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Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs and its Associated Complications: A Review

January 2015

Authors:

Subha Ganguly

Government of West Bengal

Praveen KUMAR Praveen

Arawali Veterinary College, RAJUVAS, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India.

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International Journal of Recent Biotechnology

Available online at www.ijrbp.com

IJRB

Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs and its Associated Complications: A Review

Kausar Qadri

, Subha Ganguly

*, Praveen Kumar Praveen

and Rajesh Wakchaure

Assistant Prof., Dept. of Veterinary Medicine,

Associate Prof. & Head, Dept. of Veterinary Microbiology,

Assistant Prof., Dept. of Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology,

Associate Prof., Dept. of Animal Genetics &

Breeding, Arawali Veterinary College (Affiliated with Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,

Bikaner), N.H. – 11 Jaipur Road, V.P.O. Bajor, Dist. Sikar, Pin - 332001, Rajasthan, India

*Corresponding Author Email: ganguly38@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

Canine diabetes is a common endocrine disorder

with an estimated breed-related prevalence

ranging from 0.005% to 1.5% in pet dogs.

Increased prevalence in some breeds suggests

that diabetes in dogs is influenced by genetic

factors and similarities between canine and

human diabetes phenotypes suggest that the

same genes might be associated with disease

susceptibility in both species. Between 1-5% of

human diabetes cases result from mutations in a

single gene, including maturity onset diabetes of

the adult (MODY) and neonatal diabetes

mellitus (NDM) [1].

Diabetes is a common condition where sugar

(glucose) levels of the body are poorly

regulated, due to either lack of production of the

hormone insulin, made in the pancreas, or an

increase in resistance of tissues in the body to

the effects of insulin [2]. Canine diabetes has

been compared with human type 1 diabetes

(T1D) [3]. canine insulin-deficiency diabetes

(IDD) occurs more commonly in older dogs,

aged 7–12 years [4]. Females are at increased

risk, regardless of neuter status. Neutered males

are at greater risk than intact males.

Breed Susceptibility

Pedigree dog breeds, similar to some ethnic

groups in the human population [5], display

ABSTRACT

Diabetes mellitus is a disease of the pancreas. This is a small but vital organ located near the

stomach. It has two significant populations of cells. One group of cells produces the enzymes

necessary for proper digestion. The other group, called beta-cells, produces the hormone insulin.

Insulin regulates the level of glucose in the bloodstream and controls the delivery of glucose to the

tissues of the body. In simple terms, diabetes mellitus is caused the failure of the pancreas to regulate

blood sugar. Diabetes has evidence in ancient literatures, though recently is being considered as one

amongst the most emerging disease condition in both human and companion animals. Diabetes

mellitus is one of the common endocrinopathy of dog characterized by hyperglycemia, glycosuria and

weight loss (Kumar et al., 2014).Although the exact mechanism of pancreatic β-cell loss in canine

diabetes has not been determined, The cause of β-cell loss is likely multifactorial i.e.autoimmunity,

genetics, environment, diseases resulting in insulin antagonism.Diabetes in most dogs is immune

mediated and insulin dependent. Breed predisposition in canine is attributed to dog leukocyte antigen

gene pool encoding form major histocompatibility complex-II molecules, however research is still

underway.

Key words: Diabetes mellitus,Dog, Hyperglycemia

ISSN: 2322 – 0392

Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): xx-xx

ISSN: 2322 – 0392

Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): 18-22

Review Article

Kausar Qadri

et al Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): 18-22

variability in diabetes susceptibility, with some

breeds (e.g. Samoyed) being over-represented,

whereas others (e.g. Boxer) seem to be relatively

resistant to developing the disease [6]. These

breed-related differences in diabetes

susceptibility suggest that the pathogenesis of

diabetes is influenced by genetic factors and

similarities between canine and human diabetes

phenotypes indicate that the same genes and/or

genetic pathways might be involved in both

species. Since some phenotypes also appear to

be somewhat breed-specific [7], for example

NDM, in Keeshond dogs [8] and dioestrus

diabetes in female entire Elkhounds and

Lapphunds [9], there could be differences in the

individual susceptibility genes that contribute to

the overall genetic risk for different dog breeds,

as is seen with different ethnic groups and type 2

diabetes in humans [10].

