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The effects of weave structure and yarn fiber specification on pilling of woven fabrics
Abstract
Pilling is a serious problems in clothes, not only impairs its appearance but also reduces its service life. Several factors involved have been identified by some researchers. In this paper the combined effect of weave type and weave density on pilling has been studied. Worsted fabrics with plain, twill 2/1 and twill 2/2 weave patterns and different warp/weft density are subjected to abrasion test and pilling intensity is evaluated by counting the pills. It is shown that these two factors influence the total floating yarn length [L]. It is also shown that L has a considerable effect on pilling. An empirical equation is introduced relating the combined effect of weave type and fabric density to L. Also the effect of reduced ultimate bending stiffness on pilling has been tested by three kinds of low pilling polyester. ASTM D4970 is used in this research. In this method for better displaying the results, instead of comparing the tested specimens with visual standards and evaluated degree of fabric pilling by scale ranging 5 to 1, the number of pills was counted. The results shows that the pilling decreased with increasing the yarn and fabric density however in order to preserve the products feature and properties, the use of modified polyester yarn are preferred which is also reducing the pilling.
... In order to interlace warp and weft threads to produce fabric on any type of weaving machine, three operations are necessary: shading, picking and beating [1]. Plain fabric pattern in which each yarn of the filling passes alternately over and under a yarn of warp and each yarn of the warp passes alternately over and under a yarn of the filling [2].It plain weave, each weft thread (filling) passes alternatively over and under each ways yarn in a square pattern. It is also known as tabby, homespun or taffeta weave. ...
... Twill weave, a weave characterized by diagonal lines produced by a series of floats staggered in the warp or filling direction [2]. The surface of the cloth consist almost entirely either of warp or weft float. ...
Fabrics are designed to fit different projected demands in order to be suitable for their end use. Strength and abrasion resistance of fabric is very important for the end use of the fabric for its performance. The mechanical and physical properties of the fabric are affected by different factors. The study conducted focuses preliminarily on the effect of weave structure on the strength and abrasion resistance of the fabric. An investigation was undertaken to determine the effects that affect the mechanical and physical properties of fabric which is strength and abrasion resistance of the fabric by taking sample fabrics with different construction and testing the required property. The effects are studied were carried out by using laboratory testing with suitable testing equipment's.
... The formation of pills is a dynamic process of entanglement of loose fibers that are present on the fiber surface due to mechanical stresses, such as rubbing, external pressure, and fiber to fiber friction [68]. Pilling is a serious problem for woolens that causes an unattractive appearance to the fabric and also shortens the service life of the product [68,69]. Recently, a study performed by Li et al. [70] shows that proteinase K significantly improves the pilling resistance of wool fabric. ...
... Pilling became an even more serious problem after the development and wide use of man-made fibers in textiles because fibers with delay the wear off stage higher tensile strength. (19) Pilling is a fabric defect which is observed as small fiber balls or group consisting of intervened fibers that have been attached to the fabric surface by one or more fibers. Pilling in general, is a selflimiting process. ...
... The longer floats in a weave structure will steer an unusual breaking of yarns and high abrasion. Therefore, the sateen weave shows high abrasion as compared to the twill and the plain weave due to longer floats (Doustaneh et al. 2013;Göktepe 2002). The pills that protrude from the fabric surface also have an effect on mechanical properties, which can be formed due to the rubbing action of wearing and washing by the entanglement of fibers (Göktepe 2002). ...
Improvement in mechanical properties of the natural fiber reinforcement for potential use in the composite for mechanical performance is a key focus of researchers in recent years. However, few studies are available in the literature on the mechanical performance of hybrid-woven fabrics. In this article, the effect of the weave structure of reinforcing fabric on mechanical performance has been investigated. Jute-based woven fabrics having four different weave structures (matt, sateen, and hybrid-weave A/B) were developed in the in-house lab using a shuttle dobby weaving machine. The tensile test and puncture tests were performed to evaluate the mechanical performance by varying the weave architecture. The sateen weave exhibited maximum penetration load during a puncture test. The results demonstrated a significant improvement in the tensile strength by using a hybrid weave in the warp direction. However, sateen woven fabric demonstrated enhancement in the tensile attributes in the weft-wise direction. Similarly, a hybrid weave consisting of a combination of sateen and matt weave exhibited a maximum stiffness value. To check the statistical significance of the results, ANOVA analysis was performed. The findings of ANOVA suggest that the results are statistically significant. This research will open a new avenue in the field of reinforcement composite material.
