No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Bacterial contamination of shopping carts and approaches to control
Abstract
Placing children in grocery shopping carts has been implicated recently as a source of infection with Salmonella and Campylobacter in young children. This study was conducted to assess the occurrence total bacteria, coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli on grocery shopping cart handles and seats. A total of 85 shopping carts in parking lots of grocery stores were tested in five major metropolitan areas across the United States. The total numbers of heterotrophic bacteria were as great as 1.1 × 107 on the handle and seat. Coliforms were detected on 72% (62) of the carts. E. coli was identified on 18 of 35 carts (51%) on which coliform identification was conducted. The results of this study suggest the need for improved sanitation of shopping cards/baskets to reduce exposure to pathogens and potential transmission of microbial infections among shoppers.
... The rate of shopping trolley and basket contamination was 28%. The presence of bacterial isolates in this study was lower than the results obtained in Jeddah by Al-Ghamdi et al. [16], in the USA by Gerba and Maxwell [20], in Saudi Arabia by Ashgar and El-Said [21] and in Spain by Carrascosa et al. [11], who reported the contamination rate as 95.5%, 72%, 48% and 35% respectively. The reduced prevalence obtained in our study could be due to the small sample size and availability of resources. ...
... In the present study, we found 2% of Escherichia coli contamination and similar results were shown by Carrascosa et al. [11] who determined 2.45% of Escherichia coli contamination. Studies done in the USA, Saudi Arabia and Jeddah reported higher prevalence; Gerba and Maxwell [20] 21.17%, Reynolds et al. [9] 21%, Ashgar and El-Said [21] 16.7% and Al-Ghamdi and others [16] 7%. Carrascosa et al. [11] isolated Enterobacteria (41.17% from shopping trolleys and 50.6% from baskets), whereas only 0.5% were isolated from this study. ...
... The results of this study confer a high probability of harbouring highly pathogenic organisms which agrees with those reported by others [9] [16] [20] [21]. Our results revealed the importance of cleaning and disinfecting shopping trolleys to avoid the presence of Staphylococcus aureus which is responsible for invasive skin infections and toxin-mediated shock caused by Staphylococcus aureus and diarrheal diseases associated with the coliforms such as Escherichia coli. ...
... Despite the specular and clean appearance of supermarkets and shopping centers, there might be undesirable microorganisms on the handles and bases of the shopping carts (Gerba and Maxwell 2012). Indeed, latest investigations have demonstrated that shopping carts are considered to be as one of the most 328 contaminated communal surfaces, and an emerging common source for foodborne pathogen infection for infants (Fullerton et al. 2007;Irshaid et al. 2014). ...
... The detected bacterial species on shopping carts vary and may include enteric bacteria and non-enteric bacteria (Irshaid et al. 2014;Carrascosa et al. 2019); some can be drug-resistant (Irshaid et al. 2014). Previous studies showed that enteric bacteria and E. coli seem to exist in numbers on cart handles higher than other surfaces with which shoppers may touch like ATM screens and buttons, eating place's tabletops, and elevators (Gerba and Maxwell 2012). Based on previous studies, shopping carts can be described as inanimate objects involved passively in transmission of pathogenic bacteria (fomites). ...
... In this study, the average bacterial concentration was higher than reported by other studies. The average bacterial load was 3.65×10 5 CFU/carts compared to 3.43×10 5 CFU/cart according to the study by Gerba and Maxwell (2012). These variations are more probably because of the level of sanitation of these shopping carts. ...
Despite the notable increase of shopping centers and supermarkets in Oman during the last recent years, along with the increasing number of reported incidents of inflammation of the stomach and intestines (gastroenteritis), our knowledge about the microbiology of shopping carts in this region and their role as source for transmission of enteric bacteria is still scarce. So, this study was done to examine the bacterial contamination of shopping carts with special emphasis on enteric bacteria in A'Sharqiyah region, Oman. One hundred forty different shopping carts surfaces were sampled randomly from 14 shopping stores located in A'Sharqiyah region, Oman, during the period from November 2018 to August 2019. Samples were cultured to determine heterotrophic plate count. Pure isolates were then obtained and characterized biochemically. The isolates were finally tested for antibiotic resistance. The heterotrophic plate count per shopping cart was found to fall between 3.3×10 2 and 2.2×10 6 CFU/cm2 surface area. The detected bacteria belonged to 16 bacterial species (7 enteric bacteria and 9 non-enteric bacteria). All tested enteric bacteria showed resistance against at least 4 antibiotics. Shopping carts were found to contain varying levels of heterotrophic bacteria which included drug-resistant enteric bacteria. These variations are more likely due to the low hygienic level, the type of food items placed in the tested shopping carts, the frequency of use and the growth conditions. Data indicates that shopping carts may act as source for drug-resistant enteric bacteria and may act as a medium for transmitting heterotrophic bacteria between shoppers.
... Inanimate objects (fomites) for public use, such as shopping trolley handles, lift buttons, handrails, etc, which come into direct contact with users' hands, are a source of contamination of potential pathogenic microorganisms. They come into contact either directly by surface-to-mouth contact or indirectly by contaminated fingers and subsequent hand-to-mouth contact (Gerba and Maxwell 2012;Irshaid et al. 2014). Some studies have reported frequent exposure to pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus on shopping trolley handles, suggest that it is a hidden reservoir of this organism, and indicate a shopping basket/trolley sanitation necessity (Mizumachi et al. 2011). ...
... Some studies have reported frequent exposure to pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus on shopping trolley handles, suggest that it is a hidden reservoir of this organism, and indicate a shopping basket/trolley sanitation necessity (Mizumachi et al. 2011). Shopping trolley contamination may occur from directly handling raw food products or trolleys contaminated by previous users (Gerba and Maxwell 2012). Nevertheless, cross-contamination in shopping trolley baskets occurs when diseasecausing microorganisms are transferred from one food type to surfaces or, as in this case study, when dirty hands transfer microorganisms to trolley handles or baskets. ...
... To this end, a maximum 100-cm 2 area was sampled per swab. Shopping trolleys were sampled for microbial contamination, and were subsequently tested for the qualitative analyses of pathogenics (Gerba and Maxwell 2012). A sterile rayon-tipped swab (Copan Flock Technologies Srl., Brescia, Italy), moistened with sterile saline solution (preservative-free), was moved over the entire surface of trolley handles and a new swap was used over baskets-seats. ...
Microbial contamination in shopping trolleys (eighty five) by considering different supermarkets (seven) from three major food companies in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain) was determined.