Classification

In humans, there are two types of diabetes

mellitus. Both types are similar in that there is a

failure to regulate blood sugar, but the basic

mechanisms of disease differ somewhat between

the two. "Type I Diabetes Mellitus is the most

common type of diabetes in dogs."

Type I Diabetes Mellitus (sometimes also

caused Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus),

results from total or near-complete destruction

of the beta-cells. This is the most common type

of diabetes in dogs. As the name implies, dogs

with this type of diabetes require insulin

injections to stabilize blood sugar.

Type II Diabetes Mellitus (sometimes called

Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus), is

different because some insulin-producing cells

remain. However, the amount of insulin

produced is insufficient, there is a delayed

response in secreting it, or the tissues of the

dog's body are relatively resistant to it (also

referred to as insulin resistance). Type II

diabetes may occur in older obese dogs. People

with this form may be treated with an oral drug

that stimulates the remaining functional cells to

produce or release insulin in an adequate amount

to normalize blood sugar. Unfortunately, dogs

tend not to respond well to these oral

medications and usually need some insulin to

control the disease [10].

Canine diabetes mellitus (DM), classified as

either type I or type II, is a generally treatable

condition caused by insulin deficiency. At

diagnosis, most diabetic dogs are suspected of

having type I. Type I patients, characterized by

permanent inability to produce insulin, often

require exogenous insulin administration.DM

has a potential immune-mediated cause (though

this is not firmly established).Diabetogenic

drugs, pregnancy, and chronic pancreatitis are

also possible causes of canine DM.

Pathophysiology

Insulin deficiency results in hyperglycemia by

causing:Uninhibited hepatic glucoseproduction,

impaired entry of glucose into tissues,

accelerated protein and lipid catabolism.

Persistent hyperglycemia results in glucosuria

when the renal tubularthreshold for glucose

excretion >180–220 mg/dL. Increased

proteolysis leads to muscle wasting and poor

wound healing. As the accelerated lipid

catabolism persists, hepatic lipidosis develops

and ketoacidosis can result secondary

toenhanced ketone body production, endothelial

damage and immunesuppressionultimately

occur[11].

Clinical Signs

The clinical signs seen in diabetes mellitus are

related to the elevated concentrations of blood

glucose and the inability of the body to use

glucose as an energy source. They arepolyuria,

polydipsia, polyphagia, weight loss, owners

occasionally report acute blindness secondary to

cataract formation.

Diagnosis

Diabetes mellitus is diagnosed by the presence

of the typical clinical signs (excess thirst, excess

urination, excess appetite, and weight loss), in

addition the presence of a persistently high level

of glucose in the blood stream, and the presence

of glucose in the urine. The normal level of

glucose in the blood is 80-120 mg/dl (4.4-6.6

mmol/l). It may rise to 250-300 mg/dl (13.6-16.5

mmol/l) following a large or high-calorie meal.

However, diabetes is the only common disease

that will cause the blood glucose level to rise

above 400 mg/dl (22 mmol/l). Some diabetic

dogs will have a glucose level as high as 700-

800 mg/dl (44 mmol/l), although most will be in

Kausar Qadri

et al Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): 18-22

the range of 400-600 mg/dl (22-33 mmol/l).To

conserve glucose within the body, the kidneys

do not filter glucose out of the blood stream into

the urine until an excessive level is reached. This

means that dogs with a normal blood glucose

level will not have glucose in the urine. Diabetic

dogs, however, have excessive amounts of

glucose in the blood, so it will be present in the

urine. After the blood sugar reaches 180 mg/dl,

the excess blood sugar is removed by the

kidneys and enters the urine. This is why dogs

and people with diabetes mellitus have sugar in

their urine (called glucosuria) when their insulin

is low [12].

