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Kombucha tea fermentation: Microbial and biochemical dynamics
... This demonstrates a rise in acetic acid production on the 15th day of fermentation (De Miranda et al., 2021). Another study also proved the increase in acetic acid and gluconic acid concentration in green tea kombucha which reached the level of 16.57 and 7.36 g/L after 21 days of fermentation duration (Chakravorty et al., 2016). Another interesting study done by Malbasa et al., (2018) uses sugar beet molasses as the source of carbon for the fermentation process. ...
... Another study has been conducted by Chakravorty which focuses on black tea kombucha. That study shows an increase in ethanol concentration with a maximum value of 0.028% on the 7th day, followed by a decrease to 0.0073% on the 21st day and this phenomenon may be due to the presence of acetic bacteria thus the production of acetic acid (Chakravorty et al., 2016). The analysis to investigate the concentration of ethanol in kombucha tea also involves different temperature conditions during the production period and it shows higher ethanol content which reached 1.1% at 25℃ (Neffe-Skocińska et al., 2017). ...
... Kombucha's protective ability mainly comes from the presence of organic acid and antioxidant compounds found during microbial fermentation which effectively fight against free radical scavengers (Chakravorty et al., 2016;De Miranda et al., 2021). High concentration of phytochemical components mainly phenolic compounds in Kombucha tea plays an important role in the protective characteristic of the beverage towards the consumers. ...
Kombucha tea is a type of tea that undergoes fermentation through the inclusion of tea leaves, sugar, and a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). The fermentation process typically spans a period of around 10 to 15 days. The utilization of this substance dates back to ancient times, mostly for medicinal purposes. The review has demonstrated that kombucha tea has distinctive characteristics, including anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antifungal activities. The chemical component of kombucha plays an important role in kombucha tea which enhances the pharmacological activities such as acetic acid, lactic acid, phenolics and flavonoids. This paper presents an analysis of recent findings pertaining to the potential health advantages of kombucha, along with an examination of the chemical constituents and metabolites generated during the fermentation process. Additionally, further recommendations are provided for future investigations in this field.
... Part of the reason for its dramatic increase in popularity is due to the positive health benefits associated with regular consumption of this beverage. Kombucha has been suggested to be able to reduce blood pressure and cholesterol, increase weight loss, relieve arthritis, increase one's immune response, reduce kidney calcification, increase vitality, combat acne, eliminate wrinkles, purify the gall bladder, improve constipation, inhibit cancer proliferation, cure AIDS, and many other aliments [1,[3][4][5][6]. While these effects have been widely used by producers, there has been limited pharmacologically focused research into kombucha's effectiveness. ...
... Since this is not expected, it follows that there would not be significant differences in the final caffeine concentration. Except for eight samples, the remaining samples saw a decrease in caffeine concentration from the tea to the kombucha which showed similar results to those of Chakravorty et al. (2016) [5]. Caffeine is an extremely important compound for the fermentation process because it provides microorganisms their nitrogen requirements in order to perform the necessary metabolic processes for fermentation to proceed [11,39]. ...
... Since this is not expected, it follows that there would not be significant differences in the final caffeine concentration. Except for eight samples, the remaining samples saw a decrease in caffeine concentration from the tea to the kombucha which showed similar results to those of Chakravorty et al. (2016) [5]. Caffeine is an extremely important compound for the fermentation process because it provides microorganisms their nitrogen requirements in order to perform the necessary metabolic processes for fermentation to proceed [11,39]. ...
Citation: Thompson-Witrick, K.A.; Sundman, O.; Disselkoen, S.; Hanson, N.; Butler, C.; Jordan, V.; Galbraith, I.; Spake, J.; Pollock, S.; Budner, D.M. Impact of Water Ionic Chemistry on Kombucha Fermentation. Beverages 2024, 10, 108. https://doi. Abstract: Kombucha is made by using a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) to ferment sweetened tea. This fermentation produces a beverage with a unique aroma and acidic flavor. Kombucha has recently gained popularity in the United States and has been reported to have numerous health benefits. While there is a wide variation in kombucha composition, little is known about the impact water's chemistry has on the fermentation and the resulting kombucha. Brewing water for kombucha was altered using the following ions: bicarbonate, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and sulfate at different concentrations. Pre-(tea) and post-(kombucha) fermentation (kombucha) products were analyzed for total acidity, pH, free amino nitrogen (FAN), total phenols, antioxidants, and biological components. A one-way ANOVA was run to determine statistical (p < 0.05) differences between the characteristics analyzed. Statistical differences were observed between the different water chemistry ions for all of the characteristics analyzed. Further investigation into the impact water chemistry has on flavor analysis is required. The information obtained from this research can be used to help producers to make kombuchas with an optimized chemical profile and improved antioxidant potentials.
... Overall, the reducing power capacities of fermented beverages tend to vary depending on the fermentation duration. In parallel with the current research findings, Chakravorty et al. [29] found that the DPPH scavenging rate of kombucha tea gradually increased from 3.7 to 44% over a 3-week fermentation period. However, the results of Amarasinghe et al. [30] revealed a The variety and quantity of phenolic compounds in foods contribute significantly to antioxidant activity. ...
... De Filippis et al. [34] stated that kombucha beverages fermented at different temperatures (20 °C and 30 °C) using culture-dependent and independent methods resulted in different concentrations of gluconic acid (GLUA) and glucuronic acid (GLRA). The levels of GLRA found in this study were similar to those found in KT samples of fermented black and green tea [29], but the levels of GLUA were lower than those found by Chakravorty et al. [29]. Both GLUA and GLRA levels in AMK were higher than in KT. ...
... De Filippis et al. [34] stated that kombucha beverages fermented at different temperatures (20 °C and 30 °C) using culture-dependent and independent methods resulted in different concentrations of gluconic acid (GLUA) and glucuronic acid (GLRA). The levels of GLRA found in this study were similar to those found in KT samples of fermented black and green tea [29], but the levels of GLUA were lower than those found by Chakravorty et al. [29]. Both GLUA and GLRA levels in AMK were higher than in KT. ...
Almond milk is one of the popular plant-based milks due to its nutritional properties and health benefits. Recently, using alternative raw materials instead of Camellia sinensis tea has attracted more attention in order to increase kombucha’s health benefits and improve sensory properties. This study aimed to obtain a beverage with enhanced functional properties by fermenting almond milk with kombucha as a new substrate source, providing an alternative to kombucha derived from green tea. In this context, we prepared kombucha beverages using green tea (KT) and almond milk (AMK) and analyzed specific dynamic parameters at different fermentation times (up to 14 days) to evaluate the effects of substrate sources. According to the results, as fermentation progressed, the pH and total soluble solids decreased and titratable acidity increased in both kombucha beverages. On the 14th-day samples, AMK exhibited the highest values in terms of DPPH radical scavenging activity (96.90%), CUPRAC (1.28 mmol Trolox/g), and total phenolic content (611.66 mg GAE/L). In AMK, the highest counts were reached on the 14th day of fermentation for acetic acid bacteria (7.99 log CFU/mL) and yeast (7.23 log CFU/mL), while the highest lactic acid bacteria value was determined on the 7th day of fermentation in AMK (7.44 log CFU/mL). On the 7th and 14th days of fermentation, acetic, gluconic, glucuronic, lactic and citric acids were detected at the highest levels in the AMK sample. Kombucha beverages showed suitable ethanol levels (0.35–0.74 g/L). The findings show that almond milk can be used as an alternative raw material in the development of kombuchas with higher bioactive potential and contribute to optimizing the fermentation process.
... Lama waktu fermentasi merupakan faktor utama yang berpengaruh terhadap komponen kimia teh kombucha dan beberapa metabolit lain yang dihasilkan oleh mikroorganisme (Loncar et al. 2006;Soto et al. 2018). Lama waktu proses fermentasi selama 21 hari menurunkan nilai pH, meningkatkan kadar asam asetat, meningkatkan kadar asam glukonat, menurunkan kadar etanol, dan meningkatkan aktivitas antioksidan teh kombucha (teh hitam) paling optimal (Chakravorty et al. 2016). Peningkatan maksimum asam asetat dan asam glukoronat teh kombucha (teh hitam) secara berturut-turut terjadi pada fermentasi hari ke 15 dan ke 12 (Jayabalan et al. 2007). ...
... Hal tersebut ditunjukkan dengan penelitian Malbasa et al. (2011) yang menyatakan bahwa dalam kondisi aerobik, selama 7 hari simbiosis kombucha mampu mengubah substrat (sukrosa dan teh) menjadi minuman yang sedikit berkarbonasi, asam, dan menyegarkan. Produksi etanol paling optimal juga berlangsung pada hari ke 3-7 fermentasi (Chakravorty et al. 2016). Hasil ekstraksi data menunjukkan bahwa terdapat 11 data pada parameter asam asetat, 7 data flavonoid, 6 data total fenolik, 5 data etanol, 7 data total asam, dan 6 data aktivitas antioksidan. ...
... Hal tersebut menyebabkan kadar etanol teh kombucha hasil fermentasi 7 dan 8-14 hari tidak berbeda signifikan. Penelitian Chakravorty et al. (2016) semakin mendukung hasil kajian meta-analisis, dengan melaporkan bahwa fermentasi selama 1-7 hari mengalami peningkatan kadar etanol paling tinggi dan mengalami penurunan setelah fermentasi hari ke-7. Berdasarkan hasil kajian meta-analisis, proses fermentasi selama 14 hari disarankan kepada produsen yang ingin memperoleh karakteristik teh kombucha dengan tingkat keasaman cukup tinggi namun memiliki kadar etanol yang masih dalam jumlah tidak berbeda signifikan dengan hasil proses fermentasi selama 7 hari. ...
One type of beverage that has functional effects and has been known for a long time is kombucha tea, a fermented drink made with tea leaves, sugar, and Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast (SCOBY). Kombucha tea tastes sourly like apple vinegar, sparkling contains polyphenol compounds, organic acids, other biomolecules, and probiotics. The fermentation time is a factor that needs to be considered in making kombucha tea. Much research has been done on kombucha tea, but the variation in duration of the fermentation process is very diserve, so a meta-analysis is needed to obtain valid and informative conclusions from a comprehensive study about the effect of fermentation time on the kombucha tea chemical characteristics. The PRISMA flowchart and the effect size of Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) in the form of Hedges'd were choosen as a quantitative synthesis method of meta-analysis. The results showed that the fermentation process conducted for 8-14 days had a strong effect on all parameters (flavonoid, ethanol, acetic acid levels, total phenolic, total acidity, and antioxidant activity) with SMD values >0.8, p values <0.001 to 0.732, and heterogeneity values of 57,62% to 89,40%. Kombucha tea, with a fermentation time of 7 days had significantly higher antioxidant activity. The length of the fermentation process has the strongest effect on the acetic acid levels of kombucha tea.
... This fermentation process results in the production of various bioactive compounds, including organic acids (such as acetic acid, gluconic acid and lactic acid), ethanol, glucuronic acid, phenolic compounds, B vitamins and enzymes [1]. These components contribute not only to kombucha's characteristic tangy taste but also to its potential antioxidant, antimicrobial and detoxifying properties [2]. ...
... Polyphenols in tea are primarily responsible for the antioxidant activity of kombucha. This study corroborates Chakravorty et al., [2], noting an increase in polyphenols including flavonoids during fermentation. Additionally, thearubigin transforms into theaflavin, resulting in a colour change in kombucha from dark to light as fermentation progresses. ...
... However, microbial action can also increase flavonoid levels by degrading polyphenols into flavonoids [48]. This study supports [2], who noted an increase in polyphenols during fermentation, including flavonoids, with thearubigin transforming into theaflavin, resulting in colour changes in kombucha. The variations in flavonoid content during fermentation can be attributed to microbial activity, as discussed by [48], who found that microorganisms such as Lactobacillus plantarum can degrade polyphenols into flavonoids. ...