The two sampled areas were trolley handles and food trolley baskets-child seats. Samples were analyzed by selective and differential microbiological culture media.
E. coli four (2.4%) indicative of faecal contamination, Klebsiella pneumoniae twelve (6.5%) and Citrobacter freundii, six (5.1%), which have been isolated from human faecal samples, were isolated from trolleys; Pseudomonas rhodesiae, five (4.25%), and Pseudomonas fluorescens, three (2.55%), which both evidenced environmental contamination. Significant differences among the companies were found for the Enterobacteriaceae and coliforms. Regarding location, these differences (p < 0.003) were observed only for the coliform rates, which were higher in trolleys located outside.
The results of this study suggest the implementation of cleaning and disinfection programmes to improve trolley sanitation, and to reduce exposure to both potential pathogenic and transmitting bacterial infections.
... Unwrapped food could come into contact with trolleys and baskets; if these surfaces are contaminated with foodborne pathogens, then food products contacting them are at risk of being cross-contaminated with those pathogens. Some investigations have found undesirable microorganisms, such as potentially pathogenic species of Yersinia, Cronobacter, Klebsiella, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Shigella, Staphylococcus, and other microorganisms of the family Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms and non-coliforms), among other potential pathogens (9,12,18), on trolleys. A concern related to contaminated trolleys is human exposure. ...
... This study presents evidence of food safety risks to public health associated with grocery shopping, which is consistent with findings of other publications (9,19). In general, grocery stores lacked sanitation protocols to properly clean and maintain carts and baskets, a lack that may enhance bacterial pathogen risk, increase the microbial load on these surfaces, and possibly increase biofilm formation (16,24). ...
he objective of this study was to identify food safety risk factors associated with supermarket trolleys (grills and handles) and handheld baskets. Indicator microorganisms evaluated were those detected by aerobic plate count (APC), yeast and molds (YM), Enterobacteriaceae (EB), environmental Listeria (EL), coliforms (CF), and E. coli (EC). In addition, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli O157 and Salmonella sp. were tested for. Trolley grills (n = 36) had EB counts of 2.4 × 102 CFU/cm2. Trolleyhandles (n = 36) had 2.7 × 106 of CF and 5.2 CFU/cm2 of YM. The bottom of handheld baskets (n = 25) had 3.5 × 105 CFU/cm2 of CF and 5.07 CFU/cm2 of EC. S. aureus was found on 96% of the baskets, 50% of the trolley handles (18 out of 36 samples), and 42% of the trolleys’ grills. E. coli O157 was identified on 17% of baskets, 3% on trolley grills, and 3% on handles. Salmonella sp. was detected on 16% of baskets and 8% of trolley grills. L. monocytogenes was detected on 17% of the bottoms of handheld baskets but on none of the other samples. These results suggest the need for implementation of sanitation programs to regularly clean trolleys and baskets, as well as for consumer education.
... In contrast to this trend, our results show that during the period of high cyberspace disease salience associated with the pandemic outbreak, this trend reversed, at least temporarily, and shopping baskets became larger, which may indicate a greater need for shopping cart capacity. The dilemma in times of high disease salience is that shopping cart handles, as well as hand-held baskets, can be hidden reservoirs of pathogens (Gerba & Maxwell, 2012;Irshaid et al., 2014;Mizumachi et al., 2011). Although infection risk from contact with contaminated surfaces or items is generally considered low (CDC, 2021), fear of infection and lack of knowledge may lead consumers to avoid shopping carts altogether. ...
Humans have a motivational system that influences cognition and behavior to minimize the risk of contact with pathogens. This research examines the relationship between cyberspace disease salience and mobility behavior at the macro and micro levels. Across two studies, we predict and find that people adjust their mobility behavior to minimize the risk of close physical contact with strangers when cyberspace disease salience is high (vs. low). In Study 1, we analyze hourly sales data from five grocery stores and find that when cyberspace disease salience is high (vs. low), consumers spend 28% more money on each shopping trip and grocery stores sell 10% more items per hour despite 10% fewer shoppers per hour. Further, in Study 2, we test the generalizability of these results by analyzing the Google Community Mobility Reports. Here we find that high (vs. low) cyberspace disease salience is associated with an overall decrease in mobility in contexts where the risk of close contact with strangers is high-but not low. We discuss these findings in the context of sustainable consumer (mobility) behavior.
... ATM machine and shopping carts handles contamination belong to exposure of costumers to enteric and other microbes especially by using shopping carts for grocery for example, raw chicken and meat, fish, fresh vegetables and fruits and frozen food provide moisture and nutrition for microorganism's growth. The results showed the appearance of pathogens, which indicates the contact of unsanitary conditions and poor hygiene conditions of shopping carts with public circumstances, which play a good role in transmission of pathogens from one person to another leading to an increase the risk of infections [4,16]. Contamination of refrigerator handles by bacteria was shown in 42 samples as mentioned in Table 1 and 41 samples by fungi, which belong to many factors which play an important role in refrigerator contamination, like persistence of microorganisms on the refrigerator handles, cleaning of refrigerator, dirty hands, unwashed raw food or through opening of refrigerator [11,17]. ...
Infectious diseases caused by infected tools in the environments are threaten to the safety and public health. Transmission sources of these infectious diseases are unknown, but it is thought that non-living materials called fomites, are the major source of acquired infections. Three hundred and one swabs were taken from different sources and cultured on blood agar to study heamolysis ability of isolated bacteria. In this study, MacConkey agar was used to isolate Gram-negative bacteria and Sabouraud agar (SDA) to isolate fungi. The biofilm formation test was done by Congo red plate assay. 41 (13.6%) bacterial isolates were obtained and (18.27%) of fungi were isolated on Sabouraud agar (SDA). Staphylococcus aureus was the more frequent bacterial species that isolated in this study. 29% of samples showed hemolysin activity on blood agar and 32%of the isolates were biofilm- producer. Results revealed that (7.9%) of Gram-negative bacteria harbored the fimH gene, (9%) harbored the icaA were Gram-positive and 6.3 % of fungal samples had HWP1 gene. Furthermore, (9.3%) from the total samples are bacterial samples harbored hla gene belong to Staphylococcus spp. Furthermore, (5.07%) of tested samples possessed hlyA gene were Gram-negative bacteria. We found in our study that infectious organisms can be transmitted from one individual to another by fomites responsible for acquired infection.
... 21 In contrast, a study by Gerba et al. in the USA detected coliforms on 72%(61/85) of carts sampled, with the most common being Escherichia Coli on 51%(18/35) carts. 22 The difference in our study could be attributed to samples taken in the USA study from carts placed in parking lots only, while we took the sample from trolleys both inside and outside the store. ...