Prognosis for a dog with diabetes mellitus

Once the diabetes mellitus is properly regulated,

the dog's prognosis is good as long as treatment

and monitoring are consistent. Most dogs with

controlled diabetes live a good quality of life

with few symptoms of disease.

Treatment

Short-acting insulin (eg, regular insulin, insulin

lispro) is predominately used in the hospital for

clinically ill diabetics or DKAs, as increased

potency increases risk for hypoglycemia.

• Intermediate-acting insulin is the common

choice, as it results in the best glycemic

control.

• Human recombinant neutral protamine

Hagedorn (NPH) insulin. Comparable with

NPH insulin,lente insulin is currently

unavailable.

• Long-acting insulin effectively reduces the

blood glucose level but varies in absorption,

time to nadir, and duration of action,

increasing risk for hypoglycemia and

Somogyi effect.

• Insulin detemir, insulin glargine, and

protamine zinc insulin (PZI).

• Treatment should be initiated q12h, although

starting doses differ forinsulin types.

Insulin therapy in dogs

The two most effective insulin formulations in

dogs are NPH and Lente insulins. Use of human

recombinant insulin or pure pork insulin, appear

to avoid the complications that can occur due to

development of anti-insulin antibodies in dogs

treated beef/pork insulin. Lente insulin

(Caninsulin/Vetsulin) and NPH insulin

(Humulin N) are used at a starting dose of 0.25

to 0.5 IU/kg twice a day. Most dogs treated with

NPH and Lente insulin require twice daily

treatment, and twice daily therapy should be

recommended in all dogs, but because Lente

insulin is a mixture of ultralente and semilente

insulin, the duration tends to be longer than the

duration of NPH. For this reason up to 30% of

dogs have adequate glycemic control with once

a day therapy. Long acting insulins such as PZI,

glargine, and detemir are unpredictable in dogs

and are not appropriate for the initial

management of most diabetic dogs; however

treatment with these products may be necessary

in dogs that have a very short duration of action

when treated with NPH insulin or Lente insulin.

The analogue insulin, detemir has only been

evaluated in a small number of diabetic dogs. It

is important to be aware that this insulin is much

more potent in the dog than other insulin

products with the dose needed for good

glycemic control ranging from 0.07-0.23 U/Kg.

Table: Starting dose and dose range for insulin

products used in diabetic dogs

Insulin Starting

dose Median

dose Dose range

NPH

0.25-0.5 U/kg

0.5 U/kg

0.2-1.0 U/kg

Lente

0.25-0.5 U/kg

0.7 U/kg

0.3-1.4U/kg

PZI

0.5 U/kg

1.0 U/kg

0.4 -1.5U/kg

Glargine

0.5 U/kg

0.6 U/kg

0.1-1.1 U/kg

Detemir

0.1-0.2 U/kg

--- 0.07-0.23 U/kg

Dietary management

Dietary management should be instituted at the

same time as insulin therapy in the diabetic

dogs. The goal of dietary therapy is to minimize

postprandial fluctuations in blood glucose and to

potentiate the action of insulin. Studies support

the feeding of a high complex carbohydrate (>

50% dry matter), high fiber diet (> 10% dry

matter) to dogs with DM. Diets containing

increased amounts of soluble fiber (fruits,

legumes, oats) delay gastric emptying alter

intestinal transit time and potentiate the actions

of insulin in tissues. Increased amounts of

Kausar Qadri

et al Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): 18-22

insoluble fiber (cellulose, vegetables, and grains)