This research focuses on the development of instant kombucha drink and kombucha ice cream using spray drying techniques. Kombucha, a fermented tea known for its health benefits, is processed to halt alcohol production and enhance its usability in various forms. The study utilized three treatment methods to ferment kombucha: Cold shock at ≤ 4°C for 5 days, pasteurization at 72°C for 20 mins and yeast removal using a coffee filter, alongside a standard fermentation control. The spray drying process was applied to kombucha from these treatments to produce instant kombucha powder. The physicochemical properties, nutritional quality and microbial safety of the resulting powder were evaluated. The best results were obtained from pasteurization, yielding a powder with low alcohol content (0.13 % w/w), desirable physicochemical properties (4.70 total dissolved solids, 3.10 pH, 0.2177 titratable acidity) and microbial safety (< 1 CFU/ml). Subsequently, instant kombucha powder was utilized to develop two new products: Instant kombucha drink and kombucha ice cream. The instant drink reconstituted well with water, maintaining the original kombucha's flavour profile and health benefits. The kombucha ice cream was formulated to preserve the bioactive compounds and probiotics, offering a novel health-promoting dessert option. Sensory evaluations indicated high consumer acceptance for both products, with the instant drink and ice cream scoring well on taste, texture and overall satisfaction. The innovative use of spray drying to produce instant kombucha powder and its application in diverse products highlights the potential for expanding kombucha’s market presence while retaining its health benefits.
... The highest sucrose decomposition occurred in CBY, and yeast monocultures compared to AAB monocultures. Yeast invertase played a crucial role in the rapid hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose, enhancing nutrient availability for microbial growth and secondary metabolite synthesis (Chakravorty et al., 2016). However, the significant reduction in sucrose in AAB monocultures indicates their contribution to sugar metabolism in CBY. ...
... The interaction between yeast and AAB strains significantly increased the organic acid content in CBY compared to monoculture teas. CBY exhibited the highest gluconic acid and acetic acid contents, peaking on days 14 and 21, respectively, consistent with previous studies (Chakravorty et al., 2016). Furthermore, acetic acid in Kombucha contributes to its antimicrobial properties against pathogenic microorganisms. ...
... Figure 2a depicts the evolution of total phenolic content (TPC) during fermentation. The TPC significantly increased in the initial phase of fermentation compared to non-fermented tea, which is consistent with previous studies (Chakravorty et al., 2016). This suggests that the microbiota plays a role in polyphenol synthesis. ...
Kombucha has gained global attention for its beneficial bioactive compounds. This study aimed to evaluate Thunbergia laurifolia tea as a potential substrate for Kombucha production due to its rich polyphenol content and biological properties, including antioxidant and anticancer properties, through monoculture and simultaneous mixed coculture fermentation. The pH and brix of the teas decreased significantly during fermentation, indicating sugar hydrolysis and organic acid synthesis by fermenting microbes. The alcohol content was higher in yeast monocultures (45.80 ± 0.00¬50.23 ± 0.08 g L⁻¹) compared to mixed coculture fermented (CBY) tea (20.16 ± 0.00 g L⁻¹). Total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity increased significantly in CBY tea compared to non‐fermented and monoculture teas. CBY also exhibited the highest cumulative phenolic compound content, including rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, rutin, catechin, and quercetin, compared to monoculture teas. Overall, Thunbergia laurifolia tea shows promise as a substrate for kombucha production, with improved bioactive constituents and antioxidant activity.
... Microbiological analyses were carried out using both traditional methods and a culture-independent metagenomic approach. Previous studies indicate that the microbial community in terms of yeasts and AAB abundance may vary between different kombucha fermentations across the globe, depending on the source and method of the inoculum used and the type of tea [19,20]. However, it is widely reported that AAB usually dominates the bacterial community of both SCOBY and the liquid phase of kombucha, driving the fermentative process [21]. ...
... Metagenomic analyses revealed Komagataeibacter spp. as the dominant genus regardless of the kombucha sample and the time of fermentation considered, as previously reported in other studies [19,22]. In fact, kombucha represents the most important reservoir of the genus Komagataeibacter, widely described as cellulose-producing bacteria [29,30]. ...
... Conversely, the P3 sample was primarily composed of K. saccharivorans, K. xylinus, and K. intermedius. These findings highlight the variability in AAB communities across different kombucha samples, potentially influencing the fermentation process and the final products' properties [13,19,31]. LAB were detected only in samples P1 and P3 with an abundance lower than 8%. ...
Kombucha is a trending tea fermented via a complex microflora of yeasts and acetic acid bacteria. It can be a valid low-calorie substitute for soft drinks due to its sour, naturally carbonated, and sweet taste. Despite increased interest, the microflora and functional properties of kombucha have not yet been fully understood. The aim of this work was to characterize, from a microbiological, chemico-physical, and functional point of view, three types of artisanal kombucha obtained by fermenting green tea containing sugar by means of different starter cultures. Metagenomic analysis revealed a predominance of yeasts compared to bacteria, regardless of the sample. In particular, Brettanomyces spp. was found to be the dominant yeast. Moreover, the different types of kombucha had different microbial patterns in terms of acetic acid bacteria and yeasts. Ethanol and acetic acid were the dominant volatile molecules of the kombucha volatilome; the samples differed from each other in terms of their content of alcohols, esters, and acids. All the samples showed a high antioxidant potential linked to the high content of phenols. This study confirmed the positive chemico-physical and functional properties of kombucha and indicated that the microflora responsible for the fermentation process can significantly affect the characteristics of the final product.
... Kombucha exhibits prophylactic and therapeutic benefits influenced by raw materials, sugar type, fermentation duration, and starter culture (Selvaraj and Gurumurthy, 2023). Demonstrated biological activities include antiinflammatory (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Vázquez-Cabral et al., 2017), antibacterial (Cardoso et al., 2020), anti-carcinogenic (Jayabalan et al., 2011), antimicrobial (Sreeramulu et al., 2000;Battikh et al., 2012), antioxidant (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Shahbazi et al., 2018;Ivanišová et al., 2020;Jakubczyk et al., 2020), and anti-proliferative effects (Deghrigue et al., 2013;Cardoso et al., 2020). In vivo experiments on mice show antioxidative stress effects against chromate (Sai Ram et al., 2000), lead (Dipti et al., 2003), hypoxia, cold (Pauline et al., 2001), and alloxan-induced oxidative stress damage (Aloulou et al., 2012;Bhattacharya et al., 2013). ...
... Kombucha exhibits prophylactic and therapeutic benefits influenced by raw materials, sugar type, fermentation duration, and starter culture (Selvaraj and Gurumurthy, 2023). Demonstrated biological activities include antiinflammatory (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Vázquez-Cabral et al., 2017), antibacterial (Cardoso et al., 2020), anti-carcinogenic (Jayabalan et al., 2011), antimicrobial (Sreeramulu et al., 2000;Battikh et al., 2012), antioxidant (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Shahbazi et al., 2018;Ivanišová et al., 2020;Jakubczyk et al., 2020), and anti-proliferative effects (Deghrigue et al., 2013;Cardoso et al., 2020). In vivo experiments on mice show antioxidative stress effects against chromate (Sai Ram et al., 2000), lead (Dipti et al., 2003), hypoxia, cold (Pauline et al., 2001), and alloxan-induced oxidative stress damage (Aloulou et al., 2012;Bhattacharya et al., 2013). ...
... polyphenol was reported as gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g of the sample. The analysis was carried out in triplicate (Chakravorty et al., 2016). 0.3 mL of ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide were added to 1 mL of the control and test samples, shaken, and allowed to settle. ...
Kombucha fermentation yields a diverse range of beneficial macro and micronutrients. In our study, we examined the metabolites, antioxidant activity, organoleptic characteristics, and nutritional attributes of traditionally prepared kombucha tea, using black tea and sugar (control) as substrates, and compared them with tea made from tea dust and blackstrap molasses (test). Kombucha tea crafted from functional raw materials exhibited enhanced sensory qualities and improved health-promoting properties. The levels of tannins, flavonoids, and phenols play a crucial role in determining the antioxidant activity of kombucha tea. Using the DPPH and FRAP methods, we investigated the antioxidant activity throughout the fermentation period, ranging from day 0 to day 12, under optimized conditions. The results consistently demonstrated an initial increase in antioxidant activity from day 0 to 6, followed by a decline from day 6 to 12. Notably, statistical analysis revealed that the antioxidant activity of the test sample was significantly better (p > 0.001) compared to the control sample. The nutritional content of the kombucha from day 6 of the test sample is higher than the control sample provided sugars (fructose 0.4 ± 0.1, glucose 0.7 ± 0.1, sucrose 1.4 ± 0.1) g/100 mL, minerals (calcium, 19.4 ± 0.15, iron 23.1 ± 0.25, and potassium 28.3 ± 0.25) mg/100 mL, vitamins (B1 0.58 ± 0.01, B2 0.30 ± 0.02, B3 0.33 ± 0.02, B6 0.75 ± 0.02, B9 0.19 ± 0.03, B12 0.9 ± 0.03, and C 1.38 ± 0.06) mg/100 mL, sodium 4.35 ± 0.25 mg/100 mL, calories 14.85 ± 0.25 mg/100 mL, carbohydrates 3.135 ± 0.12, and acids (acetic acid 4.20 ± 0.02, glucuronic acid 1.78 ± 0.02) mg/100 mL on day 12. The predominant microbial species identified in both control and test samples included Komagataeibacter rhaeticus, Gluconobacter oxydans, Brettanomyces bruxellensis, and Zygosaccharomyces bailli, each with varying dominance levels. These microorganisms play essential roles in metabolizing sugars, generating acids, and contributing to the distinctive flavor profile of kombucha. Sensory evaluations of the control and test samples were analyzed, and the overall preference was 88% for the test sample with tea dust and molasses. The sensory characteristics of the test sample included a fruity smell (41%), fizzy texture (66%), bright color (47%), and a fruity taste (67%), with overall acceptability (56%) rating it as excellent. Our research contributes to a deeper understanding of the interplay between raw materials, microbial composition, and the resulting composition of bioactive compounds.
... Origins Northern Caucasian mountains [49,[70][71][72]. East Asia [69,73,74]. ...
... Kombucha beverage is fermented for a period of 7-12 days at room temperature in static fermentation [74]. ...
1) Background: The human microbiota is essential for maintaining a healthy body. The gut microbiota plays a protective role against pathogenic bacteria. Probiotics are live microorganisms capable of preventing and controlling gastrointestinal and balancing the immune system. They also aid in better nutrients and vitamins absorption. Examples of natural probiotic cultures are kefir and kombucha. (2) Methods: Therefore, the aim of this review was to address the beneficial properties of probiotic kefir and kombucha using a Boxplot analysis to search for scientific data in the online literature up to January 2024: (Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences (LILACS), PubMed, Medical Literature Analysis (MED-LINE), Science Direct, Google Scholar/Google Academic, Bioline Inter-national and Springer Link). Boxplots showed the summary of a set of data “Index Terms—Keywords” on kefir and kombucha in three languages (English, Portuguese and Spanish). (3) Results: Google Scholar was the database with the highest number of articles found, when the search for the keywords used in the study (containing ~4 × 106–~4 million articles available). This was Followed by the Science Direct database, containing ~3 × 106–~3 million articles available, and the BVS databases—Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde (Virtual Health Library) e Lilacs, both containing a value of ~2 × 106–~2 million articles available. The databases containing the smallest number of articles found were Nutrients and Medline, both containing a value of ≤0.1 × 106–≤100 thousand articles. (4) Conclusions: Scientific studies indicate that kefir and kombucha certainly contain various functional properties, such as antimicrobial, antitumor, anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory activity, in addition to having a microbiological composition of probiotic bacteria and yeasts. Kefir and kombucha represent key opportunities in the food and clinic/medical fields.