... In their study, the combined effect of weave density and weave type on pilling has been examined. They found that pilling decreased with increasing yarn and fabric density (Doustaneh et al. 2013). ...
The bedsheet is one of the most common direct contact textile products in our daily life and it may cause discomfort during sleeping due to several factors. In this study, the effect of yarn parameters on abrasion, pilling, and snagging resistance of half-bleached bedsheet fabric has been investigated. Nine woven bedsheet fabrics were manufactured from the same warp yarn count (20Tex) and three types of weft yarn counts (21.5, 25, and 30Tex) with three incremental yarn twists for each type of yarn count. The bedsheet
fabrics underwent half-bleach treatment before property evaluation. The results show that the bedsheet fabric made from coarser yarn count (30Tex) and the least twist (826 TPM) have very good abrasion resistance of 96%–97.86% (least mass loss 2.15%–3.95%) than others. The statistical analysis proves that the pilling and snagging properties of bedsheet fabrics are affected by yarn count and twist. However, abrasion resistance in the appearance change method is insignificant at an F-value of 12.761 and P-value of 0.058. Linear regression results show that yarn count (Tex) and abrasion resistance (mass loss method) has a positive correlation at Adj.R2 value of 86.5%. Yarn twist also has a positive correlation with abrasion mass loss ratio and snagging resistance at Adj.R2 values of 97.4% and 87%, respectively.
... He found that 2 × 2 rib has more pilling resistance than 1 × 1 rib and interlock fabric. By decreasing fabric density and increasing yarn linear density pilling tendency increases [11]. ...
Finishes bring an alteration to the physical and comfort properties of the textiles. That’s why various finishes are used to impart various functionalities to the fabric surface. However, it may also affect some properties. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of various finishes on pilling, mass per unit area, bursting strength, and wicking behavior of the polyester weft-knitted jersey fabric. Herein, 100% spun polyester weft-knitted plain jersey fabric was exposed to different finish treatments to check their effect on the some physical and comfort properties of the fabric like mass per unit area, pilling behavior, bursting strength, and wicking properties of the weft-knitted jersey fabric. The fabric used was knit from 24/1, 100% spun polyester yarn on the single knit circular knitting machine. The developed fabric was washed on Fong machine. Finishes are applied on fabric by “Monofort Stanter” machine. The resultant fabric was characterized by random tumble pilling tester, bursting strength tester, and wicking tester to analyze their pilling grade, bursting strength, and wicking behavior respectively. A significant increase has been found in wicking behavior, mass per unit area, and bursting strength of the fabric after finishing treatments. Moreover, the wicking finish shows the highest reduction in pilling grade from 3.5 to 2.5. Significant improvement has been observed in bursting strength by all finish’s treatment. However, wicking finish treatment results in the highest increase in bursting strength of 4.2%. Significant improvement has been observed in the vertical wicking speed of all treatment except silicon finish which significantly reduces vertical wicking rate. However, the wicking finish (Recipe E) shows the highest increase in wicking rate by 13.75 times as compared to grey fabric.
... However, there are some technical problems largely affecting quality and performance of woolen products, among which, pilling is a serious one [4,[6][7][8][9][10][11]. Pilling not only causes unattractive appearance and uncomfortable handle of the fabric [3,12], but also shortens the service life of the product [8,11,13,14], thus greatly reducing the added value of the wool products [15]. The formation of pills is a dynamic process of entanglement of loose fibers present on the surface of the fabric due to the mechanical stresses, like rubbing, external pressure and fiber-fiber friction [3,8,[11][12][13][16][17][18][19][20] which usually occurs during wear and washing [18,19]. ...
Pilling is a major problem in knitted wool fabric, which not only causes unsightly appearance and uncomfortable handle of the fabric, but also reduces the service life of textile product. Most of the existing technologies for pilling resistance are not environmentally friendly owing to the use of great amount of heated water and chemicals and the generation of pol- luting effluents or absorbable toxic exhaust. In this work, an effective and environmentally friendly technology was proposed to address above challenging issues. A novel Engineered Water Nanostructures (EWNS) experiment platform has been established to produce EWNS in a controllable manner. The optimized generation system, based on the mechanism of electrospray, was found to produce ROS 103 times faster than the previous study, with an EWNS average diameter of 36.36 ± 7.11 nm. It was indicated that EWNS played a significant role in the pilling resistance treatment of the wool fabric. The results revealed that smooth- ing cuticle scale of wool fiber by EWNS treatment resulted in the decrease of the fiber friction coefficients which could be one of the reasons for the improved anti-pilling property of knitted wool fabric. And the ROS are the possible substances which are highly reactive and capable to decompose the proteins of the wool. The nanoscale water maybe another rea- son for improving the mobility of the entangled fibers. This study clearly demonstrates the potential of EWNS technology to improve the pilling resistance property of fabrics, which can be used in the textile after-finishing and home-caring process.
