Viewing Architectural Design as an Impetus to Spur Outer Space Development

Abstract

The international space station has been deemed a success by space scientists, engineers, policymakers, elected officials, and others knowledgeable about outer space activities. After more than 10 years of experiments, humankind now possesses sufficient knowledge about sustaining human life in outer space. Thus, decisions have been made recently to take the next steps to develop the final frontier. Attracting innovative talent from all disciplines will be crucial for the successful development of outer space. This paper will provide research highlighting space laws and space policies which have initiated economic incentives for the newly emerging industries including space tourism, private spaceship development, commercial spaceports, space mining and orbital and other space hotels. This paper suggests that architectural design can serve as a creative impetus for outer space development. Challenges and opportunities for teaching online and virtual outer space development and space law courses to architectural design students will be discussed. © Common Ground, Tracy S. Harris, Edythe E. Weeks, All Rights Reserved.

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Volume 5
Viewing Architectural Design as an Impetus to Spur
Outer Space Development
Tracy S. Harris and Edythe E. Weeks

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Viewing Architectural Design as an Impetus to Spur
Outer Space Development
Tracy S. Harris, American Institute of Architects, USA
Edythe E. Weeks, Webster University Worldwide, Missouri, USA
Abstract: The international space station has been deemed a success by space scientists, engineers,
policymakers, elected ofcials, and others knowledgeable about outer space activities. After more than
10 years of experiments, humankind now possesses sufcient knowledge about sustaining human life
in outer space. Thus, decisions have been made recently to take the next steps to develop the nal
frontier. Attracting innovative talent from all disciplines will be crucial for the successful development
of outer space. This paper will provide research highlighting space laws and space policies which
have initiated economic incentives for the newly emerging industries including space tourism, private
spaceship development, commercial spaceports, space mining and orbital and other space hotels. This
paper suggests that architectural design can serve as a creative impetus for outer space development.
Challenges and opportunities for teaching online and virtual outer space development and space law
courses to architectural design students will be discussed.
Keywords: Outer Space Development, Future Cities, Space Law, Teaching Online
A Discursive Analysis and Pictorial Description of the Images Appearing in this Paper were
Accessed in Compliance with FAIR Use Provisions of the Copyright Act. Image of space
colony architecture. Source: http://desktop.freewallpaper4.me/download/4401/space-colony-
construction (accessed on April 2, 2011)
This idea of space settlement seems odd to people; it doesn’t seem inviting. When I suggested
such an idea in an article I wrote a few years ago, I received a number of letters arguing
Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal
Volume 5, 2011, http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874
© Common Ground, Tracy S. Harris, Edythe E. Weeks, All Rights Reserved, Permissions:
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against the possibility of space settlements. The arguments weren’t based on economics; the
main argument was that nobody would want to live in space.
Isaac Asimov
Introducing Outer Space Development
NASA Photo of 951 Gaspra, and Mars Two Moons, Phobos and Deimos
There exists a wealth of knowledge out outer space resources. Space missions, probes and
telescopes have enabled people to know what’s out there. For example, in 1996 the Near
spacecraft launched the Shoemaker probe to send back information regarding Eros, an asteroid
in Near Earth Orbit. Many space explorations have taken place since the beginning of the
space age in 1957. We have reached a point in time when outer space has been placed on
the agenda for serious development.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

NASA Photo of Eros as Seen by the NEAR Spacecraft, 1996. Source http://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011).
NASA Photo Taken by the Near Spacecraft of Eros Asteroid from Approximately 1,150
Meters as the Spacecraft Descended upon the Asteroid in 1996 Source http://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011).
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

NASA Photo of the NEAR Spacecraft Prior to Launch. Source http://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011)
Outer space is being developed for various reasons. One important reason is that platinum
group metals such as iridium and osmium, and various other valuable untapped natural re-
sources have been discovered in abundant quantities in outer space, and are likely to be
mined by companies1. The discovery of natural resources has sparked development projects
in the past. These historical patterns of human behavior seem to be occurring today, as
companies speed up the process of private spaceship development, now that the NASA Space
Shuttle eet is retiring. This is turn should spark and fund projects and create build the space
infrastructure2. Key decision makers within the executive and legislative branches of the
U.S. government have determined that the U.S. must maintain its leadership in space. This
is clear from various hearings, laws and policies, consistently been put forth since 19573. A
1For further reading see http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/back3.html and http://members.shaw.ca/andrewlowe/PHA-
SOON.HTM#Earth (Accessed October 26, 2010).
2Small Bodies Assessment Group (SBAG), “SBAG Community Decadal White Papers” at
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/reports/ (Accessed October 26, 2010).
3Examples include National Space Policy Directives under President George H.W. Bush (1989-1992) include the
following: National Space Policy Directives and Charter, NSPD-1; Commercial Space Launch Policy, NSPD-2;
U.S. Commercial Space Launch Policy Guidelines, NSPD-3; National Space Launch Strategy, NSPD-4; Landsat
Remote Sensing Strategy, NSPD-5; Space Exploration Initiative, NSPD-6; and Space-Based Global Change Obser-
vation, NSPD-7. Executive Branch Directives under President William Jefferson Clinton (1992-2000) include:
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