Objective: to detect the presence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) on frequently touched surfaces in the community, like handles and seats of shopping trolleys and to identify disinfecting practices of the grocery store owners. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: Grocery stores in Rawalpindi, Pakistan from Jun to Nov 2019. Methodology: A total of 200 swabs from two separate surfaces of 100 trolleys were collected, with 100 samples each from handles and the seats. Trolleys from seven different grocery stores in Rawalpindi Pakistan, were selected by multistage sampling. The swabs were presented to the Microbiology laboratory at Fauji Foundation Hospital, Rawalpindi Pakistan to test for bacterial presence. Results: The samples showed growth on 65% of trolley handles and 66% of trolley seats. Trolleys washed once in 6 to 12 months, had 42.5% bacterial growth. Staphylococcus Aureus was present on 42 % of both surfaces, with 24% MRSA on Trolley handles and 18% on trolley seats. The significant association was observed in Bacterial growth on the handles of trolleys and servicing frequency of shopping trolleys with the p-value of <0.001. Conclusion: MRSA strain was alarmingly detected on shopping trolleys, a community-use item. Grocery store keepers following guidelines for the trolleys’ sanitation along with regular monitoring can protect staff and the general public. In addition, it is important to impart health education to the general public regarding disease transmission through such sources and their preventive strategies.
... The results of this study demonstrated that the majority of swabbed handle shopping carts were contaminated with bacteria, most of which are common skin flora coagulasenegative Staphylococci. In the present study ,the rate of shopping carts contamination was 93.6% convergent result was 95.5% recorded by (AL-Ghmdi, 2011) Who investigate the bacterial contamination of computer keyboards and shopping carts handles, but these percentages is higher than other study conducted by (Ibrahim, 2015) which was 81%, moreover (Gerba & Maxwell, 2012) who reported 72%. These findings support the results obtained by the current study and call attention to the high levels of contamination of various public surfaces. ...
... Several pioneering studies for the mall microbiome have detected high bacterial densities on tables, trays, and cleaning cloths in food courts (23,24). Potential pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas spp., and Gram-negative bacilli have been isolated from shopping malls, and more than 50% of samples were detected with bacterial contamination (25,26). Multidrug-resistant pathogenic species, including Stenotrophomonas, Aeromonas, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, and Bacillus, were detected from escalator handrails, lift buttons, and shopping carts by culture-based methods (11,27). ...
Shopping malls are distinct microbial environments which can facilitate a constant transmission of microorganisms of public health concern between humans and the built environment or between human and human. Despite extensive investigation of the natural environmental microbiome, no comprehensive profile of microbial ecology has been reported in malls. Characterizing microbial distribution, potential pathogens, and antimicrobial resistance will enhance our understanding of how these microbial communities are formed, maintained, and transferred and help establish a baseline for biosurveillance of potential public health threats in malls.
... Microorganisms can be transferred from living things to inanimate environmental sources, which can serve as a potential secondary reservoir in the transmission of pathogens if they meet the pathogens' demands for survival and reproduction (Borkow, 2014;Alsheikh et al., 2021). According to Wißmann et al. (2021), most pathogens can persist on inanimate surfaces for weeks or even months and can transmit from these surfaces to humans either directly through surface-to-mouth contact or indirectly by contaminated hand contact with the mouth and eyes or nose (Gerba and Maxwell, 2012). Pathogenic microorganisms can also be transmitted via contact with fomites that are contaminated with infected body secretions such as saliva, mucus, nasal secretions, blood, urine and feces (Gigantesco and Giuliani, 2011). ...
Aims: Due to the growing number of media reports claiming that books contain germs, it is crucial to look into the possibility that contagious diseases could spread through libraries. The aim of the study was to identify bacteria from various fomites in four Jordanian university libraries and to assess the antibacterial resistance pattern of isolates. Methodology and results: In this study, swab samples were taken from different fomites of four Jordanian university libraries. Samples were then cultivated on nutrient agar and incubated aerobically at 37 °C for 48 h. To identify different types of isolated bacteria, biochemical and conventional biochemical tests were applied using the qualitative RapID TM One System with the help of ERICTM software to identify the bacterial isolates at the species level. Identified bacterial species, including Escherichia coli, Shigella sonnei, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus epidermis, S. aureus, Salmonella choleraesuis, Bacillus subtilis and Citrobacter freundii were isolated from different library fomites. Seventy-one bacterial isolates from University A were observed to be multidrug-resistant (MDR) (S. sonnei and S. choleraesuis). This MDR pattern is alarming as those isolates were found in a public environment and that imposes a direct threat on library users, staff and visitors. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: University libraries' fomites carry live bacterial pathogens, which can contaminate users' hands and serve as an indirect route for spreading antibiotic resistance and microbial illnesses. While more research is required, considering hand hygiene improvement would be the simplest infection control technique at libraries. Additionally, proactive measures should be taken to track the prevalence of harmful microorganisms in these settings and their effects on employees' and the public's health.
... These isolates were characterized as non-MDRs but had different biofilm formation capacities and belonged to different STs as well. Many studies have investigated the contamination of shopping cart handles with pathogenic bacteria and coliforms (Al-Ghamdi et al., 2011;Mizumachi et al., 2011;Gerba & Maxwell, 2012;Fawzi I. Fawzi et al., 2014;Carrascosa et al., 2019;Calle et al., 2020;, but none of them described the isolation of A. baumannii from these surfaces. These handles are considered as high touch surfaces, and thus contribute to the spread of pathogens among shoppers and in the community. ...
Aim:
Acinetobacter baumannii is a well-known nosocomial pathogen that has been isolated from different clinical sources. This pathogen also causes community-acquired infections, with mortality rates as high as 64%. The exact natural habitat of this bacterium is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of A. baumannii in diverse soil and high-touch surface samples collected from a university campus, malls, parks, hypermarkets and produce markets, roundabout playground slides, and bank ATMs.
Methods and results:
All obtained isolates were characterized for their antibiotic susceptibility, biofilm formation capacities, and were typed by multi-locus sequence analysis. A total of 63 A. baumannii isolates were recovered, along with 46 A. pittii and 8 A. nosocomialis isolates. Sequence typing revealed that 25 A. baumannii isolates are novel strains. Toilets and sink washing basins were the most contaminated surfaces, accounting for almost 50% of the recovered isolates. A number of A. baumannii (n=10), A. pittii (n=19) and A. nosocomialis (n=5) isolates were recovered from handles of shopping carts and baskets. The majority of isolates were strong biofilm formers and 4 exhibited a multi-drug resistant (MDR) phenotype.