... Long floats in a weave are more exposed and will abrade faster, usually breaking the yarns. A satin fabric will abrade more easily than a twill weave& a twill weave fabric will abrade more easily than a plain weave [8,9]. Furthermore, why this fabric abraded more or less was not explained by experimental results. ...
... Both loads acting normal to the fiber as well as frictional and shearing loads acting in angles less than 90°are anticipated during washing. Pilling (Doustaneh et al. 2013), a separate phenomenon on its own, also adds to the complexity. ...
Microplastics in the environment are a subject of intense research as they pose a potential threat to marine organisms. Plastic fibers from textiles have been indicated as a major source of this type of contaminant, entering the oceans via wastewater and diverse non-point sources. Their presence is also documented in terrestrial samples. In this study, the amount of microfibers shedding from synthetic textiles was measured for three materials (acrylic, nylon, polyester), knit using different gauges and techniques. All textiles were found to shed, but polyester fleece fabrics shed the greatest amounts, averaging 7360 fibers/m⁻²/L⁻¹ in one wash, compared with polyester fabrics which shed 87 fibers/m⁻²/L⁻¹. We found that loose textile constructions shed more, as did worn fabrics, and high twist yarns are to be preferred for shed reduction. Since fiber from clothing is a potentially important source of microplastics, we suggest that smarter textile construction, prewashing and vacuum exhaustion at production sites, and use of more efficient filters in household washing machines could help mitigate this problem.
This chapter details the mechanism of microfiber release from textiles and various parameters that influences the microfiber release characteristics. The analysis results showed that fuzz formation is the main cause of microfiber release from textile. Various manufacturing, and customer phase activities damage the textiles chemically and mechanically and lead to the formation of microfiber from the structure. The latter part of the chapter outlines the different analysis techniques adapted in the literature to quantify and characterize the microfibers, especially during the domestic laundering of textile materials. A few special and innovative methods used in the literature are also listed in this section.
Fast fashion is one of the recent changes in the apparel and fashion industry. The fast-fashion process enables mass customers to adapt to the current trend in a short period. To reach the customers at the earliest time at an affordable price, the manufacturing industries use cheaper raw materials in various processes of manufacturing. Synthetic textiles like polyester, polypropylene, and acrylic are the common fibers used in the fast-fashion items. These fibers are identified as a major source of microfiber pollution. The synthetic fabric sheds microfibers during wearing, laundry, and disposal. A recent study estimated that the synthetic clothing sale would reach 160 million tons in 2050 and subsequently 22 million tons of microfiber added into the ocean between 2015 and 2050. The microfiber shedding of textiles is mainly influenced by the different production and fiber parameters. The chapter aims to elaborate on the role of different synthetic fibers and their shedding properties. Similarly, the influence of fabric manufacturing methods like weaving and knitting also detailed for a better understanding of shedding. Further, this chapter details the fabric parameters like fabric thickness, fabric density, structure type, and their influence on microfiber shedding. The last part of the chapter deals with the influence of different finishing methods to control or reduce the microfiber shedding from synthetic fabric.
Textile structures are usually considered for universal applicability in aesthetic
and performance oriented applications where the fabric end-use will
largely depend on the material used for manufacturing and their physical
characteristics. Therefore, fabric constructional parameters can be directly responsible
for deciding the manufactured fabric properties. This study was
conducted for analyzing the effect of different weaves on the mechanical
properties of the fabric, i.e. tensile, tearing and abrasion resistance properties.
Here, plain weave, duck weave and basket weave were considered for
their impact on fabric properties.