alter intestinal transit time and slow starch

hydrolysis. The net effect of a high fiber diet is

to slow glucose absorption from the intestinal

tract, reduce postprandial fluctuations in blood

glucose and enhance glycemic control of the

diabetic dog. Reduced fat diets are probably

appropriate in diabetic dogs due to their

susceptibility to hepatic lipidosis, pancreatitis

and hypercholesterolemia. Canned or dry foods

are the diet of choice in diabetics since they

contain predominantly complex rather than

simple carbohydrates. Canned diets tend to be

lower in carbohydrates than dry diets. Since

complex carbohydrates require digestion before

absorption, they minimize postprandial

fluctuations in blood glucose concentration. Soft

moist foods contain simple carbohydrates which

are rapidly absorbed. These diets may result in

rapid fluctuations in blood glucose 30-45 min

after eating. Soft moist foods also contain large

quantities of propylene glycol which cause

postprandial hyperglycemia. The daily caloric

intake should be designed to correct obesity and

maintain ideal body weight. Obesity has been

shown to cause reversible insulin resistance in

dogs due to its effects on insulin receptors. In

dogs reversal of obesity may improve glycemic

control and decrease the requirement for insulin,

but is unlikely to replace the need for insulin

therapy. The feeding schedule is also very

important in diabetic dogs. Feeding should occur

when insulin is present in the bloodstream in

order to utilize glucose as it is absorbed. If this

does not happen, severe postprandial

hyperglycemia will occur. Also multiple

feedings are preferable since this will help

minimize the hyperglycemic effect of each

individual meal. Ideally 3 - 4 small meals/day

should be fed, however the schedule of most

owners limits the ideal feeding schedule. For

dogs receiving once a day insulin (which rarely

results in good glycemic control in dogs), one

meal should be given at the time of insulin

administration, and a second meal given in the

late afternoon at the time of peak insulin effect.

For those dogs receiving insulin twice a day, at

least 4 meals would be ideal. In most cases,

however, two meals are fed at the same time as

insulin is administered. As in every aspect of

management of the diabetic patient a regular and

consistent feeding schedule is the most

important factor [13].

Poor response to insulin

Clinical signs suggestive of inappropriate

response to insulin therapy include recurrence or

persistence of clinical signs of DM,

disorientation or seizures due to hypoglycemia,

an insulin dose higher than 2 U/Kg/dose in the

dog or recurrent ketoacidosis. Adequate

assessment of the cause of the problem requires

performing a blood glucose curve. Measurement

of fructosamine may also be helpful. Once this

data has been evaluated, appropriate changes in

treatment or further diagnostic testing can then

be instituted. In dogs receiving twice daily

insulin, most glucose curves can be performed

during working hours (8 am to 6 pm). Common

problems that may lead to a poor response to

insulin include problems with owner

administration, inappropriate insulin dose or

formulation, insulin induced hypoglycemia,

rapid metabolism of insulin, and insulin

resistance. It is important to take into

consideration the level of stress of the dog while

in the hospital when interpreting the results of

blood glucose curves. It is also important to

appreciate that blood glucose curves show

significant day to day variability. Other factors

such as clinical signs, results of urine blood

glucose measurements, serum fructosamine

concentrations, and changes in physical

examination (especially body weight), should be

taken into account when interpreting the results

of a blood glucose curve.

Problems with owner administration

Diagnosis of problems of owner administration

of insulin may be detected either by a thorough

history or by administration of insulin from a

new bottle in the clinic by a clinician or

veterinary technician, followed by a repeated

blood glucose curve. Care should be taken to

monitor the patient carefully in this setting

however, because severe hypoglycemia can

result if the insulin dose has been escalated due

to problems with administration. If

hypoglycemia does occur, the dose of

administered insulin should be decreased by 25-

75 % depending upon the severity of

hypoglycemia and a blood glucose curve

repeated after 7 days of the new dose.

Kausar Qadri

et al Int. J. Rec. Biotech. 2015, 3 (4): 18-22

Prevention and control

Prevention and controlinvolve a healthy diet,

physical exercise, being a normal body weight.

Blood pressure control and proper foot care are

also important. Type 1 diabetes must be

managed with insulin injections. Type 2 diabetes

may be treated with medications with or without

insulin.

Nutritional Aspects

• Minimizing postprandial blood glucose

fluctuations is the principal goal of dietary

therapy.

• Most studies suggest that fiber-rich diets,

particularly insoluble fiber, resultin

improved glycemic control.

• The ideal dietary composition is debatable,

as improved glycemic control may be

attributed to the high-fiber, low-

carbohydrate, lowfat, or combination

content.

• Diet change is not recommended during

stabilization.

