (prostaglandins, chemokines, and
cytokines) play an important role in the initiation and perpetuation of the OA process [50].
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 503 of 509
Abnormal joint stress activates intracellular signals via mechanoreceptors (ion channels and
integrins) present at the surface of chondrocytes and osteocytes.
Table 6: Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activity of Rose Hip
Reference
Analysts
N
Subject
Duration
Intervention
Outcome
Studies
Christens
en, 2008
[54]
Rosa canina
RHP
306 initial,
287 final
Patients with
osteoarthritis
3-4 months
5 capsules of
0.5g RHP twice
a day
Pain reduction;
changes in pain
scores produced
a statistically
significant
combined ES*
of 0.37
Meta-
analysis of
3 clinical
trials
Chrubasi
k, 2008
[11]
The RH and
seed
powder,
litozin
152 initial,
77 final
Patients with
acute
exacerbation
s of chronic
pain
54 weeks
5g RH as litozin
capsules daily,
which contains 3
mg of
galactolipid
Useful for long-
term
management of
non-specific low
back pain
Clinical
trial
Warholm,
2003 [53]
A
standardize
d RHP
produced
from the
seeds and
husks of
Rosa canina
100 initial,
96 final
Patients with
a diagnosis
of
osteoarthritis
of either the
hip or knee
4 months
Five 0.5-g
capsules of
standardized
RHP twice daily
Improve hip
flexion and
reduce pain in
patients with
osteoarthritis
Clinical
trial
Paydary,
2012 [55]
Setarud
(IMOD)
(contain
extracts
from RH)
6-600**
HIV Patients
3 months
IV
adminstration of
125mg
Immunomodulat
ory effects;
improved
activity upon
lipid profile and
liver metabolism
Clinical
trial
Sadigh-
Eteghad,
2011 [56]
RH hydro-
alcoholic
extract
45
Male Wistar
rats
4 weeks
Oral gavage of
RC fruit extract
250-500mg/kg/d
Immunomodulat
ory effects
In Vitro
Kirkesko,
2011 [57]
RHP,
litozin
30 initial,
28 final
Female
patients with
rheumatoid
arthritis
28 days
Seven 750mg
capsules of RHP
twice daily
(Litozin)
No anti-
inflammatory or
antioxidant
effect;
concluded that
10.5g daily dose
is insufficient
Clinical
trial
Lattanzio,
2011 [58]
RH extract
24
Male
Sprague-
Dawley rats
0-
210min***
Oral gavage 100
and 200mg/kg
of RC extract
Useful as
adjuvant for
inflammatory-
diseases
In Vivo
Willich,
2010 [12]
A
standardize
d RHP
89 initial,
74 final
Patients with
rheumatoid
arthritis (RA)
6 months
Capsulated RHP
5g daily
Improved HAQ-
DI patient scores
Clinical
trial
*Reduction in pain calculated as effect size (ES), defined as the standardized mean difference (SMD)
**Phase I had 6, Phase II had 27, Phase III had 70, and Phase IV had 600.
***Measured at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, and 210 min intervals
RHP was reported to inhibit chemotaxis of neutrophils and to lower C-reactive protein in both
healthy volunteers and patients with osteoarthritis [51, 52]. Warholm, Skaar, Hedman, and
Mølmen (2003) studied the impact of standardized RHP on OA patients; hip joint mobility and
pain improved significantly in the treatment group compared with the placebo group [53].
Winther et al. (2005) conducted randomized clinical studies in OA patients and indicated that RHP
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 504 of 509
reduced pain moderately and improved physical activity [10]. Christensen, Bartels, Altman,
Astrup, and Bliddal (2008) reviewed 3 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) where 287 OA patients
participated, and the results indicate that dry RHP seems to have a consistent, small to moderate
efficacy on pain in OA patients in 3-4 months clinical trials [54].
RA is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder that affects the joints in a polyarticular
manner. Willich et al. (2010) performed a randomized trial to evaluate the efficacy of RHP on
symptoms in patients with RA; the results indicated moderate clinical relevance in regards to
improved HAQ-DI scores [12].
Other in vivo studies have pointed to the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties
of Rosa canina extract [12, 55-58]. Lattanzio et al. (2011) found anti-inflammatory activity of RH
extracts in a carrageenan-induced rat paw edema assay [58]. Sadigh-Eteghad et al. (2011) found
250-500mg/kg RH extract significantly increased the gamma globulin level, neutrophil and
monocyte counts as well as phagocyte activity in comparison with the control rat groups [56].