myriad of space laws and policies have been active in space commercialization and the in-
ternational community has tended to view U.S. law as a model for industry development.
Recently, the 2010 NASA Authorization Act and various other laws and policies initiated
within the U.S. government have placed on the agenda plans to build advanced space trans-
portation systems, privatize spacecraft development, commercial space habitats, space stations
and space settlements, commercial space mining, spacecraft trajectory optimization for
landing on near Earth asteroids, commercial spaceport construction, interstellar-interplanetary-
international telecommunications and space exploration missions to near Earth asteroids,
the Moon, Mars and Mars’ two moons – Phobos and Deimos. Once the new missions become
more common, agendas for new designation throughout the solar system are also likely to
be explored more frequently.
Thalassa and Neptune, Credit: Image by NASA, Source: http://www.nasa.gov (accessed
March 25, 2011)
National Space Technology Council Presidential Decision Directives, 1993-1995; Establishment of Presidential
Review and Decision Series/NSTC, NSTC-1; Convergence of U.S.-Polar Operational Environmental Satellite
Systems, NSTC-2; Landsat Report Sensing Strategy, NSTC-3 National Space Transportation Policy, NSTC-4,
August 5, 1994; 19 Sep 96 National Space Policy Fact Sheet, NSTC-8; Fact Sheet on Presidential Decision Directive
(PDD) 23; Foreign Access To Remote Sensing Space Capabilities, March 10, 1994; DoD Space Policy, July 1999;
and the U.S. Decision to Stop Degrading Global Positioning System Accuracy, May 1, 2000.
For a complete analysis of U.S. and International laws and regulations structuring the commercialization of remote
sensing images see Michel Bourbonniere (1997) Commercialization of Remote Sensing. United States and Interna-
tional Law: Towards a Liberalization of Economic Regulations, L.L.M. thesis, McGill University, Canada. In this
analysis he argues that "a contextual evolution of the global geopolitical climate is forcing a regulatory retooling
for commercial space endeavors", and has "created new paradigms based upon international economic market
values". Therefore, "the initial international treaties and institutions must evolve to reect these criteria". Regarding
the impact of high resolution satellite technology on new policy directives in the U.S. and internationally in the
Post-Détente international structure see Cornelia Christa Jarica (1996) Commercialization of High Resolution Earth
Observation Satellite Remote Sensing, M.A. thesis, Florida Atlantic University. Also see The Politics of Space Law
in a Post Cold War Era: Understanding Regime Change, Edythe E. Weeks, Esq. Northern Arizona University,
December, 2006.
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

Skyscrapers and a Moment in Time
We anticipate counterviews to our paper, rooted in the belief that it can be dangerous to
dream; it may lead to disappointments. Under normal circumstances, an architect would not
need to research laws, interpret economic policy and be concerned with outer space. However,
in these times of economic uncertainty, a prolonged recession and high rates of unemployment,
it is dangerous not to dream. It is careless not to enable students to understand how to forecast
newly emerging industry trends. For these reasons, architects are being asked to dream and
to activate multiple cognitive skill-sets, including legal research, economic policy analysis
and an awareness of key activities happening regarding space technology, and to incorporate
this into practice areas and teach these critical skills to architectural design students.
Although skyscrapers were once seen as unrealistic fantasy structures, they soon became
the meat and potatoes for construction rms and architects for many decades. In today’s
economy, building projects have slowed down and many architects are bracing themselves
during the prolonged global economic recession. Architects can research, learn about, interpret
and discover for themselves, the implications of new economic policy. They can use this
knowledge to gure out how to develop their own special expertise and ready themselves
to compete in newly emerging markets being created by new outer space development
movers and shakers.
Identifying Outer Space Development as a Worthwhile Project
We are aware of perspectives suggesting that outer space does not need to be developed
because the enterprise is too expensive or impractical. However, the process of outer space
development has already been put into place and is scheduled to happen, despite the expense.
The expertise, knowledge and funding for the erection of space structures is not something
wild or new (Boning & Dubowsky, 2009). Trillions of dollars have been spent of various
space activities by the global community. This large investment of funds and resources has
largely gone unchallenged.
Margolin (1998: 86) informs that “the primary question for the design professions thus
becomes not what new products to make, but how to reinvent design culture so that worth-
while projects are more clearly identied and likely to be realized”. We are asserting the
perspective that outer space development is a worthwhile project that should be taken up by
the architectural design profession. Margolin indicates that many design professionals are
beginning to argue that design is “shaped by an ideal” (Margolin citing Manu), what design
“can and must do is the proposal of a new life images and lifestyle that is compatible with
the environment in daily life, home life, global life, and life in the workplace” and that “the
historic model of industrial design practice is inadequate”, since it is coupled with the dom-
inance of design’s “past identity” (Margolin citing Ekuan).
On October 11, 2010 President Obama signed the NASA Authorization Act, giving the
go-ahead for $58.4 billion dollars to be allocated for NASA programs and outer space ex-
ploration and development, over the course of the next three years. This law complements
the New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Policy. It is clear that entrepreneurs and private
sector companies such as SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Orbital Sciences Corporation and others
have responded to the economic initiatives provided by the new policy, and are rapidly
planning and developing space transportation vehicles. Blueprints and designs for space
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

structures are likely to be next on the agenda for space entrepreneurs. Meanwhile, the eld
of architecture in the developed world has been severely hit by the prolonged economic re-
cession. Career anxiety is high because of the lack of commercial and government funding
for development projects, high unemployment rates in the profession and related elds, and
the freeze of the nancial markets for nancing construction projects.
Architects who are able to embrace an understanding of the demands accompanying outer
space development will lead cutting-edge building projects of tomorrow, while establishing
the design approaches, practices and applications for the development of outer spaces. These
rms stand to benet from the global explosion of spending that will occur over the next
decade.
Design Matters: Using Art to Inspire Societal Interest
Students can begin to envision creative architectural design concepts being applied to space
structures, they can create new opportunities for themselves, by partnering with space com-
panies and governments make this become reality as humankind prepares to design the in-
frastructure for outer space.
Photo of “Droplet Architecture” Source: thedesignblog.org, Deurrutia. Blogspot (accessed
April 2, 1011).
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

Photo of “Iceberg Architecture” Source: Blue-crystal.de, behance.net) (accessed April 1,
2011)
Photo of “Diamond Glow Architecture” Source: dagli.lu, insidefeeders) (accessed April 1,
2011).
The future of outer space development will be strengthened by “growing efforts to interest
the general public” (Hunt & Coates, 2003: 217). With this in mind, one way to spark societal
interest in outer space development is to create space structures capable of inspiring people.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