Conclusions:
Our study is the first to highlight community restrooms and shopping carts as potential reservoirs for pathogenic Acinetobacter species. Further studies are required to identify the reasons associated with the occurrence of A. baumannii inside restrooms. Proper disinfection of community environmental surfaces and spreading awareness about the importance of hand hygiene may prevent the dissemination of pathogenic bacteria within the community.
Significance and impact of study:
Serious gaps remain in our knowledge of how A. baumannii spreads to cause disease. This study will advance our understanding of how this pathogen spreads between healthcare and community environments. In addition, our findings will help healthcare decision makers implement better measures to control and limit further transmission of A. baumannii.
... In contrast to this trend, our results show that during the period of high cyberspace disease salience associated with the pandemic outbreak, this trend reversed, at least temporarily, and shopping baskets became larger, which may indicate a greater need for shopping cart capacity. The dilemma in times of high disease salience is that shopping cart handles, as well as hand-held baskets, can be hidden reservoirs of pathogens (Gerba & Maxwell, 2012;Irshaid et al., 2014;Mizumachi et al., 2011). Although infection risk from contact with contaminated surfaces or items is generally considered low (CDC, 2021), fear of infection and lack of knowledge may lead consumers to avoid shopping carts altogether. ...
Humans have a motivational system that influences cognition and behavior to minimize the risk of contact with pathogens whenever cues to disease emerge. The current research examines the relationship between cyberspace disease salience and mobility behavior at the macro and micro levels. Across three studies, we predict and find that people adjust their mobility behavior to minimize the risk of close physical contact with strangers when cyberspace disease salience is high (vs. low). Study 1 examines web searches for terms related to the pandemic to determine relatively high and low disease salience periods in cyberspace. In Study 2, we analyze hourly sales data from five grocery stores and find that when cyberspace disease salience is high (vs. low), consumers spend 28% more money on each shopping trip and that grocery stores sell 10% more items per hour despite 10% fewer shoppers per hour. Finally, in Study 3, we test the generalizability of these results by analyzing the Google Community Mobility Reports. Here we find that high (vs. low) cyberspace disease salience is associated with an overall decrease in mobility in contexts where the risk of close contact with strangers is high--but not low, whereby we observe an increase in mobility.
... 36,[41][42] Finally, with the large volume of customers, staff disinfection of carts and baskets is unreliable and provides another source for contact with viral contamination. [43][44][45] It is noted that persons living in a zip code with a superstore may not shop there. However, the superstore's presence is a draw for other businesses such as smaller retail stores, gas stations, restaurants, and pharmacies to locate in proximity 46 . ...
... From the 32 samples collected, a total of 52 bacteria were isolated. Of the 52 bacteria isolated 30 (57.7%) were E.coli, 12 ...
Many environmental materials play a role in the spread of pathogens and infectious diseases. Studies from around the world have shown that surfaces of public places like shopping malls are usually contaminated and play a role in the increasing incidences of outbreaks of certain diseases. However, there is little attention on the issue of bacterial contamination of escalator handrails and lift buttons in Zambia.
The main objective of this study was to assess the bacterial contamination of escalator handrails and lift buttons in selected shopping malls of Lusaka urban.
This was a descriptive cross-sectional study with a sample simple size of 32. It was completed in May, 2017. The samples were cultured and identified using Gram staining, colony morphology and biochemicals. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done using the Kirby-Bauer Disc Diffusion method.
All of the 32 samples collected samples yielded bacteria. A total of 52 bacteria were isolated as follows; E. coli 30 (57.7%), coagulase negative Staphylococcus 12 (23.1%), Bacillus species 8 (15.4%), Proteus species 1 (1.9 %) and Pseudomonas species 1 (1.9 %). All the isolates were resistant to ampicillin. E. coli and Pseudomonas species were resistant to cefotaxime, and Proteus species were resistant to cotrimoxazole.
These results suggest that escalator handrails and lift buttons may play a role in transmission of drug resistant bacteria therefore, cr
... Research has also demonstrated that shoppers get exposed to various forms of bacteria (such as coliform bacteria, staphylococcus aureus and E-coli) through their interaction with shopping carts and hand-baskets (e.g. Gerba and Maxwell 2012;Mizumachi et al. 2010). ...
Shopping carts, dating back at least to 1936, are not only used as an aid for shoppers to increase sales but are now being further developed and tested in relation to healthy food selection. To improve retailers’ ability to discover, generate, and capture the value related to both current practice and future innovations; such as consumers using smart carts when shopping, we systematically go through the empirical literature on carrying equipment in in-store shopping. We expose how limited the literature is by revealing the scarce number of studies on the effectiveness of baskets and carts on consumer behavior and especially when classified into different research themes. The contribution is a systematic literature review and a conceptual framework covering the most important factors affecting the choice of in-store carrying equipment, as well as the consequences of these choices in terms of in-store behaviors and transactional outcomes.
KEYWORDS: Shopping carts, shopping baskets, shopping device, smart carts, carrying equipment
... Stauber et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of household toys [3]. Gerba et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of labels on meat products [4]. Nworie et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of door handles [1]. ...
... Stauber et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of household toys [3]. Gerba et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of labels on meat products [4]. Nworie et al. have investigated the bacterial contamination of door handles [1]. ...
Background:
Bacterial, viral, and parasitic transmission is a common issue involving items that are used in crowded places and are touched. In this study, it was aimed to identify the types of bacteria on models used in anatomy laboratories and the types of bacteria that contaminate students' hands.
Methods:
Swab samples were taken from 30 models used in the laboratory and from the dominant hands of 94 students prior to and after contact with the models and were examined in the microbiology laboratory.
Results:
Five types of bacteria were isolated from the anatomy models: coagulase-negative staphylococcus, staphylococcus aureus, bacillus spp., enterococcus spp., and escherichia coli. Coagulase-negative staphylococcus, staphylococcus aureus, and bacillus spp. were isolated from the hands of the students before the contact, and additionally, enterococcus spp. were isolated after the contact. The hands were not found to be contaminated with escherichia coli originating from the models, whereas enterococcus spp. were found to be transmitted to the hands after the contact.
Conclusion:
The necessity of washing hands before and after working on the models and the necessity of occasionally disinfecting the models have emerged.