• If diabetes is difficult to regulate, increase

fiber.

• Diets should be palatable to ensure

predictable consumption.

• Equal-sized meals should be offered q12h

(with insulin administration).

• Overweight dogs require weight reduction

programs, as obesity contributes to insulin

resistance.

SUMMARY

Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to cataract

formation, bacterial infections (usually urinary

tract), ketoacidosis, hepatic lipidosis, persistent

weight loss, DM can also be complicated by

morbid conditions (e.g., pancreatitis, infections,

hyperadrenocorticism).Attempting to control

diabetes with insulin therapy can lead to

iatrogenichypoglycemia.

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Jul 2014

Background: Canine diabetes is a common endocrine disorder with an estimated breed-related prevalence ranging from 0.005% to 1.5% in pet dogs. Increased prevalence in some breeds suggests that diabetes in dogs is influenced by genetic factors and similarities between canine and human diabetes phenotypes suggest that the same genes might be associated with disease susceptibility in both species. Between 1-5% of human diabetes cases result from mutations in a single gene, including maturity onset diabetes of the adult (MODY) and neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM). It is not clear whether monogenic forms of diabetes exist within some dog breeds. Identification of forms of canine monogenic diabetes could help to resolve the heterogeneity of the condition and lead to development of breed-specific genetic tests for diabetes susceptibility. Results: Seventeen dog breeds were screened for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in eighteen genes that have been associated with human MODY/NDM. Six SNP associations were found from five genes, with one gene (ZFP57) being associated in two different breeds. Conclusions: Some of the genes that have been associated with susceptibility to MODY and NDM in humans appear to also be associated with canine diabetes, although the limited number of associations identified in this study indicates canine diabetes is a heterogeneous condition and is most likely to be a polygenic trait in most dog breeds.

Canine Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnosis, Adequate Care and Overall Management Practices Involved

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2014

Subha Ganguly

Diabetes mellitus is caused in pet animals due to inadequate production of insulin by the islet beta cells in the pancreas. Glucose in the urine causes the diabetic animal to excrete large volumes of urine. In turn, this creates dehydration and the urge to drink large amounts of water. Females with the disease outnumber males by three to one. The average age of onset is 6 to 9 years.

Current practices and research updates on diabetes mellitus in canine

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2014

Diabetes has evidence in ancient literatures, though recently is being considered as one amongst the most emerging disease condition in both human and companion animals. Diabetes mellitus is one of the common endocrinopathy of dog characterized by hyperglycemia, glycosuria and weight loss. Reports suggests high fraction of canine population suffer with diabetes world over. Studies in different veterinary hospitals of United States suggest increase in cases of canine diabetes and decrease in case fatality rate over time. Increase in cases of canine diabetes worldwide is attributed to awareness amongst pet owners, better veterinary health facilities, breed preferences by dog owners, increase dependence on commercial feeds, obesity, etc. Diabetes in most dogs is immune mediated and insulin dependent. Breed predisposition in canine is attributed to dog leukocyte antigen gene pool encoding form major histocompatibility complex-II molecules, however research is still underway. Diagnosis of diabetes still relies on blood sugar evaluation for screening of canine population, though many other diagnostic methods have shown promising benefits including measurement of fructosamine and glycated haemoglobin. Management of diabetes in dog is based on insulin therapy, diet modification and exercise. Use of oral anti-diabetics drugs in canine is limited though experimental studies have shown promising results. Alternative therapies have been explored, but only a few approaches have shown promise for clinical application.