NASA Photo of the International Space Station
Functionality and safety have made the International Space Station a success. However,
design matters. Imagine the international space station if architecture had been the lead cre-
ative impulse and designed by artists and architects. Although it has been a success in all
respects, it lacks passionate design, creative vision and elegance. The psychological and in-
spirational aspects of structural design should, and will, become a mandatory component of
the space infrastructure.
After many years of slow but steady government projects, space scientists understand key
principles necessary for sustaining life, while living in outer space. However, more innovation
and creativity and excitement are going to be required in order to jumpstart a qualitative
shift towards the rapid development of the nal frontier. To get the masses interested, we
need passion, innovation and art. These are the attributes that keep thousands of visitors in
the Pantheon and Coliseum daily. It is sorely needed to keep the public passionate about the
future and the success of outer space development activities.
Connecting the Dots
Howard Gardner’s (2006) analysis in Multiple Intelligences lends credence to our argument
that architects and design students can increase their level of competency by embracing
various forms of intelligences. Furthermore, Gardner (1999) in Intelligence Reframed suggests
that leadership, creativity and morality can work together to enhance people’s abilities.
Similarly, we assert that architects who can straddle disciplines and understand how to
connect the dots between social and behavioral sciences, policy, industry creation and the
building of the space infrastructure can design their own future. These are the individuals
who will make history. By capturing the attention of a wider audience, visionary architects
can help humankind overcome the challenges of our times related to the development of
outer space – thereby enabling equality, equity, health and environmental sustainability and
reduction of global poverty. If things continue as they are going, the likely social impacts
will include widening inequality gaps, missed opportunity, and public resources transformed
into wealth for only a few, which historically has proven to produce economic uncertainty,
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

conict and civil unrest. To see the full picture, a person needs to realize that there exists a
myriad of laws, policies and actions which have already been taken to develop the nal
frontier.
The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 mandates equality and sharing of outer space resources
by all people. To achieve equality in outer space for future generations, the readers of this
paper must begin to think about everyday ways of formulating a contagious desire for
knowledge regarding future blueprints. We have a once in a lifetime chance to achieve these
things before institutions, social networks, economic institutions, investments, political ex-
ercises of power, representations, ideology and psychological mechanisms are cemented.
The time to effectively factor in systematic assurances of equality of opportunity and social
and intellectual justice is now. We have the power in our everyday activities to nd ways
to inspire people to know about these future trends.
Purpose of the Paper: Outer Space Development Design Ambassadors4
The purpose of this paper is to introduce artists and architects to a new phenomenon occurring
in our lifetime – outer space development. This is an invitation for visionaries, people curious
about newly emerging trends, and those who are concerned about dwindling opportunities
during the dismal global economic recession, to understand and be exposed to what is hap-
pening today. The paper relies on several assumptions. First, outer space is in the process
of being developed by companies who are responding to the NASA Authorization Act of
2010. Second, the future belongs to creative forces, artists, and architects, they can inspire
people to create and achieve great ideas. Third, creative societies can solve problems, and
cause exciting, positive things happen. Fourth, well designed and high performance devel-
opment projects will be the key to spur people’s interest in the continued development and
settlement of outer space communities. Fifth, architects can use this knowledge as an intel-
lectual experience in order to come up with new ways to address sustainability efforts here
on Earth. Six, artist-architectural community involvement is critical for the success of outer
space development. And, seven, the transformation of outer space infrastructure can be done
in a way that includes everyone and allows all people to benet. It is only through this shared
and communicated vision that we can be assured of reaching our destination for the betterment
of mankind.
Economic Policy Stated Goals
The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 sets aside funds for a broad range of objectives. Each
goal stated in the law provides a dollar amount allocated for the achievement of specied
goals. The manner and method for their achievement is left up to the skills of those bold
enough to submit proposals. For example, section 101, paragraph 5 of the NASA Authoriz-
ation Act provides $4,594,300,000 for the scal year of 2011, for “space operations”, of
which $3,271,900,000 “shall be for the ISS”. The wording assigned to various budget amounts
suggests that opportunities exist for a wide range of skilled professionals who are bold enough
to actively engage in the process of rming up plans regarding how to develop the outer
4David Stairs in “Altruism as Design Methodology” Vol. 21, No. 2, Design Issues (Spring, 2005) pp. 3-12 quoting
HOWDesign, April 2002: 180-185, uses the phrase “design ambassadors”.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

space infrastructure. Section 202(b) discusses the restructured exploration program shall be
implemented in a manner that in paragraph 8 indicates “allows the systems developed under
the restructured exploration program to serve as potential test beds for the demonstration of
key enabling exploration technologies and operational capabilities”; and paragraph 9 indicates
the manner “prepares for and enables human missions to a variety of destinations in the inner
solar system, including cislunar space, the Moon, Lagrangian points, near-Earth objects, and
ultimately Mars and its moons”. What is not included in the language here is the need for
architectural design, as an important element for the human psychological dimension involved
in extended travel throughout outer space. This necessary aspect of human survival in outer
space for extended periods of time was not omitted intentionally. The specics of how to
do outer space development are to be detailed by people with vision and talent. This should
include artists and architects. Another example, Section 217(a) provides for “Exploration
Technology Development Using the ISS” (International Space Station). It reads “The Ad-
ministrator shall develop priorities for technology development, testing, and demonstration
activities that enable and support NASA’s long-term plans for exploration beyond low-Earth
orbit…”
To reiterate, architectural design advocates can make sure their profession gets included
in the process of outer space development. Especially, since the NASA Authorization Act
places an emphasis on the need for developing a relevant workforce through education.
Section 601 provides that “…to create the diverse, skilled scientic and technical workforce
essential to meeting the challenges facing NASA and the Nation in the 21st century, the
Administrator shall develop, conduct, support, promote, and coordinate formal and informal
educational and training activities…” which make good use of NASA’s “unique content
expertise and facilities”. The architectural design community has at its ngertips access to
NASA technology and funding for educational and workforce training programs for its stu-
dents. Architects need to understand how to connect all of these dots to see the opportunities
emerging. Architects can use these insights to increase their level of condence when dis-
cussing and teaching about the new agenda including destinations to asteroids, Mars, Phobos
and Deimos – the moons of Mars, as well as asteroids orbiting Mars. The lesson to be learned
here is that it is possible use policies and laws to support assumptions about newly emerging
industry trends. Architects don’t have to wait until after development bids are published in
the Commerce Business Daily. They can prepare themselves earlier to take advantage of
new trends, since it takes a while to create knowledge about new issues.
Other economic initiatives, laws and policies have been put into place to foster the devel-
opment of the nal frontier. From 2004 to 2010, companies have been given a green light
to develop newer, faster, more efcient spaceships. It is clear from recent policy initiatives
that the private sector has caught NASA’s torch, and is running with it. Over the last 10
years, Space Adventures, headquartered in Vienna, Va., has organized ights for well-heeled
clients to the International Space Station. Then there were the rst private suborbital space
treks via SpaceShipOne, bankrolled by the Microsoft-made billionaire, Paul Allen. Aerospace
maverick, Burt Rutan and his Scaled Composites squad pushed the frontiers of private space
travel. In 2004, they won the $10 million Ansari X Prize for commercial spaceight. Now
we are in a new expansive phase of development. The development of advanced space
transportation vehicles and structures to sustain life as people embark on NASA-like missions
to the Moon, Mars, asteroids and Mars two moons, other destinations, and build more space
infrastructure, including space mining and habitat construction. Architects can plan on seeing
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