... The complexity of the system encompasses countless species that are still unknown, both in relation to their genetics and bioactivity, as well as their interactions, and some obstacles prevent the complete understanding of these ecosystems, with this diversity and complexity of microbial communities being the first of them, mainly in the delimitation of such as, some microorganisms can act in parallel, while others act sequentially with dominant evolution during the fermentation process (Chakravorty et al. 2016). Specifically, when dealing with kombucha, the supernatant biofilm of microorganisms (scoby) is used as a key and essential element for the occurrence and maintenance of this process, having a unique and very complex microbiota, which can be divided into two fractions, namely, one recognized in biological material and the other, such as that of Chakravorty et al. (2016). ...
... The complexity of the system encompasses countless species that are still unknown, both in relation to their genetics and bioactivity, as well as their interactions, and some obstacles prevent the complete understanding of these ecosystems, with this diversity and complexity of microbial communities being the first of them, mainly in the delimitation of such as, some microorganisms can act in parallel, while others act sequentially with dominant evolution during the fermentation process (Chakravorty et al. 2016). Specifically, when dealing with kombucha, the supernatant biofilm of microorganisms (scoby) is used as a key and essential element for the occurrence and maintenance of this process, having a unique and very complex microbiota, which can be divided into two fractions, namely, one recognized in biological material and the other, such as that of Chakravorty et al. (2016). In a comprehensive way, Table 1 presents some of the microorganisms found mapped in the drink and in the scooby according to the scientific literature mapped. ...
Kombucha is a fermented drink with growing interest among the population due to its health benefits. The technological process involved in the production of kombucha is complex and involves the symbiosis between yeast and bacteria. Our study aimed to review the literature and identify factors that influence the fermentation process through a narrative review of the literature. We observed that factors such as time, temperature, quantity and type of tea, geometry of the fermentation vessel and composition of bacteria and yeast influence the quality of the final drink, which can alter the drink's sensory characteristics and health benefits. We conclude that the existence and control of production parameters for the drink is essential, thus ensuring greater standardization and consumer safety.
... Waktu fermentasi yang semakin lama dapat meningkatkan total fenol dan total flavonoid cascara kombucha. Waktu fermentasi mencapai 21 hari dapat menurunkan kandungan kafein dan thearubigin, namun dapat meningkatkan thheaflavin hampir 2 kali lipat (Chakravorty et al., 2016). Mutu didefenisikan sebagai kesesuaian serangkaian karakteristik produk atau jasa dengan standar yang telah ditetapkan berdasarkan keinginan konsumen. ...
Kopi merupakan komoditas ekspor yang signifikan bagi Indonesia, tersedia dalam bentuk biji hijau panggang, kopi bubuk, atau bentuk siap minum. Dalam mengubah biji kopi menjadi kopi bubuk, tidak ada residu yang tersisa karena biji-bijian sepenuhnya dihancurkan. Namun, pembuatan kopi menghasilkan residu seperti ampas kopi bekas. Produksi kopi instan, yang melibatkan ekstraksi uap tekanan tinggi, juga menghasilkan limbah. Proses ekstraksi yang efisien menghasilkan residu tanpa aroma kopi, sedangkan yang tidak efisien tidak demikian. Menurut Khusna dan Susanto (2015), proses produksi kopi instan di PT Santos Jaya menghasilkan limbah yang mencapai 45% dari total kopi yang diproses. Pengelolaan limbah dalam jumlah besar ini diperlukan untuk mencegah masalah lingkungan dan mewujudkan manfaat ekonomi. Pengelolaan limbah kopi merupakan topik penting yang mencakup berbagai aspek pemanfaatan berkelanjutan dari sisa produksi kopi. Limbah kopi, seperti ampas kopi dan kulit kopi, dapat diolah menjadi produk yang bermanfaat seperti briket bahan bakar, pupuk organik, pakan ternak, dan sumber bioenergi terbarukan.
... The increase in total acid in kombucha is the result of bacterial metabolism which produces acids such as acetic acid, gluconic acid, and glucuronic acid (Prijambada et al., 2012). The longer the fermentation, the organic acids that are formed increase and are detected as total titrated acid (Chakravorty et al., 2016). The longer the fermentation can produce a total acid between 0.5-2.0%. ...
Kombucha tea has become an innovative beverage product and popular with the public because it has many health benefits. One of the plant leaf that has the potential as an ingredient for making kombucha tea is vanilla leaf. Fermentation time will affect the alcohol content and active compounds content in vanilla leaf kombucha tea. Fermented beverage products that have an alcohol content of less than 0.5% are legally halal and medically harmless. The purpose of this study was to determine the halal label of vanilla leaf kombucha tea with variations in fermentation time based on alcohol content and chemical characteristics. The alcohol content test for vanilla leaf kombucha tea was carried out by quantitative analysis of the gravimetric method with variations in the 4 treatments including fermentation time of 0, 4, 8, and 12 days. The results of the alcohol content test showed increased results. Vanilla leaf kombucha tea with 0 day fermentation had an alcohol content of 0.12%, 4 days 0.15%, 8 days 0.21%, and 12 days 0.28%. From the results, the alcohol content in vanilla leaf kombucha tea was less than 0.5% and based on the MUI agreement on alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of less than 0.5%, so the product is declared as a halal fermented drink. The results of the chemical characteristic test showed that there were differences in pH values and titrated total acid levels in kombucha tea. Vanilla leaf kombucha tea which had the best chemical characteristics is vanilla leaf kombucha tea with P2 treatment (4 days of fermentation) with a pH value of 3 and a Tat level of 0.012 and P3 treatment (8 days of fermentation) with a pH value of 3 and a Tat level of 0.024.
... The SCOBY is composed of a cellulose biofilm that contains acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and osmophilic yeasts. 1 Throughout the fermentation process, the SCOBY undergoes metabolic reactions that break down the tea polyphenols and sugar, resulting in the formation of several substances such as organic acids (acetic, gluconic, glucuronic, lactic), vitamins (B and C), minerals, and ethanol. 2 The specific chemical composition varies depending on the type of tea and sugar used, the bacteria strains present in the SCOBY, and the duration and temperature of fermentation. 3 Nevertheless, acetic acid is commonly one of the primary organic acids generated. The health benefits of kombucha are believed to be related to the bioactive components produced during fermentation, specifically the organic acids and polyphenols. ...
This study examines the spiking response of a proteinoid–actin–kombucha system when exposed to varying frequency of yellow light pulses. The objective is to understand the frequency-dependent characteristics of this system's response and explore the possibility of using light pulses to regulate and manipulate how it functions. The kombucha samples, which contained proteinoid–actin complexes, were exposed to several stimulation conditions. These settings included no light (blank) and yellow light pulses at frequencies of 2 Hz, 4 Hz, 10 Hz, 20 Hz, and 100 Hz. The spiking response was analyzed in terms of potential (mV) over time (s), and the characteristics of the response, such as amplitude and period, were examined. The findings indicate that the spiking patterns and characteristics fluctuate according on the stimulation frequency, with higher frequencies generally leading to more distinct and numerous spikes compared to lower frequencies and the absence of stimulation. The skewness and kurtosis values of the potential data indicate different levels of asymmetry and tail tendency in the probability distributions, which further supports the fact that the response is based on frequency. The study emphasises the capacity to manipulate and regulate the functions of the proteinoid–actin–kombucha system using light pulses, hence creating opportunities for future usage in several domains, including biosensors and biocomputing.
... de Coco" is a BNC-containing food, "Kombucha" is a clear drink that does not contain BNC despite being produced during the fermentation process [4,5]. BNC, as a food and dietary supplement, has spread worldwide from Southeast Asia since the twentieth century and, according to recent reviews, currently displays a significant upward trend in human consumption [6,7]. ...
Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is considered a promising alternative to microcrystalline cellulose, as well as an ingredient in low-calorie dietary products. However, the risks of BNC when consumed with food are not well characterized. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of BNC on immune function, the intestinal microbiome, intestinal barrier integrity, and allergic sensitization in subacute experiments on rats. Male Wistar rats received BNC with a diet for eight weeks in a dose range of 1–100 mg/kg of body weight. The measurements of serum levels of cytokines, adipokines, iFABP2, indicators of cellular immunity, composition of the intestinal microbiome, and a histological study of the ileal mucosa were performed. In a separate four-week experiment on a model of systemic anaphylaxis to food antigen, BNC at a dose of 100 mg/kg of body weight did not increase the severity of the reaction or change the response of IgG antibodies. Based on dose–response effects on immune function, the non-observed adverse effect level for BNC was less than 100 mg/kg of body weight per day. The effects of BNC on the gut microbiome and the intestinal mucosal barrier were not dose-dependent. Data on the possible presence of prebiotic effects in BNC have been obtained.
... This SCOBY gradually breaks down sugar and leads to a metabolic cascade that produces CO 2 and an acidic, slightly alcoholic beverage (Chakravorty et al., 2016). The SCOBY is usually described as composed by acetic acid bacteria (AAB, e.g., Acetobacter, Gluconobacter, and Komagataeibacter spp.), yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Debaryomyces, Brettanomyces and Kluyveromyces spp. ...
The revalorization of by-products is a priority for sustainable winemaking. This study explores the potential of white grape marc as a raw material for producing a kombucha-style beverage. We compared the fermentation processes of traditional tea kombuchas (green and black) and grape marc kombucha (Grape-K), all fermented with a homemade Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast (SCOBY) cultured in grape marc infusion. The results demonstrated comparable acid production across all variants, with Grape-K showing enhanced sugar consumption. The microbial community was primarily composed by Brettanomyces bruxellensis (yeast), Oenococcus oeni and Liquorilactobacillus ghanensis (lactic acid bacteria), and Komagataeibacter intermedius (acetic acid bacteria). Although Grape-K contained lower levels of phenolic compounds and higher acetic acid concentrations than tea-based kombuchas, it exhibited a significant increase in antioxidant activity post-fermentation. Using Muscat grape marcs, known for their enhanced floral notes, improved the organoleptic profile of the beverage. The balance of volatile acidity with other aromatic compounds in Grape-K highlights the potential of grape marc, especially from aromatic white varieties, as a promising raw material for creating kombuchas with distinct and appealing aromatic profiles.
... Aloulou, Hamden, Elloumi, Ali, Hargafi, Jaouadi, & Ammar, 2012;Chakravorty, Bhattacharya, Chatzinotas, Chakraborty, Bhattacharya, & Gachhui, 2016). Jika terjadi peningkatan kadar fenol bebas yang terdapat dalam proses fermentasi, maka aktivitas antioksidan akan semakin meningkat (Jakubczyk, Kałduńska, Kochman, & Janda, 2020).Setelah proses fermentasi selesai, maka akan didapatkan minuman probiotik dengan kandungan gizi yang tinggi(Muhialdin, Osman, Muhamad, Che Wan Sapawi, Anzian, Voon, & Hussin, 2019). ...
One of the healthy lifestyles that must be carried out by the community is to routinely consume probiotic drinks. This drink is an immuno booster drink that can increase the immune system or body resistance to fight all kinds of diseases caused by microorganisms. One type of probiotic drink is Kombucha, this drink is produced from the tea fermentation process. The Kombucha fermentation process uses microorganisms that come from the symbiosis of bacteria and fungi or known as Scoby. Kombucha tea is made by brewing sweet tea and adding Scoby to the tea solution. The purpose of this study was to empower women's farmer groups in making Kombucha. The method used is a case study applied in the real work lecture program of the University of Muhammadiyah Lampung which was held in Pekon Kutadalom, Gisting, Tanggamus on July 24-September 2023. The workshop was given to 30 women's farmer groups. The stages of activity in this method are observation and coordination with village officials, counseling/workshops, training in making Kombucha tea, and evaluation of activities. The results of observations and coordination with village officials were obtained to find out the existing problems. The community tends not to know what foods and drinks can increase the body's immunity. Continued with a workshop attended by 30 participants, participants were enthusiastic with various questions asked. The delivery of the material focused on the history of kombucha, benefits, and fermentation process, so that kombucha tea can be consumed regularly. The workshop on making probiotic kombucha tea drinks conducted for women farmer groups has been effective and can increase knowledge about the importance of routinely consuming probiotic drinks as body immunity.