... While many diseases spread directly from person to person, objects can also transmit disease-causing organisms. For instance, in a nationwide examination of grocery stores, potentially dangerous bacteria were found on 51-72% of shopping carts (Gerba & Maxwell, 2012). If objects can act as potential disease carriers, however, which types of durable goods present the greatest perceived risks? ...
How does being motivated to avoid infectious disease affect the kinds of products people value and buy? Using population-level and experimental data, six studies converge to indicate that infectious disease cues can negatively impact evaluation of secondhand, but not new, products. Studies 1–2 demonstrate that used merchandise retailer revenues are lower in states with elevated pathogen prevalence. Studies 3a–3b echo this relation on an individual level, showing that experimental manipulation of infectious disease threat weakens interest in used products. Such effects are eliminated when sellers are known to buyers and when buyers engage in a behavior (hand-washing) associated with infection prevention (Studies 4–5). Internal meta-analyses reveal that disease threat consistently decreased used goods preferences and elevated valuation of new products across our experimental studies. This research advances our understanding of how disease avoidance motivation changes reactions to everyday objects, thereby highlighting how infectious disease psychology influences important domains of individual and societal life.
... These bacteria are usually sturdy and can persist on environmental surfaces for long periods (15). Also, detection of Gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacter and Serratia species) on the elevator buttons is compatible with the results of the other studies on public surfaces (16,17), this may be due to inadvertent finger contaminations of students and laboratory staffs and direct contact with buttons. ...
Contact between fingers and elevator buttons may serve as vectors for transmission of microorganisms. Elevator buttons in the schools are contaminated with microbial agents and people using them are at risk of such infections. Therefore, the current study selected 35 elevator buttons from seven different schools to isolate bacterial contamination. The results of the surface swabbed samples indicated that all of the buttons were contaminated by two or more microorganisms including Staphylococcus and Enterobacter species; shown in Table 1. Also, analysis of the isolated bacteria showed the colonization of skin flora bacteria on elevator buttons. In other words, around 100% of the isolated Gram-positive bacteria were non-pathogenic and their presence on the buttons was due to direct and repeated contact with human fingers. These bacteria are usually sturdy and can persist on environmental surfaces for long periods (15). Also, detection of Gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacter and Serratia species) on the elevator buttons is compatible with the results of the other studies on public surfaces (16, 17), this may be due to inadvertent finger contaminations of students and laboratory staffs and direct contact with buttons.
... These bacteria are usually sturdy and can persist on environmental surfaces for long periods (15). Also, detection of Gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacter and Serratia species) on the elevator buttons is compatible with the results of the other studies on public surfaces (16,17), this may be due to inadvertent finger contaminations of students and laboratory staffs and direct contact with buttons. ...
Background: The control of microorganisms in industrial and residential environments is the main concern regarding the spread of infectious diseases.
... The prevalence of skin bacteria on restroom surfaces is not surprising as most of the surfaces sampled come into direct contact with human skin, and previous studies have shown that skin-associated bacteria are generally resilient and can survive on surfaces for extended periods of time [20]. On the other hand, contrary to many studies examining public surfaces, especially those where food is presented [3,12,21], no coliforms or other foodborne pathogens such as species of Aeromonas, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Klebsiella or Salmonella were detected. This was an unexpected finding, and warrants a follow-up study for further examination with more sophisticated detection methods. ...
... For example, in the cases of Avian Influenza [1] or of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [2], it has been shown that infections are likely in healthcare workers, although correct antiseptic strategies would ensure good safety levels. In general, several reports pointed out that infectious agents are nested in common use objects such as shopping carts handlebar [3], computer keyboards [4], clinical surfaces [5], faucet handles [4], door handles [6]. Although a proper treatment with antiseptic detergents would greatly reduce risks, there are situations in which such a strategy is inapplicable. ...
Everyday life is exposed to the risks of contracting severe diseases due to the diffusion of severe pathogens. For this reason, efficient antimicrobial surfaces becomes a need of primary importance. In this work we report the first evidences of a new technique to synthesize an antibacterial coating on Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)samples, based on a non-stoichiometric, visible light responsive, titanium oxide. The coating was obtained through laser ablation of a titanium target, then the resulting ions were accelerated and implanted on the samples. The samples where tested against a Staphylococcus aureus strain, in order to assay their antimicrobial efficacy. Results show that this treatment strongly discourages bacterial adhesion to the treated surfaces.
... For example, in the cases of Avian Influenza [1] or of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [2], it has been shown that infections are likely in healthcare workers, although correct antiseptic strategies would ensure good safety levels. In general, several reports pointed out that infectious agents are nested in common use objects such as shopping carts handlebar [3], computer keyboards [4], clinical surfaces [5], faucet handles [4], door handles [6]. Although a proper treatment with antiseptic detergents would greatly reduce risks, there are situations in which such a strategy is inapplicable, for example in the case of the shopping carts. ...
In the last decades, the demand for biomaterials of antimicrobial
quality sensibly increased. The essential properties of these materials
must be the biocompatibility, wettability, durability and their
antibacterial characteristics. One of the most important biomaterial for
medical applications is the ultra high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE) that it is used to make components of prosthetic knee, hip and
shoulder. It is well known that the presence in UHMWPE of Ag atoms
increase its antibacterial properties while Cu and its alloys are known
as natural antimicrobial materials. In this work it is proposed a
dedicated laser ion source (LIS) accelerator to perform ion implantation
together with a systematic study of the surface properties of UHMWPE
samples treated with different metals in order to modify their
antibacterial characteristics. The proposed technique consists in the
application of a dose of specific ions inside the first layer of the
sample to be treated. This goal can be effectively achieved if the ions
are preventively accelerated. This technique seems to be interesting,
since it can open the way to an easier realization of antibacterial
materials using various metal ions.
The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is considered one of the most destructive insect pests that can attack several vegetable crops worldwide. The behavior of choosing a host plant by whitefly can be significantly influenced by volatile organic compounds. The aim of this investigation is to identify and bioassay the volatile organic compounds emitted from uninfested and infested eggplant leaves with B. tabaci. The current study focuses on the interaction between whitefly and eggplant with the identification of volatile organic compounds emitted from leaves that were collected by headspace solid phase microextraction fiber and gas chromatography mass spectrum analyzed. Both uninfested and infested eggplant leaves released a total of 11 compounds. The amount of volatile organic compounds emitted from affected eggplant leaves by whitefly was higher than from uninfested eggplant leaves. Using a Y-shaped olfactometer bioassay, whitefly preferred to attract toward volatile emitted by eggplant leaves in both uninfested and infested eggplant leaves. Our results suggest these chemical compounds can play a key mediator in host finding behavior. The exploitation of one or more of these compounds can apply in an integrated management program of this pest as a lure in the sticky trap or manipulating insect behavior.