bids for the design of advanced space transportation systems with life support and interplan-
etary or interstellar telecommunications capabilities. Science ction has gradually become
reality and golden opportunities exist for people who are knowledgeable, capable and willing
to develop a new skill-set necessary to meet emerging demands. This includes architects,
artists, design professionals and students.
Newly emerging industries are likely to include private space travel, space tourism, spa-
ceport development, commercial space mining and space habitats. By understanding this,
the architectural design community can begin discussions and awareness campaigns within
the profession. This has the potential to put d esign and a rchitecture at the fore front of this
eld and to ignite the imaginations of millions.
Methodology for Blending Intelligences
Architects can establish a leadership position in future emerging industries by learning to
detect new trends sponsored by economic policies. Students can learn to blend insights from
the architectural design discipline with insights from the social and behavioral sciences. This
would need to include an understanding of political lobbying, business innovation, legal re-
search and economic policy analysis. Papanek (1988: 4) in “The Future Isn’t What It Used
to Be”, Design Issues, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Autumn 1988) pp. 4-17 explains that there is “an
enormous amount of data available about how people related to their environment esthetically
and psychophysiologically” and that much of this data is “still unknown to designers, archi-
tects, and planners as data come from such diverse elds as ergonomics, ecology, archeology,
psychiatry, cultural history, anthropology, biology, ethology, and human geography”. We
would like to suggest adding insights from space studies elds, including space structures
and spacecraft design. By teaching themselves how to research laws and economic policies,
students of architectural design can position themselves on the cutting edge of future trends.
Miles (2001: 41) also speaks to the need to change “the mutual lack of understanding between
professionals with a social science background and those with a technical or design orienta-
tion”, and he expresses the need for increased use of social research and perception research,
in order to better meet the needs of those who will inhabit the structures. Architects and ar-
chitectural design students can “re-imagine” their “expertise”5in order to meet the demands
of future society.
Through a Lens of One “Regime”
Policies and laws have been enacted, hearings had been held, and decisions have been made
to develop outer space, largely outside of the media spotlight given to national politics. In
addition, historical, legal, ideological, institutional, political, economic, psychological and
structural factors are all operating together in the post Cold War era during a time of general
acceptance of globalization and free market ideology. Opening up space transportation, space
mining and space habitats for private sector competition is projected to make outer space
development happen fast. It appears that outer space development has a green light. Few
people may see or understand that all of these events are happening in a linear fashion that
is more easily understood by those already invested in this community. This is why we want
5Peter Schneider, “Perfect Masters of Their Art: Re-Imagining Expertise”, Journal of Architectural Education,
53, Issue 3 (February 2000): 141-145.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

to open the discussion to the co-creative talents of architects, and why our analysis introduces
architects to terms such as “key actors” and “regime”, which were borrowed from the eld
of international relations-political science, the eld of study specializing in uncovering
emerging social and behavioral patterns.
Space Law Politics & Potential Conflict
In addition to economic policies, understanding the passage and implications of law is also
important for architects to see what is coming in the future. International space law, in a
nutshell, provides three key principles regarding the outer space territory: 1) all people have
freedom to use outer space 2) no nation can own outer space 3) uses of outer space should
be for the benet of all humankind.
Architects need to understand the importance of locating laws and understanding them.
For example, there is a potential political problem likely to arise from this law. The terms
which are set forth in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (the Constitution for outer space) are
vague and subject to varying interpretations. This is likely to mean that key actors with the
wherewithal and the means to purchase equipment and bid for NASA contracts will be the
only ones to benet from the trillion dollar frontier. This poses a problem since the Outer
Space Treaty declares that outer space belongs to the international community - to the
“province of mankind”. Similar to the legal designation of heirs in common, people have
legal rights to share in the benets deriving from the development of outer space, including
the natural resources abundant in outer space. However, rights mean little, until the person
is made aware of their legal right to benet from a particular activity.
Only a few nations, alliances of nations, companies, and individuals know about the newly
emerging trend towards an outer space development bonanza. They are signicant key actors.
For example, the a new space race will undoubtedly involve Canada, China, France, Germany,
the United Kingdom, as well as the European Union via the European Space Agency, India,
Japan, the Russian Federation, South Africa, and the United States. International cooperative
ventures are likely to become more common such as the Global Exploration Strategy: The
Framework for Coordination which consists of 14 space agencies working together on mis-
sions. Companies and entrepreneurs, including Virgin Galactic, SpaceX, Lockheed Martin,
Boeing, XCOR, Orbital Sciences Corporation and others are also playing key roles in the
processes towards the development of outer space.
As more people become aware of their rights to benet from outer space development,
and as more people explore outer space as business adventurers, we can expect to see feelings
of resentment fuel international conict again, as we have seen in the past. In a small way,
architects can help prevent this from happening by increasing the level of awareness and
participation in the profession from the very start. Architects involved or currently entering
this practice area must be aware that the large global investments and series of events will
lead to an increased demand for services related to space architecture development projects.
Historical Trend of US-led Space Commercialization Patterns
The rst wave of outer space development changed the world. This process included estab-
lishing a satellite telecommunications infrastructure in the geostationary orbit along with
the globalization of new high tech products and services. For example, widespread global
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