... Previous studies have reported acetic acid values ranging from 0.05 to 0.35 g/100 mL [6,14,[25][26][27][28]. However, other studies found higher concentrations, such as 1.60 g/100 mL after 21 days of fermentation [29], 1.10 g/100 mL after 30 days of fermentation [24], and 0.81 g/100 mL after fermenting for 7 days [26]. According to the data provided by Argentinian producers, fermentation time ranged from 6 to 70 days (S1) and was not related to the amounts of acetic acid found, as the kombucha with the highest acetic acid concentration fermented for 21 days, while kombuchas with the shortest and longest fermentation times had acetic acid values close to the average. ...
Kombucha is an acidic beverage obtained through the fermentation of sweetened tea by bacteria and yeast. The kombucha market is relatively new and shows sustained growth. Given kombucha’s inherent characteristics, compliance with regulations may be challenging. The aim of this study was to characterize the chemical and sensory diversity of commercial kombuchas in Argentina. Acetic acid was the predominant acid, while lactic and glucuronic acids were present in 70% and 50% of the kombuchas, respectively. Only 20% of the kombuchas met the ethanol limit, while all fell within the established pH range. Ninety percent had sugar concentrations exceeding the limit set by Argentinian Law. As assessed by a trained panel, drinkability was positively associated with sweetness and fruity tastes and negatively associated with astringency, bitterness, and off-flavors. This work represents the first comprehensive analysis of kombuchas in Argentina, revealing their variability and providing relevant insights for producers and consumers.
... In addition to cabbage, radish, cucumber, olives, carrots, onions, jackfruit and beetroots are also fermented into pickles (Axelle et al., 2017). Black tea leaves, cassava leaves, and mustard leaves were also traditionally fermented into non-dairy ke r and kombucha (Chakravorty et al., 2016). The regular consumption of fermented foods increases the gut bacterial population up to 103-fold and has positive effect on the GI tract (Rai et al., 2015). ...
Probiotics are highly essential for a healthy gut in order to maintain optimum microbial balance, fight pathogenic bacteria, improve digestion and maintain overall intestinal health. Southern India is characterized by an abundance of fermented traditional foods based on rice (Oryza sativa) with a diverse array of flavors and textures deeply rooted in its culinary practices. The present investigation was carried out to explore the probiotic potential in terms of acid tolerance, bile tolerance, tolerance to the gastrointestinal tract, antibacterial activity, and antibiotic susceptibility, of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from foods of Southern India. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that Limosilactobacillus fermentum DFRM9 had significantly (p<0.05) higher probiotic effects among the tested isolates and was used as a starting culture for sauerkraut preparation. The results obtained in the present investigation support the use of lacto-fermentation for the production of functional foods for improvement of human health and well being.
... Segundo Kaur, Goshal e Banerjee (2019), a kombucha contém numerosos ácidos orgânicos como ácido glucorônico, principal metabólito que melhora a desintoxicação pela ligação de moléculas de toxina e auxilia a excreção pelos rins. Além disso, pesquisadores indicam que há elevadas concentrações de vitaminas do complexo B, ácido fólico e compostos fenólicos (CHAKRAVORTY et al., 2016;MOUSAVI et al., 2020). ...
Os metabólitos constituídos normalmente por ácidos orgânicos, produzidos durante a fermentação da kombucha, vêm de encontro ao tipo e concentração de chá de Camelia sinensis como substrato, assim como o carboidrato presente na forma de açúcar. No entanto, há poucos relatos na literatura em relação ao emprego de fontes de substratos não convencionais para obtenção da bebida. Nesse sentido, este trabalho teve como objetivo de avaliar a produção de kombuchas obtidas com diferentes concentrações de chá verde e substituição parcial de infusão de casca de pitaya vermelha (Hylocereus polyrhizus) desidratada, através da caracterização físico-química no período fermentativo. Foram utilizadas infusões de 100% chá verde (controle), 75% chá verde com 25% casca de pitaya (tratamento 2), 50% chá verde com 50% casca de pitaya (tratamento 3) e, 25% chá verde com 75% casca de pitaya (tratamento 4). As kombuchas foram analisadas em relação ao pH, °Brix, acidez total titulável e açúcares redutores. O tempo médio de 6 dias de fermentação das kombuchas se mostrou o mais adequado em relação aos critérios de legislação. As kombuchas contendo infusões parciais de casca de pitaya apresentaram um comportamento fermentativo mais controlado, obtendo menor teor de acidez total. Desta forma, pode-se dizer que a casca de pitaya contribui como fonte alternativa e sustentável de substrato na fermentação de kombucha.
... The method specificity of back slopping lies in the careful selection and maintenance of SCOBY, because the initial microbial composition and microbial community succession during fermentation can inform stringent hygiene and sanitary practices in kombucha production, as well as the quality of kombucha produced (Grassi et al., 2022). In view of the limited information derived from culture-dependent methods (Marsh et al., 2014;Chakravorty et al., 2016), culture-independent methods have receiving increasing attention in identifying the microbial communities of kombucha in the past two decades. With metagenomic analysis, Kaashyap et al. (2021) reported 34 genera with 200 microbial species identified in commercial kombucha products. ...
Kombucha, a fermented tea prepared with a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY), offers a unique and unpredictable home-brewed fermentation process. Therefore, the need for a controlled kombucha fermentation process has become evident, which requiring a thorough understanding of the microbial composition and its relationship with the metabolites produced. In this study, we investigated the dynamics of microbial communities and metabolites over a 12-day fermentation period of a conventional kombucha-making process. Our findings revealed similarities between the microbial communities in the early (0–2 days) and late (10–12 days) fermentation periods, supporting the principle of back-slopping fermentation. Untargeted metabolite analysis unveiled the presence of harmful biogenic amines in the produced kombucha, with concentrations increasing progressively throughout fermentation, albeit showing relatively lower abundance on days 8 and 12. Additionally, a contrasting trend between ethanol and caffeine content was observed. Canonical correspondence analysis highlighted strong positive correlations between specific bacterial/yeast strains and identified metabolites. In conclusion, our study sheds light on the microbial and metabolite dynamics of kombucha fermentation, emphasizing the importance of microbial control and quality assurance measures in the production process.
... We observed statistically significant differences (p≤0.05) between the green tea and the kombucha beverage for the parameters of pH, TSS, TSS/ TTA ratio and turbidity. The pH of the green tea was found to be around 5. During the fermentative process, when SCOBY is inoculated, occurs the production of organic acids, leading to a decrease in pH values and an increase of acidity (20,21). These findings are consistent with the results reported by Neffe-Skocińska et al (22), who observed pH values between 2.5 and 3.5 after seven days of fermentation. ...
... The degradation sequence starts with the conversion of caffeine into theobromine and theophylline, which are then transformed into xanthine and eventually broken down into carbon dioxide and ammonia by yeast via the purine catabolic pathway [63] . The Pichia manshurica strain, a caffeine-degrading yeast isolated from kombucha, exhibits maximum caffeine dehydrogenase activity when utilizing glucose as a carbon source, with fructose being the second most effective [64] . ...
This study mainly explores three types of fermented tea beverages: kombucha, known for its distinctive sweet and sour flavor; tea wine, valued for its rich taste and low alcohol content; and tea vinegar, notable for its unique vinegar aroma. These beverages are produced through fermentation using teas as a base, facilitated by yeast and acetic acid bacteria. The research investigates how these microbes utilize tea as a nitrogen source, enhancing the content of tea polyphenols, reducing caffeine, and generating a rich array of organic acids and volatile compounds. This process imparts fermented tea beverages with unique flavors and augmented health benefits. Moreover, the bacterial cellulose film created by the symbiotic relationship between yeast and acetic acid bacteria opens up innovative avenues for the deep processing and high-value utilization of tea leaves.
... A clean cloth should be covered over the container during the fermentation phase to ensure that it is more hygienic. The consumption of kombucha produced under these conditions is very important for the digestive system (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Villarreal-Soto et al., 2018;Nyhan et al., 2022). ...
Fermented foods are widely used today. The properties of fermented foods, which have an important place in human nutrition and health, vary depending on the food product used. Fermented foods, which stand out with their nutritional properties, also have significant effects on health. In our study, the total antioxidant status, total oxidant status and oxidative stress index of kombucha tea as a fermented beverage were determined. In this context, kombucha tea produced as a result of fermentation was used as a material. TAS, TOS and OSI values of the tea were measured with Rel Assay kits. As a result of the analyzes, the TAS value of kombucha tea was determined as 9.458±0.116 mmol/L, TOS value as 10.507±0.141 μmol/L and OSI value as 0.111±0.001. In this context, it was determined that kombucha tea, which has positive effects on the digestive system, can be used as an antioxidant source.
... However, if residual sugar remains present in the beverage, the yeasts continue to produce ethanol even in the absence of acetic bacterial activity (Coelho et al. 2020). The color intensity of the fully fermented kombucha tea is remarkably reduced compared to the initial tea infusion, implying the degradation of thearubigins, which are primarily responsible for the coloration (Chakravorty et al. 2016;Frolova et al. 2023). This degradation process occurs within the acidic environment of kombucha or through the microbial or enzymatic conversion of thearubigins into compounds with diminished coloration (Jayabalan et al. 2014;Cardoso et al. 2020). ...
Kombucha, a fermented tea beverage, has seen a significant rise in global popularity. This increase is attributed to its reported health benefits and extensive cultural heritage. The comprehensive review examines kombucha through microbiology, biochemistry, and health sciences, highlighting its therapeutic potential and commercial viability. Central to kombucha production is the symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY), which regulates a complex fermentation process, resulting in a bioactive-rich elixir. The study examines the microbial dynamics of SCOBY, emphasizing the roles of various microorganisms. It focuses the contributions of acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and osmophilic yeasts, including genera such as Saccharomyces, Schizosaccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Brettanomyces/Dekkera, and Pichia. These microorganisms play crucial roles in producing bioactive compounds, including organic acids, polyphenols, and vitamins. These bioactive compounds confer therapeutic properties to kombucha. These properties include antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, cancer prevention, hepatoprotective, and detoxifying effects. The review also explores the growing market for kombucha, driven by consumer demand for functional beverages and opportunities for innovative product development. It emphasizes the necessity of standardized production to ensure safety and validate health claims. Identifying research gaps, the review highlights the importance of clinical trials to verify therapeutic benefits. Ultimately, this study integrates traditional knowledge with scientific research, providing directions for future studies and commercial expansion, emphasizing the role of kombucha in health and wellness.
Graphical abstract
... The most abundant prokaryotes are gluconic/acetic acid-producing bacteria: Acetobacter aceti, A. pasteurianus, A. tropicalis, A okinawensis, A, musti; Gluconobacter oxydans, Gluconobacter potus; and cellulose-forming species such as Komagataeibacter xylinus, K. rhaeticus, K. europaeus, K. intermedius, K. hansenii (Barbosa et al., 2021;Gaggia et al., 2018;Pradhan et al., 2022;Savary et al., 2021). The microbiology of Kombucha is also characterised by various yeast species, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. ludwigii; Candida stellata, C. famata, C. guilliermondii, C. tropicalis; Zygosaccharomyces bailli, Z. rouxii, Z. lentus; Pichia kudraivzevii, P. fermentans, P. membranefaciens; Brettanomyces bruxellensis, B. lambrcus, B. intermediums, B. claussenii; Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and Torulaspora delbruckii (Chakravorty et al., 2016;Gaggia et al., 2018;Jayabalan et al., 2014;Pradhan et al., 2022;B. Wang et al., 2023;Wang et al., 2022). ...