At supermarkets and grocery stores (modern retail system), people are exposed to many surfaces, such as refrigerator, door handles and shopping carts. This study evaluates microbial contamination of shopping carts and baskets at different shopping malls in Akure, Nigeria. The swab samples of carts and baskets handles were collected using sterile swab sticks, bacterial and fungi were isolated and identified using standard microbiological methods. Antimicrobial susceptibility of all bacterial isolates was carried out using disc diffusion test. The bacteria counts ranges between 50 cfu/cm 2 to 242 cfu/cm 2 while the number of fungi range between 1.8 sfu/cm 2 to 2.0 sfu/cm 2. The identity of bacterial isolates were confirmed as Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus species, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus epidermidis and while Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus are the fungi identified. The most occurred bacteria and fungi were Staphylococcus aureus 5(35.71%) and Aspergillus niger 5(41.67%) respectively. All bacterial isolates showed least susceptibility to amoxicillin and ceftriaxone and highest against erythromycin. The presence of high microbial load, pathogenic bacteria and fungi in shopping basket and carts indicated that they could act as source of transmitting pathogens from person to person and a vehicle for the dissemination of antibiotic resistant gene in the community. Hence there should be awareness towards the public health implications of poorly sanitized shopping baskets and carts.
Objective: To determine and identify pathogenic bacteria on solid surfaces in clinical and teaching laboratories in four selected universities in Jordan.
Methodology: This study was conducted in biology, microbiology, hematology, and anatomy laboratories at four Jordanian universities. Solid surfaces (bench tops, seats, sinks, tap water handles, and doorknobs) were swabbed and cultured on nutrient agar as non selective medium and incubated aerobically at 37 °C for 48 hours.
Results: Four types from gram-negative (G-ve) bacteria, and five types of gram-positive (G+ve) bacteria were found to be present in the swabbed surfaces. Identified bacterial included E. coli spp, Shigella sonnei, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella oxytoca, Staphylococcus epidermis, Staphylococcus Aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus, and Bacillus subtilis.
Conclusion: The identified bacterial species isolated from the exposed surfaces of the teaching laboratories suggests that such surfaces are indeed potential fomites. However, some of the bacterial isolates are not of a pathological concern to healthy individuals.
Objective: To determine and identify pathogenic
bacteria on solid surfaces in clinical and teaching
laboratories in four selected universities in Jordan.
Methodology: This study was conducted in
biology, microbiology, hematology, and anatomy
laboratories at four Jordanian universities. Solid
surfaces (bench tops, seats, sinks, tap water
handles, and doorknobs) were swabbed and
cultured on nutrient agar as non selective medium
and incubated aerobically at 37 °C for 48 hours.
Results: Four types from gram-negative (G-ve)
bacteria, and five types of gram-positive (G+ve)
bacteria were found to be present in the swabbed
surfaces. Identified bacterial included E. coli spp,
Shigella sonnei, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Klebsiella oxytoca, Staphylococcus epidermis,
Staphylococcus Aureus, Enterococcus faecalis,
Bacillus cereus, and Bacillus subtilis.
Conclusion: The identified bacterial species
isolated from the exposed surfaces of the teaching
laboratories suggests that such surfaces are
indeed potential fomites. However, some of the
bacterial isolates are not of a pathological concern
to healthy individuals. (Rawal Med J 202;46:307-
313).
Keywords: Contamination, fomites, medical
laboratories, pathogenic bacteria.
Transmission of pathogenic microorganisms from contaminated surfaces to hands could cause various diseases. In this study, the microbiological status of shopping carts was investigated in İzmir. To determine where the samples will be taken from and to get user’s opinions about hygiene, a survey was carried out. Total of 100 samples were taken from shopping carts in 20 different markets between February and April, and total viable counts and Escherichia coli counts were applied in samples. Total viable counts of shopping cart handles for 100 samples were found between 0,82– 4,88 log CFU/10 cm2. Coliforms and E.coli were not found in the analysed samples. According to the results, it is seen that the shopping carts have different levels of microbial load; the market environment and the users are effective on these profiles. It has been determined that cleaning and disinfection processes should be applied to improve the hygienic condition of shopping carts and high numbers of microorganisms in the shopping cars might be a potential risk for public health.
Background and Aims: Shopping carts (SCs) are considered as
highly contaminated public surfaces, and may play a role in transmission of
some harbor heterotrophic bacteria to human being. Therefore, this study
aimed to examine the hygienic conditions and presence of heterotrophic
bacteria on the surface of the handles and bases of SCs taken from shopping
stores in Al-Mafraq city, Jordan. Methods: Five different SCs were selected
randomly from four shopping stores (designated as A, B, C and D) during
May through June, 2011. Two dry swab samples were taken from each SC,
one from the handle and another one from the base. All samples were
cultured on nutrient agar as none selective medium and incubated aerobically
at 37 °C for 48 hours. The resulting number of colony forming units (CFUs)
in each plate was converted to CFU per cm2 surface area. The species of
bacterial isolates were determined by biochemical tests and 16S rDNA
sequencing.
Results: The number of heterotrophic bacteria per SC range between 6 to
133 CFU/cm2 surface area for the cart handles and between 6 to 300
CFU/cm2 surface area for the cart bases, indicating higher numbers of
heterotrophic bacteria in the cart bases as well as more fluctuations in the
number of heterotrophic bacteria at the handles and bases of SCs. These
analyses also confirmed the presence of seven coliform and three
noncoliform species on the tested surface of the handles and bases of the
selected stores. These include E. coli spp., Acinetobacter calcoaceticus,
Burkholderia cepacia, Yersinia enterocolitica, Tatumeella ptyseas,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella sonnei, Bacillus cereus, and Bacillus
pumilus.
Conclusion: The resulting data revealed that some of these species are
pathogenic as well as a multi-drug resistant. These data also indicated that
poor sanitation and hygiene conditions appear to exist among the tested SCs
of the selected stores. It also suggest that these SCs might act as source of
transmitting of pathogens which might pose a serious health risk to shoppers.
Therefore, this study pleads for a strong cleaning approaches for SCs as well
as community education to promote hand hygiene, both of which are
important and complementary.