use of cell phones, the Internet, Facebook, Skype, and wireless nancial transactions happened
very fast. Imagine knowing beforehand about the level of investment and resources being
funneled by the government to develop the World Wide Web. This may have changed career,
business and investment choices had we the advance knowledge of the emerging internet
industries in the 1980s.
This is what is now emerging in outer space development. However, the process of space
commercialization has been occurring since President Kennedy’s Administration and
privatization has been escalating since President Reagan’s Administration. Commercialization
of satellite communications began in 1962 when the U.S. Congress passed the Communica-
tions Satellite Act for this purpose. President Kennedy called for joint ownership with other
nations for a communications satellite system, with non-discriminatory access for all countries
of the world. This effort is still viewed favorably by the international community. Shares
were offered to the international community when the COMSAT Corporation developed
into INTELSAT, via a U.S. - led international agreement. Many nations participated in space
commerce associated with this bourgeoning technology. Around the world today many
people use cell phones, the Internet, money transfer systems and enjoy increased GNP due
to these space industries. We can expect more growth in this area as well as ancillary busi-
nesses developing in support of the communications infrastructure in the future under this
model.
An even more poignant example of the power of U.S. law in shaping space industry creation
involves two international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), INTELSAT and IN-
MARSAT. Both were privatized via the U.S. ORBIT Act of 2000. The overall legislative
intent was to restructure the two intergovernmental organizations in order to foster the creation
of a satellite industry. This industry has grown into a $100 billion dollar industry in only
four decades.
Given the value of platinum group metals likely to be mined in outer space, it is reasonable
to assume that space mining will become a multitrillion-dollar industry in this decade6. In-
dustries providing satellite telecommunications, remote sensing, space transportation and
launch systems have become prevalent in the global economy. U.S. led space commercializ-
ation practices began in the 1980s and became widespread during the 1990s and dominant
after the fall of the Soviet Union. Although outer space is an international territory, free
market ideology and the inuence of U.S. space policy and law are extremely inuential in
the post Cold War era. Additionally, international cooperation between nations has lead to
mutually benecial nancial and economic returns for this capital intensive industry. Given
this trend, it is reasonable to assume that the new U.S. space law and policy and resulting
industries will also ripple throughout the world.
Political Activity: Knowledge and Power
The companies taking advantage of the new law have been working on making this happen
for many years. Organized and concerted efforts began in 2001, which resulted in the passage
of the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004 and the New Vision for
6Augustine Committee: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee (3 August 2009) “Enabling
Protable Asteroid Mining” at
http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/383154main_53%20%2020090803.7.toAugustineCommittee-2009-08-03.pdf (accessed
December 26, 2010).
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

U.S. Space Exploration Policy under President George W. Bush, with The President’s
Commission hearings, and published report entitled Journey to Inspire, Innovate and Dis-
cover. Together, these policies and law provided legal permission for the private space travel
and new types of partnerships that we are witnessing today. In addition, the NASA Author-
ization Act of 2005 made funding available to carry out the 2004 policy. In 2009 US Plans
for SpaceFlight Committee hearings were held.
The Private Sector Response
Fast Action to Take Advantage of the New Economic Policy
In November 2010, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX), a company
founded by Elon Musk, who played a role in the dot com revolution (successfully creating
companies such as PayPal and Zip2), was granted an FAA license to reenter Earth’s atmo-
sphere7. This was the rst time in history for private spaceships to receive authorization to
return to Earth from orbit. SpaceX in December of 2010 won a NASA contract worth approx-
imately $1.6 billion dollars and is currently working on providing space transportation for
NASA astronauts pursuant to NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS)
program. We can anticipate SpaceX may also be working on designs for a Mars colony8in
the future. Sir Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic Company is reportedly eyeing the orbital
space transportation industry. Most people have been some publicity for Virgin’s connection
to the suborbital space tourism market9. However, in December of 2010, Virgin announced
its plans to partner with Sierra Nevada Space Systems and Orbital Sciences Corporation
pursuant to NASA’s Commercial Crew Development Program (CCDEV2), to provide a
more serious form of space transportation. Similar to NASA’s COTS program, this is an
initiative designed to encourage the private sector to develop privately-operated space
vehicles.
Another example, in a December press release, Boeing stated its “plans to advance the
design of its Crew Space Transportation (CST)-100 spacecraft and Commercial Crew
Transportation System and continue to demonstrate key technologies” and that “[t]he CST-
100 spacecraft is designed to support NASA’s primary objective of affordable access to Low
Earth Orbit. It will carry up to seven crew and passengers, is reusable up to 10 times, and is
compatible with a variety of expendable launch vehicles”10. In addition, Orbital Sciences
Corporation submitted a proposal to NASA in December of 2010 for a Commercial Crew
7Mike Wall, (22 November, 2010) “SpaceX Receives FAA License to Return Private Spaceships From Earth Orbit”
SPACE.com http://www.space.com/news/spacex-faa-license-private-spaceship-reentry-101122.html (accessed
December 26, 2010).
8“SpaceX Blasts Off”, CNN February 23, 2009 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5N1sNSYBKk (accessed
December 26, 2010).
9Clara Moskowitz, (29 November 2010) “Virgin Galactic Keeps Mum On Orbital Spaceight Ambitions
SPACE.com http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/virgin-galactic-orbital-space-travel-101129.html (accessed
December 31, 2010).
10 Boeing press release dated December 13, 2010, “Boeing Submits Proposal 2nd Round of NASA Commercial
Crew Development Program” at http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=1557 (accessed December
31, 2010).
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