... Our rationale was that a rapid decrease of sucrose has been reported from day 5 to day 15, which is attributed to the yeast extracellular enzyme production 4 resulting from the kinetic behavior that the Kombucha SCOBY exhibits, where yeasts hydrolyze sucrose for their own consumption, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide, and making available reducing sugars for bacterial metabolism. 11,46 After 8 weeks, the cellulose mats were transferred to a 240 × 240 mm 2 Petri dish each. 30 mL of newly made sucrose black tea solution was added to each Petri dish, instigating the fermentation process and allowing for the continuation of mat growth. ...
Kombucha is a type of tea that is fermented using yeast and bacteria. During this process, a film made of cellulose is produced. This film has unique properties such as biodegradability, flexibility, shape conformability, and ability to self-grow as well as be produced across customized scales. In our previous studies, we demonstrated that Kombucha mats exhibit electrical activity represented by spikes of the electrical potential. We propose using microbial fermentation as a method for in situ functionalization to modulate the electroactive nature of Kombucha cellulose mats, where graphene and zeolite were used for the functionalization. We subjected the pure and functionalized Kombucha mats to mechanical stimulation by applying different weights and geometries. Our experiments demonstrated that Kombucha mats functionalized with graphene and zeolite exhibit memfractive properties and respond to load by producing distinctive spiking patterns. Our findings present incredible opportunities for the in situ development of functionalized hybrid materials with sensing, computing, and memory capabilities. These materials can self-assemble and self-grow after they fuse their living and synthetic components. This study contributes to an emergent area of research on bioelectronic sensing and hybrid living materials, opening up exciting opportunities for use in smart wearables, diagnostics, health monitoring, and energy harvesting applications.
... Likewise, a more acidic pH between 3 and 4 was taken into consideration to standardize the fermentation time, which is achieved thanks to the production of acids such as acetic acid, gluconic acid, and glucuronic acid [35]. Vildozo (2022) [36] indicates that in this acidic environment, a favorable condition is established for the growth of the organisms that make up the SCOBY (acid-tolerant yeasts such as Dekkera and Brettanomyces and acetic acid bacteria such as Komagataeibacter sp.), which contribute to the selection of microorganisms, preventing contamination of the beverage, as was achieved in the present study. ...
In this study, the influence of different tea extract substrates on the biological activities of kombucha beverages was investigated. The variations in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and flavonoids and their potential health-promoting properties represented by antioxidant activity were analyzed. Our findings shed light on the diverse effects of tea substrates on the production of bioactive compounds and their subsequent impact on the biological activities of kombucha, providing valuable insights for optimizing kombucha production and its potential health benefits. The new tea substrate for kombucha, called horchata, an Ecuadorian tea, shows a similar trend but with a low content of phenolics (4.511 ± 0.111 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry weight (DW)) and flavonoids (1.902 ± 0.0455 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g DW), and antioxidant activity (DPPH—33.569 ± 1.377 µmol TROLOX/g DW, ABTS—20.898 ± 2.709 µmol TROLOX/g DW, FRAP—34.456 ± 2.0618 Fe2+ mM/100 g DW compared to black and green tea as substrates for kombucha. Through HPLC-DAD, several polyphenols were registered, and homovanillic acid showed the highest concentration (74.45 mg/100 g). Horchata kombucha scored the highest in sweetness and smell, reflecting its popularity among the tasters, making it a valuable candidate as a kombucha substrate.
... Recently, much research has been conducted to improve the flavor and function of Kombucha. Muhialdin et al found that Kombucha fermentation could obtain optimal antioxidant activity and phenolic content in a very short period and some of the biochemical properties of the Kombucha would reach the highest level within seven days of fermentation [1][2]. The soy whey broth fermented by Kombucha had the highest bacteriostatic efficiency against Staphylococcus aureus [3]. ...
With the increasing emphasis on healthy living, Kombucha beverages are becoming more and more popular. Recently, fermented Kombucha with different materials and investigated the efficacy have become hot topics. In this paper, mulberry leaves were used as substrates for Kombucha fermentation. The active substances contents and antioxidant activities of the fermented mulberry leaf infusion were significantly enhanced. After being fermented for 10 days, the total phenolic substances and total flavonoids in the Kombucha fermented mulberry leaf infusion were 7.38 and 12.24 times higher than those in the unfermented mulberry leaf infusion, respectively. While the mulberry leaf infusion that fermented for 6 days had the highest antioxidant capacity. The Ferric (Fe3+) reducing power, ABTS+ radical scavenging capacity, and hydroxyl radical (·OH) scavenging capacity were enhanced by 90.3%, 21.82%, and 46.2%, respectively. In conclusion, after being fermented by Kombucha, the antioxidant properties of mulberry leaf infusion were significantly improved, which will contribute to expanding the subsequent development and application of mulberry leaf.
... Teh kombucha memiliki banyak manfaat, yaitu dapat meningkatkan kesehatan mental (Evrensel & Ceylan, 2015), mengurangi penyakit kulit, mencegah alergi dan flu serta meringankan gejala radang, mencegah pertumbuhan kanker, antioksidan, antidiabetes dan lain sebagainya (Kechagia et al., 2013) ; (Chakravorty et al., 2016). Teh kombucha juga memiliki manfaat sebagai antibiotik dan memperbaiki saluran pencernaan (Simanjuntak et al., 2017). ...
ABSTRAK Abstrak: Salah satu pondok pesantren yang terletak di kabupaten Barito Kuala, Provinsi Kalimantan Selatan, adalah Pondok Pesantren Putri Darul Falah. Sekitar 135 santri bersekolah di pesantren ini. Salah satu masalah yang dihadapi oleh santri putri di pondok pesantren Darul Falah adalah tidak adanya kurikulum kewirausahaan yang ditawarkan oleh pondok pesantren. Akibatnya, santri putri memiliki keterampilan yang sangat rendah dan dikhawatirkan akan berdampak pada minat mereka dalam wirausaha setelah mereka lulus. Teh kombucha adalah minuman fermentasi yang memiliki banyak manfaat kesehatan dan sangat disukai oleh semua orang, jadi santri harus bisa membuatnya. Tujuan dari pengabdian ini adalah untuk mendidik santri putri tentang dasar ilmu kewirausahaan dan mengajar mereka cara membuat teh kombucha. Selain itu, mereka juga ingin menumbuhkan minat mereka untuk berwirausaha. Proses pelaksanaan pengabdian ini dimulai dengan survei lokasi kegiatan, pembuatan surat ijin kegiatan, dan persiapan dan pelaksanaan kegiatan, yang mencakup penyediaan materi melalui ceramah, diskusi, dan pelatihan pembuatan teh kombucha. Peserta pada pelatihan ini diikuti sebanyak 68 peserta. Hasil kegiatan menunjukkan peningkatan nilai pretest dan posttest sebesar 73,33%. Pelatihan juga menunjukkan bahwa peserta dapat membuat teh kombucha setelah fermentasi selama 14 hari. Kata Kunci: Pelatihan kewirausahaan; Pembuatan teh Kombucha; Santri putri Darul Falah. Abstract: One of the Islamic boarding schools located in Barito Kuala district, South Kalimantan Province, is the Putri Darul Falah Islamic Boarding School. Around 135 students at this Islamic boarding school. One of the problems faced by female students at the Darul Falah Islamic boarding school is that there is no entrepreneurship curriculum offered by the Islamic boarding school. As a result, female students have very low skills and this has a negative impact on their interest in entrepreneurship after they graduate. Kombucha tea is a fermented drink that has many health benefits and is loved by everyone, so students must be able to cook it. The aim of this service is to educate female students about the basics of entrepreneurship and teach them how to make kombucha tea. Apart from that, they also want to grow their interest in entrepreneurship. The stages of implementing this service start from surveying the activity location, making an activity permit, preparing and implementing the activity which cons ists of providing material using lecture methods, discussions and training in making kombucha tea. There were 68 participants in this training. The results obtained from this activity showed that there was an increase in the pretest and posttest scores by 73,33%. This training also showed that participants were able to make kombucha tea after fermenting the tea for 14 days.
... Regarding the beneficial biological properties of kombucha, kombucha was reported to reduce glycosylated hemoglobin, increase plasma insulin and tissue glycogen levels in diabetic rats, and regulate the enzymatic activities inherent in glucose regulation routes [70]. The frequent consumption of kombucha was reported to decrease the risk of the development of cardiovascular diseases, inhibit LDL oxidation, regulate cholesterol metabolism, and prevent high blood pressure [5,71]. D-Glucuronic acid, which can be found in kombucha, plays a role in xenobiotic liver detoxification and endobiotic elimination, thereby enhancing liver functions [72]. ...
Kombucha is a fermented beverage that originated in China and is spread worldwide today. The infusion of Camellia sinensis leaves is mandatory as the substrate to produce kombucha but alternative plant infusions are expected to increase the opportunities to develop new fermented food products analogous to kombucha, with high technological potential and functional properties. This review gathers information regarding promising alternative substrates to produce kombucha-analogous beverages, focusing on plants available in the Amazonia biome. The data from the literature showed a wide range of alternative substrates in increasing expansion, with 37 new substrates being highlighted, of which ~29% are available in the Amazon region. Regarding the technological production of kombucha-analogous beverages, the following were the most frequent conditions: sucrose was the most used carbon/energy source; the infusions were mostly prepared at 90–100 °C, which allowed increased contents of phenolic compounds in the product; and 14 day-fermentation at 25–28 °C was typical. Furthermore, herbs with promising bioactive compound compositions and high antioxidant and antimicrobial properties are usually preferred. This review also brings up gaps in the literature, such as the lack of consistent information about chemical composition, sensory aspects, biological properties, and market strategies for fermented beverages analogous to kombucha produced with alternative substrates. Therefore, investigations aiming to overcome these gaps may stimulate the upscale of these beverages in reaching wide access to contribute to the modern consumers’ quality of life.
... This species has not been reported previously as part of a Kombucha microbial consortium and is more frequently found in cider fermentations [9,34]. However, another species of Lachancea, L. fermentati has been found in a few Kombucha studies [35][36][37]. The fungus Malassezia with yeast-like cells was also a notable component in 6 of the 12 Kombucha beverages and represented > 35% of the relative abundance of Kom 1, Kom 3 and Kom 6. ...
Kombucha is a two-stage fermented sweetened-tea beverage that uses yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to convert sugars into ethanol and lactate, and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) to oxidize ethanol to acetate. Its popularity as a beverage grew from claims of health-benefits derived from this vibrant microbial bioconversion. While recent studies have shed light on the diversity of cultures during a Kombucha fermentation, there is limited information on the diversity, and especially viability, of cultures in retail beverages that advertise the presence of Kombucha and probiotic cultures. In this study, 12 Kombucha beverages produced by different manufacturers throughout the US were purchased and microbially characterized. Eight of the beverages contained viable Kombucha cultures, while 3 of the remaining 4 had viable Bacillus cultures as added probiotics. Amplicon profiling revealed all contained Kombucha yeast and bacteria cells. The dominant yeast detected were Lachancea cidri (10/12), Brettanomyces (9/12), Malassezia (6/12) and Saccharomyces (5/12). Dominant LAB included Liquorilactobacillus and Oenococcus oeni, and AAB were Komagataeibacter, Gluconobacter and Acetobacter. One beverage had a significant amount of Zymomonas mobilis, an ethanol producing bacterium from Agave cactus. While Kombucha beverages differ in the types and viability of cultures, all except one beverage contained detectable viable cells.