Type 2 Diabetes Risk Alleles Demonstrate Extreme Directional Differentiation among Human Populations, Compared to Other Diseases

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2012
PLOS GENET

Many disease-susceptible SNPs exhibit significant disparity in ancestral and derived allele frequencies across worldwide populations. While previous studies have examined population differentiation of alleles at specific SNPs, global ethnic patterns of ensembles of disease risk alleles across human diseases are unexamined. To examine these patterns, we manually curated ethnic disease association data from 5,065 papers on human genetic studies representing 1,495 diseases, recording the precise risk alleles and their measured population frequencies and estimated effect sizes. We systematically compared the population frequencies of cross-ethnic risk alleles for each disease across 1,397 individuals from 11 HapMap populations, 1,064 individuals from 53 HGDP populations, and 49 individuals with whole-genome sequences from 10 populations. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) demonstrated extreme directional differentiation of risk allele frequencies across human populations, compared with null distributions of European-frequency matched control genomic alleles and risk alleles for other diseases. Most T2D risk alleles share a consistent pattern of decreasing frequencies along human migration into East Asia. Furthermore, we show that these patterns contribute to disparities in predicted genetic risk across 1,397 HapMap individuals, T2D genetic risk being consistently higher for individuals in the African populations and lower in the Asian populations, irrespective of the ethnicity considered in the initial discovery of risk alleles. We observed a similar pattern in the distribution of T2D Genetic Risk Scores, which are associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes in the Diabetes Prevention Program cohort, for the same individuals. This disparity may be attributable to the promotion of energy storage and usage appropriate to environments and inconsistent energy intake. Our results indicate that the differential frequencies of T2D risk alleles may contribute to the observed disparity in T2D incidence rates across ethnic populations.

Epizootiologic patterns of diabetes mellitus in dogs

Article

Full-text available

Apr 1982

A case-control study of spontaneous diabetes mellitus in dogs was undertaken, using 2 veterinary data bases. The Veterinary Medical Data Program (VMDP) contained records of 1,019 cases of canine diabetes from 14 university-affiliated veterinary hospitals. The Animal Medical Center (AMC), a private veterinary hospital which has not participated in the VMDP, contained records of 449 diabetes cases. Each data base was analyzed separately, control groups being chosen from all admissions, excluding diabetic animals. Summary odds ratios by sex adjusted for age and breed indicated significantly ( P < 0.05) elevated risks for entire females and neutered females compared with that for entire males. The VMDP data indicated a significantly elevated risk for castrated males, whereas the risk derived from AMC data was not significantly different from 1. Analysis of risks by breed adjusting for age and sex identified Poodles as being at significantly excess risk, and German Shepherd Dogs, Cocker Spaniels, Collies, and Boxers at significantly decreased risk in both data sets. The male:female risk ratio changed with age from 1 at less than 1 year of age to a predominance of females at older ages. In the AMC data base, diabetes was significantly associated with cataracts in dogs of both sexes combined. Diabetes was also significantly associated with benign mammary tumors in female dogs.

Ethnic diversity in Type 2 diabetes

Article

Sep 2008
DIABETIC MED

Timothy Davis

The present review assesses published data relating to the main ethnic groups in the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), namely White Caucasians (WC; 82% of the cohort), Indian-Asians (IA; 10%) and Afro-Caribbeans (AC; 8%). At entry, the IA patients were younger than WC and AC patients, had a greater waist-hip ratio and more sedentary lifestyle, but had the lowest prevalence of hypertension and current smoking. The AC patients had the poorest glycaemic control but the most favourable lipid profile. The differences in modifiable vascular risk factors did not change over 9 years of follow-up. Consistent with UKPDS exclusion criteria, few patients had complications at baseline and there were no between-group differences. An interim analysis of incident fatal/non-fatal myocardial infarction (median follow-up 8.7 years) showed that the AC patients had a 70% lower risk than WC after adjustment for explanatory variables and that IA patients had a similar risk to WC. An analysis of complete albuminuria and renal failure data (median follow-up 15 years) showed that IA ethnicity was independently associated with an increased risk. There are sustained ethnic differences in the nature of diabetes, including vascular risk factors. AC patients had a substantially reduced risk of myocardial infarction that was not explained by their more favourable lipid profile, while IA patients were more likely to develop nephropathy than WC and IA patients. Longer follow-up is needed to determine whether the increased macrovascular risk observed in IA patients in other studies is replicated in the UKPDS cohort.