Due to the diffusion of severe pathogens, everyday life is exposed to the risks of contracting severe diseases. For this reason, efficient antimicrobial surfaces are of paramount importance. In this work we present the first evidences of a new technique to obtain an antibacterial ultra high molecular weight polyethylene based on a non-stoichiometric, visible light responsive, titanium oxide coating. The coating was obtained through a process in which titanium ions, resulting from laser ablation of a corresponding target, were accelerated and implanted on the samples. The samples were tested against a Staphylococcus aureus strain, in order to assay their antimicrobial efficacy. Results show that this treatment strongly discourages bacterial colonization of the treated surfaces.
Most foodborne illnesses are believed to originate in the home. Reuse of bags creates an opportunity for cross contamination of foods. The purpose of this study was to assess the potential for cross contamination of food products from reusable bags used to carry groceries. Reusable bags were collected at random from consumers as they entered grocery stores in California and Arizona. In interviews it was found that reusable bags are seldom if ever washed and often used for multiple purposes. Large numbers of bacteria were found in almost all bags and coliform bacteria in half. Escherichia coli were identified in 12 % of the bags and a wide range of enteric bacteria, including several opportunistic pathogens. When meat juices were added to bags and stored in the trunks of cars for two hours the number of bacteria increased 10-fold indicating the potential for bacterial growth in the bags. Hand or machine washing was found to reduce the bacteria in bags by>99.9%. These results indicate that reusable bags can play a significant role in the cross contamination of foods if not properly washed on a regular basis. It is recommended that the public needs to be educated about the proper care of reusable bags by printed instructions on the bags or through public service announcements NOTE: The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the American Chemistry Council for providing
As a cost-saving measure, an increasing number of hospitals allow personnel to launder their uniforms, lab coats, and operating room scrubs at home. With rising nosocomial infection rates and increasing levels of multidrug-resistant bacteria in hospital settings, uniform contamination may be an environmental factor in the spread of infection.
We quantified the number and identity of bacteria found on swatches cut from unwashed operating room, hospital-laundered, home-laundered, new cloth, and new disposable scrubs.
Of the 29 unwashed hospital operating room scrub swatches analyzed, 23 (79%) were positive for some type of gram-positive cocci, with 3 (10%) of those classified as Staphylococcus aureus, and 20 (69%) were positive for coliform bacteria, 3 of which were Escherichia coli. Home-laundered scrubs had a significantly higher total bacteria count than hospital-laundered scrubs (P = .016). There was no statistical difference in the bacteria counts between hospital-laundered scrubs and unused new and disposable scrubs. In the home-laundered scrubs 44% (18/41) were positive for coliform bacteria, but no isolates were Escherichia coli.
Significantly higher bacteria counts were isolated from home-laundered scrubs and unwashed scrubs than from new, hospital-laundered, and disposable scrubs.
Abstrac
Riding in a shopping cart next to raw meat or poultry is a risk factor for Salmonella and Campylobacter infections in infants. To describe the frequency of, and factors associated with, this behavior, we surveyed parents of children aged younger than 3 years in Foodborne Disease Active Surveillance Network sites. We defined exposure as answering yes to one of a series of questions asking if packages of raw meat or poultry were near a child in a shopping cart, or if a child was in the cart basket at the same time as was raw meat or poultry. Among 1, 273 respondents, 767 (60%) reported that their children visited a grocery store in the past week and rode in shopping carts. Among these children, 103 (13%) were exposed to raw products. Children who rode in the baskets were more likely to be exposed than were those who rode only in the seats (odds ratio [OR], 17.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 11.0 to 28.9). In a multivariate model, riding in the basket (OR, 15.5; 95% CI, 9.2 to 26.1), income less than $55,000 (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.0 to 3.1), and Hispanic ethnicity (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2 to 4.5) were associated with exposure. Our study shows that children can be exposed to raw meat and poultry products while riding in shopping carts. Parents should separate children from raw products and place children in the seats rather than in the baskets of the cart. Retailer use of leak-proof packaging, customer placement of product in a plastic bag and on the rack underneath the cart, use of hand sanitizers and wipes, and consumer education may also be helpful.
Rates of Salmonella infection are highest in infants, but little is known about potential sources of infection in this high-risk population. We performed a case-control study to identify dietary and environmental risk factors for sporadic salmonellosis among infants.
In 2002-2004, the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network conducted a population-based, case-control study of sporadic salmonellosis among infants <1 year of age in 8 states. Cases were identified via active laboratory-based surveillance. Healthy controls were frequency matched by age and identified through birth registries or published birth announcements. We assessed diet and environmental exposures in the 5 days before illness onset or interview. Data were analyzed by using logistic regression adjusting for age.
The study enrolled 442 subjects and 928 controls. Compared with healthy controls, infants with Salmonella infection were less likely to have been breastfed and more likely to have had exposure to reptiles, to have ridden in a shopping cart next to meat or poultry, or to have consumed concentrated liquid infant formula during the 5-day exposure period. Travel outside the United States was associated with illness in infants 3 to 6 and >6 months of age. Attending day care with a child with diarrhea was associated with salmonellosis in infants >6 months of age.
We identified a number of modifiable protective and risk factors for salmonellosis in infants. Attention should be directed at developing effective preventive measures for this high-risk population.
This chapter begins with a discussion of household sources of pathogens that can enter the home via air, food or water. Pathogens can also be introduced into a home via humans themselves who acquire an infection outside of the home prior to entry into the home. Once inside the home, pathogens can be transferred either via person-person contact, or via person-fomite-person. In this chapter are identified household and indoor sources of pathogens, and their fate and transport within the indoor environment, with particular emphasis on the occurrence and persistence of pathogens on fomites. Finally, the potential for transfer of pathogens via fomites and hand-to-hand contact is discussed.
The indoor environments including home, schools, workplaces, and hospitals act as reservoirs of human pathogens. This chapter provides an overview of the household and indoor sources of pathogens, their fate, and transport within the indoor environment. Household sources of pathogens include air, food, water, and fomites. Microbial airborne pathogens can occur as bioaerosols and include bacteria, viruses, molds, and spores. Infectious pathogens—such as viruses and bacteria—can also be found in household air such as influenza, cold, and even chickenpox and tuberculosis are transmitted within households. The food products that contain pathogens—such as Salmonella—can result in human infections within households via two mechanisms: contamination of human hands and fomites and direct consumption of raw or undercooked foodstuffs. Legionella pneumophila and Acanthamoeba spp. are the pathogens commonly associated with waterborne illness. Enteric, respiratory, and dermal pathogens have the greatest potential to be spread by fomites. Higher bacterial transfer rates from a fomite to the hand have been observed with hard, nonporous surfaces (phone receiver, or faucet) than with porous surfaces (clothings or sponges).