Washing clothes made from synthetic materials has been identified as a potentially important source of microscopic fibres to the environment. This study examined the release of fibres from polyester, polyester-cotton blend and acrylic fabrics. These fabrics were laundered under various conditions of temperature, detergent and conditioner. Fibres from waste effluent were examined and the mass, abundance and fibre size compared between treatments. Average fibre size ranged between 11.9 and 17.7 μm in diameter, and 5.0 and 7.8 mm in length. Polyester-cotton fabric consistently shed significantly fewer fibres than either polyester or acrylic. However, fibre release varied according to wash treatment with various complex interactions. We estimate over 700,000 fibres could be released from an average 6 kg wash load of acrylic fabric. As fibres have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, our data indicates fibres released by washing of clothing could be an important source of microplastics to aquatic habitats.
Present work was undertaken to study the effects of yarn, fabric, and machine parameters on crease recovery and pilling performance of woven fabrics containing the elastane yarn. In order to estimate the optimum process conditions and examine the individual effects of the controllable factors separately on a particular response, the experiments were performed according to Taguchi’s experimental design. Also, to optimize the multiple process responses (crease recovery angle and pills number), Grey–Taguchi method was used. The controllable factors considered in this study are weft yarn type, fabric design, weft density, air pressure, and shed closing timing. Considering the SN ratio analysis results, it could be concluded that among the variety of factors selected in the present investigation, only weave pattern and weft density significantly affect the number of pills formed on the elastic-woven fabrics. Also, the parameter weave pattern has a significant effect on crease recovery of the elastic-woven samples.
The pilling behavior of polyester/viscose, polyester/viscose/Lycra®, and %100 cotton fabrics, is investigated in both normal and wet conditions. The experimental results show that the pilling tendency of fabrics in the wet state is directly related to the constituent fiber tenacity in the wet state. We also test three different pilling testers, the Martindale wear & pilling, the ICI pilling box, and the pilling drum, using both gray and finished fabric samples to investigate the sensitivity of different testers to various fabric parameters. In the gray state, the pilling box is sensitive to changes in the fiber blend ratio, weave type, and fabric stretch direction (mono or bi-stretch). The pilling drum exhibits a similar tendency, except that it is not sensitive to weave type. However, Martindale test results indicate that this apparatus is sensitive only to the yarn count and stretch direction of fabrics with spandex filaments. In the finished state, the picture changes dramatically, because the pilling box is sensitive to the yarn count, yarn twist, and stretch direction of fabrics with Lycra. The pilling drum again exhibits a similar tendency, except for weave type. The martindale, on the other hand, is sensitive to the yarn count, yam twist, and stretch direction of fabrics with Lycra. Generally, the Martindale gives worse pilling grades than the pilling box and pilling drum. Since the test results show that each tester has a different sensitivity for different factors, we recommend using at least two different testers to obtain reliable results, one of these being the Martindale while the other might be either the pilling box or drum.
A new objective fabric pilling grading method based on wavelet texture analysis was developed. The new method created a complex texture feature vector based on the wavelet detail coefficients from all decomposition levels and horizontal, vertical and diagonal orientations, permitting a much richer and more complete representation of pilling texture in the image to be used as a basis for classification. Standard multi-factor classification techniques of principal components analysis and discriminant analysis were then used to classify the pilling samples into five pilling degrees. The preliminary investigation of the method was performed using standard pilling image sets of knitted, woven and non-woven fabrics. The results showed that this method could successfully evaluate the pilling intensity of knitted, woven and non-woven fabrics by selecting the suitable wavelet and associated analysis scale.
For quality control of textiles, it is necessary to develop an objective method to evaluate fabric pilling, rather than subjective, to improve reliability and reproducibility. This paper presents a new method to extract pill features from fabric images. In this work, we apply a two-dimensional Gaussian fit theory to train a pill template using actual pill images for pill template matching, and determine a reasonable threshold for image segmentation using a histogram-fitting technique. We then extract five parameters to describe pill properties—pill number, mean area of pills. total area of pills. contrast. and density—and establish formulas to calculate objective grades with these parameters. The results show that a good correlation can be achieved between objective and subjective data.
A one-dimensional computational model of pilling of a fibre assembly has been created. The model follows a set of individual fibres, as free ends and loops appear as fuzz and arc progressively withdrawn from the body of the assembly, and entangle to form pills, which eventually break off or are pulled out. The time dependence of the computation is given by ticks, which correspond to cycles of a wear and laundering process. The movement of the fibres is treated as a reptation process. A set of standard values is used as inputs to the computation. Predictions arc given of the change with a number Of cycles of mass of fuzz, mass of pills, and mass removed from the assembly. Changes in the standard values allow sensitivity studies to be carried out.