Inheritance of diabetes mellitus in Keeshond dogs

Article

Apr 1988

The genetic aspects of inherited, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus of Keeshond dogs were studied retrospectively and in a prospective mating program. The symbol dm was used to designate the gene that causes hypoplasia of the islets of Langerhans. The retrospective study disclosed 4 diabetic dogs; prospective outcross, backcross, and inbred matings disclosed 49 diabetic dogs. Outcrossing demonstrated that the diabetic phenotype was displayed readily against a genetic background of a breed other than the Keeshond. In dogs with the dm/dm genotype, onset of diabetes was most frequent before the dog was 6 months old, but did occur in some older dogs. The dm genotype was best described as autosomal recessive.

Diabetes mellitus in dogs: Relationship of obesity to glucose tolerance and insulin response

Article

Feb 1984

The iv glucose-tolerance test was performed in 71 diabetic dogs (fasting glycemia > 6.70 mmol/L) and in 20 healthy dogs. All diabetic dogs were characterized by various degrees of glucose intolerance as expressed by an abnormal glucose disappearance coefficient. On the basis of the fasting plasma insulin concentration (Io), insulin peak response ( ipr ), the insulinogenic index (ΔΙ/ΔG), and the total insulin secretion ( tis ), the diabetic dogs were classified, as follows: Type I dogs (n = 32) which had the severe clinical signs of diabetes and an absence of certain diagnostic responses: Io, ipr , ΔΙ/ΔG, and tis . Type II dogs (n = 15) which also had marked diabetic signs and an absence of ipr , ΔΙ/ΔG, and tis responses. The dogs were further subdivided into obese and nonobese groups; the Io was within acceptable limits in the nonobese group (n = 8), but was markedly increased in the obese group (n = 7). Type III dogs (n = 24) had no diabetic signs and a fasting plasma glucose < 12 mmol/L. They were also subdivided into obese and nonobese groups. The nonobese dogs (n = 13) had Io values within acceptable limits and decreased ipr , ΔΙ/ΔG, and Tis. In contrast, the obese dogs had increased Io, ipr , ΔI/ΔG, and tis . Statistical analyses indicated that the tis and Io were highly significant linear functions of obesity. It was shown that obesity was the most important factor accounting for the variations in insulin responses among all types of diabetic dogs, as well as within each type.

Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in dogs and cats. Contrasts and comparisons

Article

Jun 1995
VET CLIN N AM-SMALL

The diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is relatively straightforward; however, there are important differences in clinical presentation and the incidence of stress-induced hyperglycemia in cats compared with dogs. This article discusses the pathophysiology that leads to the clinical signs of diabetes mellitus in cats and dogs, compares and contrasts the presenting clinical signs of diabetes mellitus in these animals, and reviews the latest developments in differentiating stress-induced hyperglycemia from diabetes mellitus in cats.

Breed distribution of dogs with diabetes mellitus admitted to a tertiary care facility

Article

May 2000
JAVMA-J AM VET MED A

To determine which dog breeds are at low and high risk for developing diabetes mellitus (DM). Cohort study. Hospital population of 221 dogs with DM and 42,882 dogs without DM during 5.5 years. 165 breeds (including a mixed-breed category) were represented in the hospital population. Breed-specific expected numbers of dogs with DM were calculated by multiplying the proportion of all dogs admitted to the hospital that were determined to have DM during the study period by the breed-specific totals during the study period. Breeds or breed groups evaluated in the analysis (n = 20) were restricted to those that had a combined observed and expected count > 5 to document breeds at low and high risk for developing DM. Proportionate changes in the risk of developing DM by breed were calculated and presented using exact odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals, and P values. Mixed-breed dogs were chosen as the reference breed. Samoyeds, Miniature Schnauzers, Miniature Poodles, Pugs, and Toy Poodles were at high risk for developing DM. Dog breeds found to be at low risk for developing DM were German Shepherd Dog, Golden Retriever, and American Pit Bull Terrier. The finding that certain dog breeds are at low or high risk for developing DM suggests that some genetic defects may predispose dogs to development of DM, whereas other genetic factors may protect dogs from development of DM.

Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs and its Associated Complications: A Review

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