Development Program 2 contract11. Space tourism began in 2004 as a new industry and in
just six years later, the private sector growth has expanded into more advanced arenas of
space transportation.
From Suborbital Joyrides to Building the Space Infrastructure
We have witnessed companies go from providing suborbital joyrides to companies preparing
to carry out missions beyond Earth’s orbit. These activities are very different from the Cold
War space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Soon companies will be
providing space transportation from Earth to low Earth orbit, to other orbits, to asteroids and
Near Earth orbits, to the Moon and to Mars. Lockheed Martin appears to be preparing the
Orion spacecraft for a journey to a near Earth asteroid called Plymouth Rock12 pursuant to
the New Vision for Space Exploration policy and the NASA Authorization Act which was
enacted into law on October 11, 2010.
Google Lunar X Prize
Another example, Google, Inc. sponsors the Google Lunar X Prize – a $30 million dollar
competition to encourage a private sector robotic race to the Moon. Private companies from
around the world were invited to compete to land a privately funded robotic rover on the
Moon. The winner is expects to design a rover capable of completing several mission object-
ives, including sending video, images and information from the Moon to Earth. Predecessors
to the Google Lunar X Prize included the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge, X
PRIZE Cup and the Ansari X PRIZE.
Mars
The new agenda includes destinations to asteroids, Mars, Phobos and Deimos – the moons
of Mars, as well as asteroids orbiting Mars. So, it is logical to assume that a Mars Exploration
Prize may soon be put into place given the successes of the Spirit and Opportunity rovers
which sent back photos and a plethora of data regarding the red planet during their trips to
Mars for several years. Mars presents additional learning opportunities for design students.
Space Habitats
The International Space Station has been great for many years and its blueprint is readily
available for companies to mimic. Bigelow Aerospace has done this and has already launched
two space habitats into Low Earth Orbit in 2006. But architectural designers and planners
are needed in order to make these structures safe, sustainable and exciting for the general
11 Klaus Schmidt, (15 December 2010) “Orbital Submits Proposal for NASA's Commercial Crew Development
Program” Space Fellowship at http://spacefellowship.com/news/art24418/orbital-submits-proposal-for-nasa-s-
commercial-crew-development-program.html (accessed December 31, 2010).
12 Mark Carreau, (31 August, 2010) “Lockheed Proposing Early Asteroid Exploration” Aviation Week http://www.avi-
ationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/08/30/01.xml&headline=Lock-
heed%20Proposing%20Early%20Asteroid%20Exploration (accessed December 26, 2010).
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

public. Students, children and visionaries from all nations and all walks of life need an inter-
esting focal point to engage and apply their talents to this new thing.
Building up of the space infrastructure, which will include various forms habitats, bases,
stations, hotels, life support systems, spacecraft and transportation vehicles and telecommu-
nications devices. Space transportation systems will need to be developed and perfected that
are capable of transporting people and materials back and forth between Earth and low Earth
orbit, to near Earth objects such as asteroids and comets, to the Moon, Mars, and to the
moons of Mars - Phobos and Deimos, our Moon. Spacecraft trajectory optimization will
become a eld of study that is more in demand for scholars than it is today.
The term space mining, provides architects with an additional term for further research.
Gold, platinum, iridium, osmium and other natural resources found on asteroids and celestial
bodies have been assessed a value of 100s or 1000s of trillions of dollars. Therefore, a shift
in the global economy of this magnitude could cause us to rethink our current international
economic policies and theories. Space architecture is likely to become a thriving industry
with increased access to outer space, space-based energy resources and free building mater-
ials. Key actors making these phenomena occur will most likely be a combination of com-
panies, corporations, nonprots, governmental, intergovernmental and international entities.
For example, spaceships, spacecraft, stations, hotels, bases, fuel stations, Lagrange points,
life support systems: food, water and oxygen production, recycling and maintenance, fueling
stations, locating Earth like planets, sustainability, interplanetary, interstellar, international
and intercultural communications and telecommunications are topics frequently being dis-
cussed at space congresses by experts.
Student Teaching and Awareness
There is a wealth of knowledge about applying skills and knowledge of architecture to design,
building and constructions of spaceports, launch systems, space transportation vehicles,
space stations, settlements and habitats. Architects can easily access and absorb existing
knowledge that is readily available through the internet. For example, publications, written
or recommended by members of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Space Architecture Technical Committee are available at http://www.spacearchitect.org/.
This bibliography lists dozens of resources and references that anyone can use to create their
own expertise in this eld of study.
Another example, architects can research and learn about student design competitions as
yet another way to help their students, associates and emerging professionals prepare for the
growing demand for future projects. For example, NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Program
is a student competition involving an inatable loft for space exploration habitats. The Ex-
ploration Habitat (X-Hab) Academic Innovation Challenge involves having students design
the building of an inatable space habitat.13 This should be compared to Bigelow Aerospace’s
product - inatable habitats which were launched into low Earth orbit in 2006. There are
also various space settlement competitions happening for students around the world, which
can be readily research using the internet.
13 http://thelaunchpad.xprize.org/2010/06/exploration-habitat-academic-innovation.html (accessed December 30,
2010).
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