Shopping carts and handheld shopping baskets in supermarkets are subject to accidental bacterial contamination through contacts with a variety of food. We investigated the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus on the handles of handheld shopping baskets in four supermarkets distantly located in Osaka district, Japan.
Fifty two strains of Staph. aureus were isolated from 760 basket handles. Among these, six strains were positive for staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) production, representing 12% of total. This SEB producer ratio is considerably higher than among Staph. aureus isolated from nasal swabs of the supermarket workers (2%) and from independently collected clinical specimens (4%). These SEB-producing Staph. aureus strains from the basket handles are clonal and belong to ST12. Coagulase typing showed that they are in group VII, which is the most common cause of food poisoning in Japan. Biofilm assays indicated that SEB gene (seb)-positive strains including this clone produced a significantly higher amount of biofilm than seb-negative strains.
The frequent isolation of seb-positive Staph. aureus on shopping basket handles raises the possibility that they could be a hidden reservoir for Staph. aureus with a potential to cause food poisoning and draws attention to the importance of shopping basket sanitation.
From 1999-2003, the hygiene of 1061 environmental surfaces from shopping, daycare, and office environments, personal items, and miscellaneous activities (i.e., gymnasiums, airports, movie theaters, restaurants, etc.), in four US cities, was monitored. Samples were analyzed for fecal and total coliform bacteria, protein, and biochemical markers. Biochemical markers, i.e., hemoglobin (blood marker), amylase (mucus, saliva, sweat, and urine marker), and urea (urine and sweat marker) were detected on 3% (26/801); 15% (120/801), and 6% (48/801) of the surfaces, respectively. Protein (general hygiene marker) levels > or = 200 microg/10 cm2 were present on 26% (200/801) of the surfaces tested. Surfaces from children's playground equipment and daycare centers were the most frequently contaminated (biochemical markers on 36%; 15/42 and 46%; 25/54, respectively). Surfaces from the shopping, miscellaneous activities, and office environments were positive for biochemical markers with a frequency of 21% (69/333), 21% (66/308), and 11% (12/105), respectively). Sixty samples were analyzed for biochemical markers and bacteria. Total and fecal coliforms were detected on 20% (12/60) and 7% (4/ 60) of the surfaces, respectively. Half and one-third of the sites positive for biochemical markers were also positive for total and fecal coliforms, respectively. Artificial contamination of public surfaces with an invisible fluorescent tracer showed that contamination from outside surfaces was transferred to 86% (30/ 35) of exposed individual's hands and 82% (29/35) tracked the tracer to their home or personal belongings hours later. Results provide information on the relative hygiene of commonly encountered public surfaces and aid in the identification of priority environments where contaminant occurrence and risk of exposure may be greatest. Children's playground equipment is identified as a priority surface for additional research on the occurrence of and potential exposure to infectious disease causing agents.
Campylobacter is an important cause of foodborne illness in infants (younger than 1 year of age), but little is known about the sources of infection in this age group.
Eight sites in the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) participated in a 24-month population-based case-control study conducted in 2002-2004. Cases were infants with laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter infection ascertained through active laboratory surveillance, and controls were infants in the community.
We enrolled 123 cases and 928 controls. Infants 0-6 months of age with Campylobacter infection were less likely to be breast-fed than controls [odds ratio (OR); 0.2; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.1-0.6]. Risk factors for infants 0-6 months of age included drinking well water (OR 4.4; CI, 1.4-14) and riding in a shopping cart next to meat or poultry (OR 4.0; CI, 1.2-13.0). Risk factors for infants 7-11 months of age included visiting or living on a farm (OR 6.2; CI, 2.2-17), having a pet with diarrhea in the home (OR 7.6; CI, 2.1-28) and eating fruits and vegetables prepared in the home (OR 2.5, CI 1.2-4.9). Campylobacter infection was associated with travel outside the United States at all ages (OR 19.3; CI, 4.5-82.1).
Several unique protective and risk factors were identified among infants, and these risk factors vary by age, suggesting that prevention measures be targeted accordingly. Breast-feeding was protective for the youngest infants and should continue to be encouraged.
Preharvst and postharvest food safety
- R C Bier
- S D Pillai
- T D Phillips
- R L Ziprin
Bier, R. C., S. D. Pillai, T. D. Phillips,
and R. l. Ziprin. 2004. Preharvst and
postharvest food safety. Blackwell
Publishing. Ames IA.
Available at: www.cbc.ca/neew/ story/2007/02/08shopping-carts
- Cbs News
CBS News. Arkansas introduces
clean shopping cart legislation.
Available at: www.cbc.ca/neew/
story/2007/02/08shopping-carts.
html. Accessed 12 July 2011.
Sporadic Campylobacter infection in infants: a population-based surveillance casecontrol study
- K E Fulterton
- . A Ingram
- T F Jones
- B J Anderson
- P V Mccarthy
- S Hurd
- B Shiferaw
- D Vugia
- N Haubert
- F J Angulo
Fulterton, K. E., l. A. Ingram, T. F.
Jones, B. J. Anderson, P. V. McCarthy,
S. hurd, B. Shiferaw, D. Vugia,
N. haubert, S. wedel, and F. J.
Angulo. 2007. Sporadic Campylobacter infection in infants: a population-based surveillance casecontrol study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis.
J. 26:19-24.
A case control study of the epidemiology of sporadic Salmonella infection in infants
- T F Jones
- . A Ingram
- K E Fulterton
- R Marcus
- B J Anderson
- P V Mccarth
- D Vugia
- B Shiferaw
- N Haubert
- F J Angulo
Jones, T. F., l. A. Ingram, K. E.
Fulterton, R. Marcus, B. J. Anderson,
P. V. McCarth, D. Vugia, B. Shiferaw,
N. haubert, S. wedel, and F. J. Angulo.
2006. A case control study of the
epidemiology of sporadic Salmonella infection in infants. Pediatrics
118:2380-2387.
Assessment of the potential for cross-contamination of food products by reusable bags
- K A Reynolds
- P M Watt
- S A Boone
- C P Gerba
Reynolds, K. A., P. M. watt, S. A.
Boone, and C. P. Gerba. 2005.
Occurrence of bacteria and biochemical markers on public surfaces.
Int. J. Environ. Hlth. Res. 15:225-234.
11. williams, D. l., C. P. Gerba,
A. Maxwell, and R. G. Sinclair. 2011.
Assessment of the potential for
cross-contamination of food products by reusable bags. Food Prot.
Trends 31:508-513.