... The initial content of caffein in both tea and jujube infusion significantly decreased (**** p < 0.0001) during fermentation in both the K and the KJ samples due to the bacterial cellulose synthesis stimulated by caffein moieties. A significant decrease in caffeine content in kombucha tea was also observed in previous studies [61,70]. ...
(1) Objectives: Traditional kombucha (K) is a fermented beverage obtained from black or green tea infusion. Besides traditional substrates, the possibility of using alternative ingredients resulted in changes in metabolic profile and biological activity. The aim of this work was to study an alternative kombucha (KJ) prepared by the addition of jujube powder to black tea. (2) Materials and Methods: Changes in pH, protein, sugars, phenolic (TPC), flavonoid (TFC), and vitamin C and B12 content were evaluated at different time points over a period of 45 days. The identification of polyphenols by HPLC DAD and the antioxidant capacity by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP tests of all samples was also carried out. (3) Results: The results showed higher protein, total phenolic content, and antioxidant capacity in KJ samples than in K ones. Vitamin C content increased during fermentation and reached its maximum concentration on day 45 (7.1 ± 0.3 mg/100 mL) for KJ. Caffeine in the supplemented samples was the main biocompound among those identified. Vitamin B12 formed on day 4 in K and after 24 h in KJ samples, remaining constant at the initial value of 2.30 ± 0.01 mg/100 mL up to day 45. (4) Conclusions: The results highlight that the fortification of kombucha with jujubes improved its biological activity and the content of bioactive compounds.
... In our study, the total amount of flavonoid content in the gilaburu-flavoured kombucha culture continued to increase on the 21 st day, but the total flavonoid amount of the traditional kombucha culture increased until the 14 th day and started to decrease on the 21 st day. In their study, Chakravorty et al. [34] stated that during the 21-day fermentation, the total flavonoid content in the kombucha drink increased continuously until the end of the fermentation. They also found that black tea fermented with kombucha had a higher total flavonoid content than plain black tea. ...
Herbal beverages, made by steeping medicinal plants and herbs in hot water, have a rich historical background in traditional medicine across the globe, particularly in Indian, Chinese and indigenous practices. In recent years, the consumption of these infusions has gained popularity due to their potential health benefits and therapeutic properties, such as promoting relaxation, supporting heart health, aiding digestion, boosting immunity, providing antioxidants and reducing stress. Herbal teas have been studied for their biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, with research suggesting they may possess synergistic antioxidant effects. Indian herbal teas hold a unique position due to their rich history and use in traditional Indian medicine. This review aims to analyse the current scientific literature on herbal teas and their potential health benefits, highlighting the global phenomenon of their consumption and integration into the everyday lives of various cultures.
The relationship between Kombucha fermentation process parameters and microbial composition was investigated. Green tea Kombucha fermented slower, producing a higher sugar/acid ratio, residual sucrose, and sweeter taste compared to black tea Kombucha. No known probiotic bacteria were identified in Kombucha since Zygosaccharomyces, Brettanomyces, Komagataeibacter, and Gluconacetobacter were the dominant genera observed based on 16s rRNA sequencing analysis. Green tea epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin gallate inhibited bacterial growth in black tea Kombucha broth in a concentration-dependent manner. Green tea Kombucha produced from a 10-day inoculum had a higher sugar/acid ratio, residual sucrose, acetic acid, gluconic acid, and a pleasant flavor compared to a 15-day inoculum. In blended green and black tea Kombucha, a solid bacterial pellicle 9-day inoculum increased the amounts of glucose, fructose, acetic acid, gluconic acid, and ethanol, yet there was a lower sugar/acid ratio and residual sucrose, but no change in the catechin profile, compared to a completely liquid inoculum. Increasing the surface area/volume ratio to 0.16 during Kombucha production increased levels of glucose, fructose, and gluconic acid, while acetic acid and ethanol levels remained the same by favoring aerobic vs. anaerobic fermentation. These Kombucha fermentation process parameter results will help producers devise strategies for better quality control.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a cellulosic biopolymer produced by specific acetic acid bacteria during kombucha fermentation. In this study, bacterial cellulose-producing strains were isolated from four different global kombucha SCOBY samples obtained from markets in the Netherlands, America, China, and Iran. The strains were identified using biochemical and molecular techniques. The ability of species to produce BC was evaluated under both static and stirred fermentation conditions. Seven dominant strains from the Acetobacteraceae family and the genus of Komagataeibacter and Gluconacetobacter were identified and submitted to NCBI gene bank archives: K. xylinus CH1, K. sucrofermentans IR2, K. intermedius IR3, K. cocois AM2, K. sucrofermentans NE4, K. cocois NE6, and G. liquefaciens NE7. Among these, K. intermedius IR3, isolated from local Iranian SCOBY, exhibited the highest BC production yield at 5.733 ± 0.170 gL⁻¹ under static fermentation conditions. On the other hand, K. xylinus CH1, from Chinese SCOBY, had the highest yield under stirred conditions, producing 12.689 ± 0.808 gL⁻¹ of BC. The BC production yield of both K. xylinus CH1 and K. intermedius IR3 under stirred conditions was 3 and 1.3 times more than static conditions, respectively. Despite the yield differences, static fermentation demonstrated superior physicochemical characteristics; such as moisture content, water holding capacity, and crystallinity degree, compared to stirred. Therefore, depending on the intended application in industry and specific criteria, both products could serve as functional substitutes in food and medicine sectors.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-77305-w.
Kombucha is traditionally a non-alcoholic beverage whose production is dependent on culture and the various ingredients used as substrates for fermentation. The goal of our study was to apply hemp leaf and milky mushroom ( Calocybe indica ) flour as functional ingredients to enhance phytonutrient quality, along with using a microbial consortium highly symbiotic with these ingredients. The study determined the content of phytonutrients (phenolic and flavonoids content), antioxidant activity through percentage inhibition of DPPH radical scavenging activity (%), and microbial communities changes during fermentation. The microbial changes were evaluated by cell viable count (total bacteria, Lactic Acid Bacteria, and Yeast & Mold) and ITS in prepared kombucha (using red tea leaves, pandan leaves, and sucrose) supplemented with functional ingredients: T1 (hemp leaves (control)) and T2 (hemp leaves with milky mushroom flour). The results indicated that microbial consortium changed during fermentation. In the first 7 days, the levels of yeast and mold increased to 6.17 and 6.18 log CFU/mL, respectively. By day 21, the levels of both T1 and T2 continued to rise, reaching 7.78 and 7.82 log CFU/mL, respectively. The viable count of lactic acid bacteria in T1 and T2 gradually increased to 6.79 and 6.70 log CFU/mL, respectively, by day 14. These changes resulted in a marked decrease in pH value, reaching 3.63 and 3.23 in T1 and T2, respectively, by the end of the process (21 days). The total bacterial viable count decreased with an increase in the fermentation time. During fermentation, unique genera of tea fungus observed in T1 and T2 were 64% and 19%, respectively. At the beginning (0 days), the top five genera found in T1 were: g__Setophoma (25.91%), g__Macrocybe (14.88%), g__Cladosporium (7.81%), g__Phaeosphaeria (7.12%), g__Malassezia (6.63%), while the top five genera in T2 were g__Macrocybe (94.55%), g__Setophoma (1.87%), g__Cladosporium (0.77%), g__Phaeosphaeria (0.40%), g__Cordyceps (0.38%). However, on day 21 (end of the process), it was found that g__Dekkera had the highest relative abundance in both T1 and T2. In addition, the supplementation of the two ingredients affected the total phenolic and total flavonoid content of the treatments. At the end of the process, T2 showed values of 155.91 mg GAE/mL for total phenolics and 1.01 mg CE/mL for total flavonoids, compared to T1, which had 129.52 mg GAE/mL and 0.69 mg CE/mL, respectively. Additionally, the DPPH inhibition was higher in T1 (91.95%) compared to T2 (91.03%). The findings suggest that kombucha fermented with these innovative ingredients exhibited enhanced phytonutrients, and served as substrate for LAB and tea fungus fermentation, while limiting the growth of fungal genera and diversity of microbial consortium.
Kombucha is a fermented beverage produced by the Symbiotic Consortium of Bacteria and Yeasts (SCOBY). There are no studies involving agro-industrial by-products from pitahaya in kombucha. This work aimed to incorporate Hylocereus polyrhizus (red pitahaya) peel (an agri-food waste) or pulp (edible part) in kombuchas, chemically characterize, and identify the major microorganisms. Samples were fermented for 7 and 14 days. Volatile fatty acids, ethanol, and carbohydrates were determined. Beverage microbial communities were also evaluated. Kombucha of pitahaya peel waste (KPW) had the highest compounds phenolic content (208.31 mg/L), compared with kombucha pitahaya pulp (KPP) (190.73 mg/L; p < 0.05). Nevertheless, KPP had the highest anthocyanin content (18.53 mg/L; p < 0.05) than KPW and standard kombucha from green tea (KT). The KPW maintained antioxidant activity over time. There was a significant increase in butyric acid biosynthesis in KPW (70%) and KPP (61%) at 14 days of fermentation compared to KT. KPW was the sample with the highest propionic, valeric, and isobutyric acid amounts (17.03 ± 0.05 %, 16.07 ± 0.09 %, and 12.41 ± 0.58 %, respectively; p < 0.05). Lower glucose content was found in pitahaya kombuchas, and xylose was higher in KPP. Zygosaccharomyces bailii was the main fungi, and Komagataeibacter saccharivorans and Acetobacter were the dominant genera of bacteria in KPW. Pitahaya peel can be used to maintain or increase the beverage's antioxidant capacity, and the production of volatile fatty acids that play a pivotal role in gut metabolism.
Alcohol content in commercial kombucha beverages
Kombucha is a naturally fermented beverage with a rich history of development and popularity among consumers. The microbial ecology and complex microbial communities during the fermentation process are key factors that drive fermentation and shape the quality characteristics of kombucha. Kombucha features a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast that exists in two distinct phases within the drink: the liquid portion and the biofilm, which floats on the surface. Most investigations focused on describing the microbial community, biochemical properties, and association networks of the beverage independently. Recently, a mechanistic understanding of assembly of microbiomes in kombucha has emerged. This review aims to explore the evolutionary patterns of the complex microbiota in kombucha fermentation, the central metabolic pathways, the influence of environmental factors on community structure, and its regulation effects on the final flavor of kombucha. Furthermore, this review summarizes the impact of microbiota on the physicochemical properties (e.g., pH, ethanol, oxygen and sugar levels) and biochemical parameters (e.g., organic acids, polyphenolic compounds, and volatiles) of kombucha in a systematic manner. The potential health benefits and potential risks are evaluated associated with consuming kombucha or its bioactive compounds. On this basis, this review discussed the future development potential of kombucha and the limitations of related studies, aiming to provide valuable insights into the prospective scientific research and industrialization of kombucha.
The Acetobacteraceae family of the class Alpha Proteobacteria is comprised of high sugar and acid tolerant bacteria. The Acetic Acid Bacteria are the economically most significant group of this family because of its association with food products like vinegar, wine etc. Acetobacteraceae are often hard to culture in laboratory conditions and they also maintain very low abundances in their natural habitats. Thus identification of the organisms in such environments is greatly dependent on modern tools of molecular biology which require a thorough knowledge of specific conserved gene sequences that may act as primers and or probes. Moreover unconserved domains in genes also become markers for differentiating closely related genera. In bacteria, the 16S rRNA gene is an ideal candidate for such conserved and variable domains. In order to study the conserved and variable domains of the 16S rRNA gene of Acetic Acid Bacteria and the Acetobacteraceae family, sequences from publicly available databases were aligned and compared. Near complete sequences of the gene were also obtained from Kombucha tea biofilm, a known Acetobacteraceae family habitat, in order to corroborate the domains obtained from the alignment studies. The study indicated that the degree of conservation in the gene is significantly higher among the Acetic Acid Bacteria than the whole Acetobacteraceae family. Moreover it was also observed that the previously described hypervariable regions V1, V3, V5, V6 and V7 were more or less conserved in the family and the spans of the variable regions are quite distinct as well.