Conclusion
Space scientists, space engineers, space lawyers and space policymakers have been meeting
and making plans for space development for over 40 years. Recently, many nations have
drastically increased their spending on space programs, and many have pledged to go to the
Moon and to Mars. Moreover, discoveries have been made on these two celestial bodies and
on various asteroids and comets. New industries involving space stations, space tourism,
space mining and space settlement are impending. Development plans and the technological
capability to develop outer space are very real and very concrete. Too few people are aware
that all of these things are happening, and that the implications are likely to play out in sig-
nicant game changing ways for many decades. Past scenarios, including widening inequality
gaps because of lack of knowledge are also likely to continue. However, we can correct
many of the mistakes which were allowed in the past, and we can begin to blueprint feel
good components of a new society including actual equality of knowledge and opportunity
and the cultivation and encouragement of people’s real talent and intellectinstead of system-
atically stiing them. Key actors within the government, private sector and international
community have made the decision to begin our ascent into outer space by building up the
space infrastructure within the next 10-20 years. Very few people are aware that this process
has been placed on the agenda. To achieve these lofty goals will require a shift in global
consciousness on the part of the design world. We need a critical mass of people to become
aware, knowledgeable and engaged about the fact that this is going on now and to believe
that they can infuse this process with creativity, imagination, vision and excellent design.
All creation is considered to be an exercise of the power of mind over matter. Imagination
is the creative force in our world. It is only through our imagination, that we are able to effect
any change in the material world. The architectural discipline trains the imagination, along
with a deep knowledge of the environment. As such it has lead to the creation of the most
signicant structures in our collective history on Earth. Now we must harness this creative
energy and focus our imaginations on outer space development. With this transformation
within our own consciousness, we can help others see it too. It is possible to inspire people
to build future societies together in space, which are centered on principles of justice, fairness,
equality and opportunity.
“The future is not some place we are going, but one we are creating. The paths are not to
be found, but made. And the activity of making them changes both the maker and their
destination.” -- John Schaar
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Endnotes
1. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010, H.R. II, 111 Congress, 2nd Session at (accessed
December 25, 2010). By reviewing this 99 page law, architects can see how specic
dollar amounts have been allocated to achieve targeted goals.
2. The New Vision for U.S. Exploration Policy, United States National Space Policy, June
28, 2010 available at (accessed December 28, 2010).
3. Summary Report of the Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee (2009)
at and Review of US Human Spaceight Plans Committee Seeking a Human Spaceight
Plan Worthy of a Great Nation (2009) at (accessed December 26, 2010).
4. Small Bodies Assessment Group (SBAG), “SBAG Community Decadal White Papers”
2) at (accessed December 26, 2010).
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

5. “President Obama Signs New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration into Law”, Space.com,
October 11, 2010 at http://www.space.com/news/president-obama-signs-nasa-space-
plan-101011.html (accessed December 26, 2010).
6. See the Report of the President’s Commission on Implementation of U.S. Space Explor-
ation Policy: A Journey to Inspire, Innovate and Discover, ISBN 0-16-073075-9, (U.S.
Government Printing Ofce, Washington, D.C.) (June 16, 2004). In February 2004,
President George W. Bush announced a New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Policy.
He also created a commission, the President’s Commission on Implementation of United
States Space Exploration Policy to advise him on matters of space travel including the
Moon, Mars and other celestial bodies, and mandating the holding of a series of public
hearings regarding the future of the U.S. space program in addition to creating a new
U.S. Space Transportation Policy in January 2005. President’s Commission public
hearings took place on: May 3-4, 2004, The Asia Society, 725 Park Avenue, New York,
NY 10021; April 15-16, 2004, Galileo Academy of Science and Technology, 1150
Francisco Street, San Francisco, CA 94109; March 24-25, 2004, Georgia Centers for
Advanced Telecommunications Technology, 250 14th Street, NW, Atlanta, GA 30318;
March 3-4, 2004, US Air Force Museum, 1100 Spaatz St., Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
45433 (near Dayton); and February 11, 2004, National Transportation Safety Board
Conference Center 429 L’ Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, D.C. Transcripts of each
testimony at available at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/moontomars/news/events.asp
(accessed December 26, 2010).
7. Weeks, Edythe The Politics of Space Law in a Post Cold War Era: Understanding
Regime Change, doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University, December, 2006.
It sets forth support for the proposition that outer space will seen be “developed” by
mapping emerging patterns regarding space exploration, astronautics, space technology,
space law, space mining commercial space settlements, private space travel and space
tourism, new types of spaceships, establishing space colonies, the rapid rise in commer-
cial spaceports, private space travel. In addition to the political and international relations
implications, this dissertation also examines the legal, economic, ideological, institu-
tional and cultural developments. This includes key actors and actions and recent do-
mestic space laws and policies in light of post Cold War era power, the privatization
of space missions and space exploration and current events.
About the Authors
Tracy S. Harris
As Vice President for Administration and the Chief Financial Ofcer, Tracy Harris is a part
of the executive management team, responsible for providing direction, management and
leadership to The American Institute of Architects (AIA) and its afliates in the areas of
nance, accounting, risk management, asset management, budgeting, continuing education,
contract documents, business strategy and development, facilities management and adminis-
tration. Founded in 1857, the AIA is the United States’ leading professional membership
association for licensed architects, emerging professionals and allied partners. The AIA has
grown from 13 members to 85,000 members located throughout the U.S. and internationally.
In addition to over 20 years of career experience in nance, economic development and in-
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

ternational development, Harris is a lifelong learner earning various advanced degrees in-
cluding an MPA, MBA in Finance, MA in Government and was the 2010 Ralph and Janice
James Fellowship recipient of the General >Management, Executive Education Program at
Harvard Business School. Harris hosts a radio show on WPFW, is a jazz enthusiast, and a
community fundraiser for various charities and political campaigns who serves on several
boards for arts and culture related nonprot corporations.
Dr. Edythe E. Weeks
Dr. Weeks teaches courses on Space Law online to students in various countries, via Webster
University’s online M.A. in International Relations program. Weeks has presented papers
on a variety of topics to experts within the space community. Weeks has published several
papers in the Colloquium Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, as well
as with the American Institute on Aeronautics and Astronautics. Her research and dissertation
entitled “The Politics of Space Law in a Post Cold War Era: Understanding International
Regime Change”, helped to prompt the issuance of an important policy statement clarifying
whether or not private property rights are permitted regarding outer space resources.
TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