Antioxidant Properties
Several studies have been conducted to evaluate the antioxidant properties of RH and its
derivatives in vitro. Gao, Björk, Trajkovski, and Uggla (2000) investigated a crude extract
prepared with 50% ethanol from RHP and its phenolic, ascorbic, and lipophilic factions [3]. High
antioxidant activity was found in all assays tested: the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
assay, Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), lipid peroxidation (AMVN) and
inhibition (AAPH) assay. The phenolic fraction made a major contribution to the antioxidant
activity, but it was the lipophilic component that was the most effective based on the relation
between total antioxidant capacity and antioxidant concentration [3].
Egea, Sánchez-Bel, Romojaro, and Pretel (2010) studied the total antioxidant activity of Rosa
canina RH with five other fruits by measuring their ability to reduce the hydroxyl radical (OH.)
and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and their TEAC [59]. Total phenolics, ascorbic acid, and
carotenoid content of the fruits were also analyzed. The phenolic and carotenoid content of Rosa
canina was much higher than that of the other fruits analyzed. The ascorbic acid concentration
of Rosa canina RH was also high, reflecting its higher activity on the TEAC assay and against
H2O2 species. A collection analysis between each antioxidant and each phytonutrient was made;
however, only phenolics and carotenoids showed a marginal correlation with the TEAC assay [59].
Anti-obese Activities
Rosa canina and the compound tiliroside (the principal constituent of its seeds) exhibit anti-obesity
and anti-diabetic activities via the enhancement of fatty acid oxidation in the liver and skeletal
muscle [60, 61].
Other Properties
The leaf extract of Rosa canina has an inhibitory effect against experimental diarrhea induced by
castor oil in rodents [62]. Quercetin, isolated from a methanolic extract of RH, has an inhibitory
effect on melanogenesis in B16 melanoma cells [63]. Orally administering RH inhibits the skin
pigmentation and tyrosinase activity in brown guinea pigs [63, 64].
Functional Foods in Health and Disease 2014; 4(11):493-509 Page 505 of 509
The hydromethanol Rosa canina extract contributed to reducing the kidney and liver lipid
peroxide to optimum level in rats that had been treated with ethylene glycol (EG) induced calcium
oxide calculi in the kidneys. Rosa canina could potentially be used as a preventive agent against
the formation of calcium oxide kidney stones [65].
CONCLUSIONS:
Rose hip is a good source of phytonutrients including vitamin C and lycopene, in addition to the
anti-inflammatory agent GOPO. Due to its nutritional composition, Rose hip supplementation has
many positive effects on certain chronic diseases including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and
cancer. There is also evidence to support anti-obesity and anti-diabetic activities from
experimental studies on rodents. Though additional studies are required, Rose hip could be
considered a functional food due to those health benefits.
List of Abbreviations: RH, Rose hip; ALA, α-linolenic acids; GOPO, (2S)-1,2-di-O-
[(9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoyl]-3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl glycerol; RHP, Rose hip
powder; WOMAC, Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index; RA,
rheumatoid arthritis; HAQ-DI, Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index; PBLs,
peripheral blood leukocytes; OA, osteoarthritis; COX, cyclooxygenase; COX-1, cyclooxygenase-
1; PTGS1, prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase; TLS, thermal lens spectrometry; HPLC, high
performance liquid chromatography; HPV, human papilloma virus; LDL, low density lipoprotein;
CHD, coronary heart disease; DRI, Dietary Reference Intakes; FNB, Food and Nutrition Board;
IOM, Institute of Medicine; CVD, cardiovascular disease; FDA, Food and Drug Administration;
IFIC, International Food Information Council; FFC, Functional Food Center; ASFFBC, Academic
Society for Functional Food and Bioactive Components; USDA, United States Department of
Agriculture; ARS, Agricultural Research Service; RCTs, randomized controlled trials; FRAP,
ferric-reducing antioxidant power; TEAC, Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity; EG, ethylene
glycol; RDAs, Recommended Dietary Allowances; ULs, Tolerable Upper Intake Levels.
Competing Interests: The authors have no financial interests or any other conflicts of interest to
disclose.
Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed to this review.
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