In the present study, cytotoxic and anti-invasive properties of solvent fractions of kombucha tea were studied. Kombucha tea was fractionated with chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol. Three solvent extracts and the final aqueous phase were concentrated and used for anti-cancer study at 25, 50, 75 and 100 μg/mL concentrations. Results revealed that ethyl acetate fraction at a concentration of 100 μg/mL caused cytotoxic effect on 786-O and U2OS cells; reduced the activities of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and-9 in 786-O cells and MMP-2 activity in A549 cells; and significantly reduced the cell invasion and cell motility in A549, U2OS and 786-O cells. Thus, ethyl acetate fraction was further purified by chromatographic studies and presence of dimethyl 2-(2-hydroxy-2-methoxypropylidene) malonate and vitexin were confirmed through IR, NMR and mass spectroscopic studies, which might be responsible for the observed anticancer property of kombucha tea.
Understanding the Maxam-Gilbert and Sanger sequencing as the first generation, in recent years there has been an explosion of newly-developed sequencing strategies, which are usually referred to as next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques. NGS techniques have high-throughputs and produce thousands or even millions of sequences at the same time. These sequences allow for the accurate identification of microbial taxa, including uncultivable organisms and those present in small numbers. In specific applications, NGS provides a complete inventory of all microbial operons and genes present or being expressed under different study conditions. NGS techniques are revolutionizing the field of microbial ecology and have recently been used to examine several food ecosystems. After a short introduction to the most common NGS systems and platforms, this review addresses how NGS techniques have been employed in the study of food microbiota and food fermentations, and discusses their limits and perspectives. The most important findings are reviewed, including those made in the study of the microbiota of milk, fermented dairy products, and plant-, meat- and fishderived fermented foods. The knowledge that can be gained on microbial diversity, population structure and population dynamics via the use of these technologies could be vital in improving the monitoring and manipulation of foods and fermented food products. They should also improve their safety.
Next generation sequencing technology has revolutionised microbiology by allowing concurrent analysis of whole microbial communities. Here we developed and verified similar methods for the analysis of fungal communities using a proton release sequencing platform with the ability to sequence reads of up to 400 bp in length at significant depth. This read length permits the sequencing of amplicons from commonly used fungal identification regions and thereby taxonomic classification. Using the 400 bp sequencing capability, we have sequenced amplicons from the ITS1, ITS2 and LSU fungal regions to a depth of approximately 700,000 raw reads per sample. Representative operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were chosen by the USEARCH algorithm, and identified taxonomically through nucleotide blast (BLASTn). Combination of this sequencing technology with the bioinformatics pipeline allowed species recognition in two controlled fungal spore populations containing members of known identity and concentration. Each species included within the two controlled populations was found to correspond to a representative OTU, and these OTUs were found to be highly accurate representations of true biological sequences. However, the absolute number of reads attributed to each OTU differed among species. The majority of species were represented by an OTU derived from all three genomic regions although in some cases, species were only represented in two of the regions due to the absence of conserved primer binding sites or due to sequence composition. It is apparent from our data that proton release sequencing technologies can deliver a qualitative assessment of the fungal members comprising a sample. The fact that some fungi cannot be amplified by specific "conserved" primer pairs confirms our recommendation that a multi-region approach be taken for other amplicon-based metagenomic studies.
Dates i.e. fruits of Phoenix dactylifera, have tremendous nutraceutical properties. These are rich in minerals, assimilable sugars, water soluble vitamins and fibers. The fruits are consumed to regain vitality which may be lost due to overexertion like in case of field laborers mostly in tropical countries. It can be used to treat spleen disorders since it is rich in iron and antioxidants. In this study wine from dates was prepared using Saccharomyces cerevisae NCIM 3495. The incubation was carried for 21 days at 12oC and further 8 days at 28oC. The wine has Radical Scavenging Activity of 74.53% and assimilable iron as 40%. It was free from fuselols like amyl alcohol, thus avoiding bottle ageing. The sensory values show good acceptability to discriminating consumers. If consumed moderately (like all wines) it serves as a prophylactic measure for many oncogenic diseases as well as for circulatory disorders like arteriosclerosis. Since the wine has a phenolic and flavonoid content of 16 mg/ml, which can have good immunostimulatory effect.
Kombucha is a sweetened tea beverage that, as a consequence of fermentation, contains ethanol, carbon dioxide, a high concentration of acid (gluconic, acetic and lactic) as well as a number of other metabolites and is thought to contain a number of health-promoting components. The sucrose-tea solution is fermented by a symbiosis of bacteria and yeast embedded within a cellulosic pellicle, which forms a floating mat in the tea, and generates a new layer with each successful fermentation. The specific identity of the microbial populations present has been the focus of attention but, to date, the majority of studies have relied on culture-based analyses. To gain a more comprehensive insight into the kombucha microbiota we have carried out the first culture-independent, high-throughput sequencing analysis of the bacterial and fungal populations of 5 distinct pellicles as well as the resultant fermented kombucha at two time points. Following the analysis it was established that the major bacterial genus present was Gluconacetobacter, present at >85% in most samples, with only trace populations of Acetobacter detected (<2%). A prominent Lactobacillus population was also identified (up to 30%), with a number of sub-dominant genera, not previously associated with kombucha, also being revealed. The yeast populations were found to be dominated by Zygosaccharomyces at >95% in the fermented beverage, with a greater fungal diversity present in the cellulosic pellicle, including numerous species not identified in kombucha previously. Ultimately, this study represents the most accurate description of the microbiology of kombucha to date.
Ribosomal Database Project (RDP; http://rdp.cme.msu.edu/) provides the research community with aligned and annotated rRNA gene sequence data, along with tools to allow researchers
to analyze their own rRNA gene sequences in the RDP framework. RDP data and tools are utilized in fields as diverse as human
health, microbial ecology, environmental microbiology, nucleic acid chemistry, taxonomy and phylogenetics. In addition to
aligned and annotated collections of bacterial and archaeal small subunit rRNA genes, RDP now includes a collection of fungal
large subunit rRNA genes. RDP tools, including Classifier and Aligner, have been updated to work with this new fungal collection.
The use of high-throughput sequencing to characterize environmental microbial populations has exploded in the past several
years, and as sequence technologies have improved, the sizes of environmental datasets have increased. With release 11, RDP
is providing an expanded set of tools to facilitate analysis of high-throughput data, including both single-stranded and paired-end
reads. In addition, most tools are now available as open source packages for download and local use by researchers with high-volume
needs or who would like to develop custom analysis pipelines.
Kombucha tea is sugared black tea fermented with a consortium of bacteria and yeasts which forms tea fungus (Medusomyces gisevii) for 14 days. Kombucha tea is claimed to have various beneficial effects on human health but very less scientific evidences are available in the literature. In the present study, the prophylactic and curative effect of black tea (unfermented black tea) and kombucha black tea (KBT) on aflatoxin B1 induced liver damage was studied in male albino rats by analyzing hepatotoxicity markers (aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, gammaglutamyl transpeptidase), lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione and antioxidant enzymes (glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase and superoxide dismutase). Histopathological analysis of liver tissue was also carried out. Results revealed that kombucha tea is more potent in preventing hepatotoxicity than unfermented black tea. The mechanism of hepatoprotection offered by KBT treatment may involve the facilitation of both antioxidant and detoxification processes in the liver.
Kombucha teas produced by fermenting the ‘Manchurian mushroom’ are health beverages. The Manchurian mushroom, however, is not a mushroom but rather a poorly defined consortium of yeasts and bacteria. After keeping a Kombucha culture as a ‘laboratory mascot’ for several years, we have studied it by breaking it up into its component parts and comparing it with two other similarly macerated cultures. Not surprisingly, different Kombucha cultures differ from each other. The number of colony-forming units isolated from macerated Kombucha cultures increased when tea was omitted from the fermentation and decreased when no starter culture was used. Presumed to be beneficial to human health, Kombucha cultures may also make good model systems for the study of biofilms, microbial mats and other complex associations of microorganisms.
The present study was carried out to determine the antioxidant and different free radical scavenging activities of 70% methanolic extract of Diplazium esculentum. Total antioxidant activity of the extract was evaluated as trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity value. The IC50 values for scavenging of different free radicals indicated its efficient free radical scavenging properties. The extract acted as an iron chelator and also possessed reducing power. It also inhibited lipid peroxidation. Moreover, the extract yielded high phenolic and flavonoid content. Therefore, the results indicated that 70% methanolic extract of D. esculentum acted as a potential antioxidant and free radical scavenger.
SILVA (from Latin silva, forest, http://www.arb-silva.de) is a comprehensive web resource for up to date, quality-controlled databases of aligned ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequences
from the Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota domains and supplementary online services. The referred database release 111 (July 2012) contains 3 194 778 small subunit
and 288 717 large subunit rRNA gene sequences. Since the initial description of the project, substantial new features have
been introduced, including advanced quality control procedures, an improved rRNA gene aligner, online tools for probe and
primer evaluation and optimized browsing, searching and downloading on the website. Furthermore, the extensively curated SILVA
taxonomy and the new non-redundant SILVA datasets provide an ideal reference for high-throughput classification of data from
next-generation sequencing approaches.
DNA sequencing continues to decrease in cost with the Illumina HiSeq2000 generating up to 600 Gb of paired-end 100 base reads in a ten-day run. Here we present a protocol for community amplicon sequencing on the HiSeq2000 and MiSeq Illumina platforms, and apply that protocol to sequence 24 microbial communities from host-associated and free-living environments. A critical question as more sequencing platforms become available is whether biological conclusions derived on one platform are consistent with what would be derived on a different platform. We show that the protocol developed for these instruments successfully recaptures known biological results, and additionally that biological conclusions are consistent across sequencing platforms (the HiSeq2000 versus the MiSeq) and across the sequenced regions of amplicons.Keywords: illumine; barcoded sequencing; QIIME
The characterization of microbial community structure via 16S rRNA gene profiling has been greatly advanced in recent years by the introduction of amplicon pyrosequencing. The possibility of barcoding gives the opportunity to massively screen multiple samples from environmental or clinical sources for community details. However, an on-going debate questions the reproducibility and semi-quantitative rigour of pyrotag sequencing, similar to the early days of community fingerprinting. In this study we demonstrate the reproducibility of bacterial 454 pyrotag sequencing over biological and technical replicates of aquifer sediment bacterial communities. Moreover, we explore the potential of recovering specific template ratios via quantitatively defined template spiking to environmental DNA. We sequenced pyrotag libraries of triplicate sediment samples taken in annual sampling campaigns at a tar oil contaminated aquifer in Düsseldorf, Germany. The abundance of dominating lineages was highly reproducible with a maximal standard deviation of ~4% read abundance across biological, and ~2% across technical replicates. Our workflow also allows for the linking of read abundances within defined assembled pyrotag contigs to that of specific 'in vivo' fingerprinting signatures. Thus we demonstrate that both terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis and pyrotag sequencing are capable of recovering highly comparable community structure. Overall diversity was roughly double in amplicon sequencing. Pyrotag libraries were also capable of linearly recovering increasing ratios (up to 20%) of 16S rRNA gene amendments from a pure culture of Aliivibrio fisheri spiked to sediment DNA. Our study demonstrates that 454 pyrotag sequencing is a robust and reproducible method, capable of reliably recovering template abundances and overall community structure within natural microbial communities.