Editors
Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Editorial Advisory Board
Genevieve Bell – Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, USA.
Michael Biggs – University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK.
Thomas Binder – Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Jeanette Blomberg – IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, USA.
Eva Brandt – Danmark Designskole, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Peter Burrows – RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.
Monika Büscher – Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK.
Patrick Dillon – Exeter University, Exeter, UK.
Michael Gibson, University of North Texas, Denton, USA.
Loredana Di Lucchio, Sapienza Universita di Roma, Rome, Italy.
Judith Gregory – IIT Institute of Design, Chicago, USA; University of Oslo, Norway.
Clive Holtham – City of London University, London, UK.
Lorenzo Imbesi, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
Hiroshi Ishii – MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, USA.
Gianni Jacucci – University of Trento, Trento, Italy.
Klaus Krippendorff – University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA.
Terence Love – Curtin University, Perth, Australia.
Bill Lucas, MAYA Fellow, MAYA Design, Inc., Pittsburgh, USA.
Ezio Manzini – Politecnico of Milano, Milan, Italy.
Mario Minichiello, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, Birmingham, UK.
Julian Orr – Work Practice & Technology Associates, Pescadero, USA.
Mahendra Patel – Leaf Design, Mumbai, India.
Toni Robertson – University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
Terry Rosenberg – Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK.
Keith Russell – University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia.
Liz Sanders – Make Tools, USA.
Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos – University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Lucy Suchman – Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK.
Ina Wagner – Technical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
Please visit the Journal website at http://www.Design-Journal.com
for further information about the Journal or to subscribe.

The Design Principles & Practices Community
This knowledge community is brought together by a shared interest in the process of
design and their conceptual foundations. The community interacts through an
innovative, annual face-to-face conference, as well as year-round virtual relationships in
a weblog, peer reviewed journal and book imprint – exploring the affordances of the new
digital media. Members of this knowledge community include academics, designers,
administrators, educators, consultants and research students.
Conference
Members of the Design Community meet at the International Conference on Design
Principles and Practices, held annually in different locations around the world. The
Design Conference was held at Imperial College London, in 2007; in conjunction with
the University of Miami, Florida, USA in 2008; and at Technical University Berlin,
Germany in 2009. In 2010, the conference will be held at the University of Illinois,
Chicago, USA.
Our community members and first time attendees come from all corners of the globe.
Intellectually, our interests span the breadth of the field of design. The Conference is a
site of critical reflection, both by leaders in the field and emerging scholars and
practitioners. Those unable to attend the Conference may opt for virtual participation in
which community members can either submit a video and/or slide presentation with
voice-over, or simply submit a paper for peer review and possible publication in the
Journal.
Online presentations can be viewed on YouTube.
Publishing
The Design Community enables members of its community to publish through three
media. First, by participating in the Design Conference, community members can enter
a world of journal publication unlike the traditional academic publishing forums – a result
of the responsive, non-hierarchical and constructive nature of the peer review process.
Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal provides a framework for
double-blind peer review, enabling authors to publish into an academic journal of the
highest standard.
The second publication medium is through the book imprint On Design, publishing
cutting edge books in print and electronic formats. Publication proposals and manuscript
submissions are welcome.
The third major publishing medium is our news blog, constantly publishing short news
updates from the Design Community, as well as major developments in the field of
design. You can also join this conversation at Facebook and Twitter or subscribe to our
email Newsletter.

Common Ground Publishing Journals
AGING
Aging and Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal
Website: http://AgingAndSociety.com/journal/
ARTS
The International Journal of the Arts in Society.
Website: www.Arts-Journal.com
BOOK
The International Journal of the Book
Website: www.Book-Journal.com
CLIMATE CHANGE
The International Journal of Climate Change:
Impacts and Responses
Website: www.Climate-Journal.com
CONSTRUCTED ENVIRONMENT
The International Journal of the
Constructed Environment
Website: www.ConstructedEnvironment.com/journal
DESIGN
Design Principles and Practices:
An International Journal
Website: www.Design-Journal.com
DIVERSITY
The International Journal of Diversity in
Organizations, Communities and Nations
Website: www.Diversity-Journal.com
FOOD
Food Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal
Website: http://Food-Studies.com/journal/
GLOBAL STUDIES
The Global Studies Journal
Website: www.GlobalStudiesJournal.com
HEALTH
The International Journal of Health,
Wellness and Society
Website: www.HealthandSociety.com/journal
HUMANITIES
The International Journal of the Humanities
Website: www.Humanities-Journal.com
IMAGE
The International Journal of the Image
Website: www.OntheImage.com/journal
LEARNING
The International Journal of Learning.
Website: www.Learning-Journal.com
MANAGEMENT
The International Journal of Knowledge,
Culture and Change Management.
Website: www.Management-Journal.com
MUSEUM
The International Journal of the Inclusive Museum
Website: www.Museum-Journal.com
RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY
The International Journal of Religion and
Spirituality in Society
Website: www.Religion-Journal.com
SCIENCE IN SOCIETY
The International Journal of Science in Society
Website: www.ScienceinSocietyJournal.com
SOCIAL SCIENCES
The International Journal of Interdisciplinary
Social Sciences
Website: www.SocialSciences-Journal.com
SPACES AND FLOWS
Spaces and Flows: An International Journal of
Urban and ExtraUrban Studies
Website: www.SpacesJournal.com
SPORT AND SOCIETY
The International Journal of Sport and Society
Website: www.sportandsociety.com/journal
SUSTAINABILITY
The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural,
Economic and Social Sustainability
Website: www.Sustainability-Journal.com
TECHNOLOGY
The International Journal of Technology,
Knowledge and Society
Website: www.Technology-Journal.com
UBIQUITOUS LEARNING
Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal
Website: www.ubi-learn.com/journal/
UNIVERSITIES
Journal of the World Universities Forum
Website: www.Universities-Journal.com
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