Diabetes has become a serious health problem and a major risk factor associated with troublesome health complications, such as metabolism disorders and liver-kidney dysfunctions. The inadequacies associated with conventional medicines have led to a determined search for alternative natural therapeutic agents. The present study aimed to investigate and compare the hypoglycemic and antilipidemic effects of kombucha and black tea, two natural drinks commonly consumed around the world, in surviving diabetic rats.
Alloxan diabetic rats were orally supplied with kombucha and black tea at a dose of 5 mL/kg body weight per day for 30 days, fasted overnight, and sacrificed on the 31st day of the experiment. Their bloods were collected and submitted to various biochemical measurements, including blood glucose, cholesterol, triglcerides, urea, creatinine, transaminases, transpeptidase, lipase, and amylase activities. Their pancreases were isolated and processed to measure lipase and α-amylase activities and to perform histological analysis.
The findings revealed that, compared to black tea, kombucha tea was a better inhibitor of α-amylase and lipase activities in the plasma and pancreas and a better suppressor of increased blood glucose levels. Interestingly, kombucha was noted to induce a marked delay in the absorption of LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides and a significant increase in HDL-cholesterol. Histological analyses also showed that it exerted an ameliorative action on the pancreases and efficiently protected the liver-kidney functions of diabetic rats, evidenced by significant decreases in aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, and gamma-glytamyl transpeptidase activities in the plasma, as well as in the creatinine and urea contents.
The findings revealed that kombucha tea administration induced attractive curative effects on diabetic rats, particularly in terms of liver-kidney functions. Kombucha tea can, therefore, be considered as a potential strong candidate for future application as a functional supplement for the treatment and prevention of diabetes.
In the analysis of homologous sequences, computation of multiple sequence alignments (MSAs) has become a bottleneck. This is especially troublesome for marker genes like the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) where already millions of sequences are publicly available and individual studies can easily produce hundreds of thousands of new sequences. Methods have been developed to cope with such numbers, but further improvements are needed to meet accuracy requirements.
In this study, we present the SILVA Incremental Aligner (SINA) used to align the rRNA gene databases provided by the SILVA ribosomal RNA project. SINA uses a combination of k-mer searching and partial order alignment (POA) to maintain very high alignment accuracy while satisfying high throughput performance demands. SINA was evaluated in comparison with the commonly used high throughput MSA programs PyNAST and mothur. The three BRAliBase III benchmark MSAs could be reproduced with 99.3, 97.6 and 96.1 accuracy. A larger benchmark MSA comprising 38 772 sequences could be reproduced with 98.9 and 99.3% accuracy using reference MSAs comprising 1000 and 5000 sequences. SINA was able to achieve higher accuracy than PyNAST and mothur in all performed benchmarks.
Alignment of up to 500 sequences using the latest SILVA SSU/LSU Ref datasets as reference MSA is offered at http://www.arb-silva.de/aligner. This page also links to Linux binaries, user manual and tutorial. SINA is made available under a personal use license.
Flavonoids, with various biological activities, are considered as key compounds in propolis. In this study, quantitative determinations of flavonoids in propolis were conducted by two complementary colorimetric methods, aluminum chloride method and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine method. Results suggested that the sum of flavonoid contents determined by the above two individual methods may represent the real content of total flavonoids. In this work, six raw propolis samples were investigated and the total contents of flavonoids ranged from 10.38 ± 0.14% to 24.91 ± 0.53%. As for the 12 commercial propolis products examined, the levels of total flavonoids in tinctures were all below 7% and those in powdery products varied from 2.97 ± 0.05% to 22.73 ± 0.72%.
We evaluated alkB TRFLP protocols for monitoring soil alkane degrading bacteria.•We challenged the method by following alkane degrader communities in two soils.•Environmental influences were better resolved by alkB- than by16S TRFLP.•Diversity indices underestimated the alkane degrader richness in soil.•We propose a complementarity of alkB/16S TRFLP when analyzing complex soil samples.
Fermentation of sugared tea with a symbiotic culture of acetic acid bacteria and yeast (tea fungus) yields kombucha tea which is consumed worldwide for its refreshing and beneficial properties on human health. Important progress has been made in the past decade concerning research findings on kombucha tea and reports claiming that drinking kombucha can prevent various types of cancer and cardiovascular diseases, promote liver functions, and stimulate the immune system. Considering the widespread reports on kombucha, we recognized the need to review and update the research conducted in relation to kombucha tea, its products and tea fungus. Existing reports have suggested that the protective effects of kombucha tea are as good as those of black tea, however, more studies on kombucha tea and its composition are needed before final conclusions can be made.
This study provides an overview of the factors that influence the effect of fermentation on the antioxidant activity and the mechanisms that augment antioxidative activities in fermented plant-based foods. The ability of fermentation to improve antioxidant activity is primarily due to an increase in the amount of phenolic compounds and flavonoids during fermentation, which is the result of a microbial hydrolysis reaction. Moreover, fermentation induces the structural breakdown of plant cell walls, leading to the liberation or synthesis of various antioxidant compounds. These antioxidant compounds can act as free radical terminators, metal chelators, singlet oxygen quenchers, or hydrogen donors to radicals. The production of protease, α-amylase and some other enzymes can be influenced by fermentation that may have metal ion chelation activity. Because the mechanisms that affect antioxidant activity during fermentation are extremely varied, further investigation is needed to establish the precise mechanisms for these processes.
The biochemistry of Kombucha fermentation was analyzed using green and black teas (GTK and BTK). Sucrose disappeared linearly in Kombucha mediums during the two week fermentation period for GTK (2.3 g.day− 1.L− 1) but only during the first week for BTK (5.0 g.d− 1.L− 1). The produced glucose and fructose formed disappeared faster in BTK than in GTK and in both fermentation mediums glucose was preferred to fructose as the carbon source. Ethanol, acetate equivalents and cellulose linearly increased during the fermentation (0.17, 0.35 and 0.50 g.d− 1.L− 1 in GTK, and 0.15, 0.46 and 0.63 g.d− 1.L− 1 in BTK, respectively). Likewise, the disappearance of glucose + fructose in Kombucha first linearly increased during the first stages of fermentation before it dropped at day 9 for GTK and at day 12 for BTK, suggesting a change of the carbon source. The protein fraction (< 0.5 g/L) transiently increased during the fermentation of teas and so did a 60-kDa protein band in SDS-PAGE. In both GTK and BTK, only slight changes were observed in total phenolics and in the main tea flavanols. Nevertheless, the theaflavins moderately increased (more than 50% at day 15) and the thearubigins markedly decreased (more than 2-fold at day 15). The Kombucha beverage was able to strongly inhibit starch hydrolysis by porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase and the inhibition potency increased during fermentation progress. The active compounds were suspected to be monomeric and/or oligomeric phenolic compounds. After drinking a bowl of Kombucha beverage, the concentration of these phenolics could be sufficient for inhibiting, to a certain extent, pancreatic alpha-amylase in the small intestine, with a possible impact on starch digestion and on net absorbed glucose.
Amplified marker-gene sequences can be used to understand microbial community structure, but they suffer from a high level of sequencing and amplification artifacts. The UPARSE pipeline reports operational taxonomic unit (OTU) sequences with ≤1% incorrect bases in artificial microbial community tests, compared with >3% incorrect bases commonly reported by other methods. The improved accuracy results in far fewer OTUs, consistently closer to the expected number of species in a community.
Diabetic complications associated with increased oxidative stress can be suppressed by antioxidants. In the present study we investigated the antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of Kombucha (KT), a fermented black tea, in comparison to that of unfermented black tea (BT), in ALX-induced diabetic rats. ALX exposure lowered the body weight and plasma insulin by about 28.12% and 61.34% respectively and elevated blood glucose level and glycated Hb by about 3.79 and 3.73 folds respectively. The oxidative stress related parameters like lipid peroxidation end products (increased by 3.38, 1.7, 1.65, 1.94 folds respectively), protein carbonyl content (increased by 2.5, 2.35, 1.8, 3.26 folds respectively), glutathione content (decreased by 59.8, 47.27, 53.69, 74.03% respectively) , antioxidant enzyme activities were also altered in the pancreatic, hepatic, renal and cardiac tissues of diabetic animals. Results showed significant antidiabetic potential of the fermented beverage (150 mg lyophilized extract/kg bw for 14 days) as it effectively restored ALX-induced pathophysiological changes. Moreover, it could ameliorate DNA fragmentation and caspase-3 activation in the pancreatic tissue of diabetic rats. Although unfermented black tea is effective in the above pathophysiology, KT was found to be more efficient. This might be due to the formation of some antioxidant molecules during fermentation period.
The transformation of sucrose into glucose, fructose, gluconic acid, ethanol, and acetic acid was determined during a 60 day tea fungus fermentation. Black tea containing 67.5 g sucrose per litre was inoculated with 10% fermentation broth including the cellulose containing coherent top layer of a previous tea fungus fermentation. The microflora embedded in the cellulose/acetan layer was characterized as a mixed culture of Acetobacter xylinum and Zygosaccharomyces sp., respectively. The yeast cells converted sucrose into glucose and fructose. Fructose was metabolized prior to glucose. The pH value of the kombucha beverage decreased during fermentation from 3.75 to 2.42 as a result of acetic acid and gluconic acid formation. A fermentation balance of the substrates sucrose, glucose, fructose and products ethanol, acetic and gluconic acid and CO2 was calculated based on the carbon-mass (g substrate X number of C-atoms X 12/molecular weight of substrate) as parameter. The total carbon-mass at the start of the fermentation was 30.5 g. The analogous values obtained after 10, 20, 30 and 40 days were 30.7 g, 30.5 g, 28.6 g, and 30.5, respectively. The good stoichiometry implies that all major fermentation products have been accounted for.
Effects of kombucha origins and fermentation time on their antioxidant properties were investigated using in vitro free radical scavenging assays. Kombucha from various sources demonstrated different antioxidant activities, and most showed the time-dependent characteristics. The average antioxidant potentials of kombucha after fermenting for 15 days were raised to about 70%, 40%, 49% determined, respectively, by the assays of DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging, and inhibition of linoleic acid peroxidation, while the ferrous ion binding ability was inversely diminished by 81%. The total phenol content increased up to 98% which implied that thearubigin might be subjected to biodegradation during fermentation, resulting in the release of smaller molecules with higher antioxidant activities.
Tea is a common beverage. The green tea is preferentially recommended for its strong antioxidant properties and also for its antimicrobial activity. The antioxidant capacities of 30 samples (black and green tea) were determined by the chemiluminescent Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) determination. The average value of TEAC of the non-fermented (green tea) and semi-fermented tea samples was 1.43mM and the average value of TEAC of the fermented teas (black tea) samples was 1.43mM. All samples were stored in freezer (−20°C) and the TEAC determination was repeated after a year. The average values of TEAC of non-fermented and semi-fermented tea samples were twofold lower in comparison to fermented tea samples and only 20% of average value of TEAC of the fresh tea infusion. The parallel determinations of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) on gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) were done. Also the MIC was possible to determine after a year. The assumed prevailing antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of non-fermented tea infusions were not confirmed as well as the dominant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of specific type of tea infusion.
Kombucha is a refreshing beverage obtained by the fermentation of sugared tea with a symbiotic culture of acetic bacteria and fungi, consumed for its beneficial effects on human health. Research conducted in Russia at the beginning of the century and testimony indicate that Kombucha can improve resistance against cancer, prevent cardiovascular diseases, promote digestive functions, stimulate the immune system, reduce inflammatory problems, and can have many other benefits. In this paper, we report on studies that shed more light on the properties of some constituents of Kombucha. The intensive research about the effects of tea on health provide a good starting point and are summarized to get a better understanding of the complex mechanisms that could be implicated in the physiological activity of both beverages.