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Hierarchial cooperation in architecture and the mathematical necessity for ornament
Abstract
The case is made that architectural design needs to be organized hierarchically. A method and formula for doing so is derived based on biology and computer science. Fractal simplicity, in which there is self-similar scaling, replaces the outdated notion of rectangular simplicity. Architectural units on different scales are able to cooperate in an intrinsic manner to achieve an emergent property, which is not present in the individual components. The theory of hierarchical systems explains how to relate different scales to each other. In buildings, the correlation between architectural scales determines whether a structure is perceived as coherent or incoherent, independently of its actual design. This paper gives scientific proof of why ornament is essential to the overall cooperation of architectural forms, thus revising one of the basic tenets of modernist design.
... High levels of complexity seem to be accepted beter by architects than by the general public, in special for modern architectural styles [25,[30][31][32]. Traditional architectural styles achieved a beter acceptation of complex paterns among the general public [33][34][35][36]. However, some researchers have found a threshold point in complexity above which the visual acceptance was impaired in all cases, irrespective of professions or architectural styles [24,37]; so, the controversy remains open. ...
... This is the most likely explanation for the low rating achieved by visual proposals presented in image set D, where the randomization of the boundaries of the stone baseboards did not follow either coherent or familiar design paterns. Such presentation disorganizes complexity and impairs human comprehension [36]. At the opposite extreme, small scales were removed from façades in image set A, which minimized the complexity of forms. ...
... It enables a lighter and cheaper construction, seting up wide interiors and large external openings, in special on upper loors [54]. Materials and structural subdivisions create architectural scales by themselves that can be intensiied through moderate intervention [36]. Seting these materials together is not, however, enough, but the achievement of a coherent whole via hierarchical and structural organization of the materials is required. ...
... For instance, Brolin (Brolin, 2000) suggests that the visual texture 'composed primarily of small scale details' is the most critical factor to consider when locating a new building within an existing built context. Methods used in architecture to determine scale within a building include massing, where the largest scale is usually defined by an outline of the building itself (Salingaros, 2000b). Elements within the façade such as openings, detail, trim and the material itself will then successively identify smaller scales. ...
... Symmetry is a condition of massing and is manifested through the recurrence of shapes in a regular way, and can help connect elements forming a single element at a greater scale (Salingaros, 2000b). Once formed, this arrangement can be thought of as modular, repeated through the 'economy of thought and action' (Salingaros, 2001) Bentley (Bentley, 1987) suggests that 'richness' can be created through details within the walls that incorporate patterns of material and colour. ...
... Scale is of important characteristics that affect the aesthetic construction properties where constructional elements vary in their sizes. The architect, then, should know how to utilize the construction width using a certain scale or comparing with other neighboring architectural elements [12]. Salingaros has viewed this relation through stating that forming scale in architecture and architectural constructions for any structure, even columns, is clear through graded relations of scales. ...
... These units could be a constructional unit, like constructional space or even the constructional unit (brick and concrete units) The architect Mees Vandro used constructional frame units in a mathematical relation through repeating regular unit that make the final shape more arranged and flexible in use [14] Pillared corridors, as he thinks, represent the pattern frame of the human scale where distance among columns is about 1-5m, close to human scale of movement. Charelson indicated that gathering the various constructional details in a graded from has varied the scale [12] while Ching stated that proportions and size of constructional elements related with constructional tasks could be visual indicators for size and scale of spaces through which space will have scale in element proportion and this is applied on walls and ceilings [1]. The impact of scale on construction is clear through formal properties like repetition, gradation, partitioning and flexibility which are the treatments adopted by the designer in dealing with parts and components of the constructional system. 1) Arabic Mohammedean Type: Prophet mosque is the important example of this type that represents the Arabic type from which most of the Arabic mosques are driven [15] and includes: A.Hypostyle Pillared Type where grid system is adopted using the constructional frame with repeated columns within equal distances (about 3-7m) that correspond the dimensions needed during prayer in order not to have gaps among the columns (according to Sunna). ...
... Hull et al ((Hull IV, 1993) finds that decorative style valued highly by residence, possibly because it creates a sense of identity by distinguishing one place from another. Methods used in architecture to determine scale within a building include massing, where the largest scale is usually defined by an outline of the building itself (Salingaros, 2000b).Elements within the façade such as openings, detail, trim and the material itself will then successively identify smaller scales. Symmetry is a condition of massing and is manifested through the recurrence of shapes in a regular way, and can help connect elements forming a single element at a greater scale (Salingaros, 2000b). ...
... Methods used in architecture to determine scale within a building include massing, where the largest scale is usually defined by an outline of the building itself (Salingaros, 2000b).Elements within the façade such as openings, detail, trim and the material itself will then successively identify smaller scales. Symmetry is a condition of massing and is manifested through the recurrence of shapes in a regular way, and can help connect elements forming a single element at a greater scale (Salingaros, 2000b). Once formed, this arrangement can be thought of as modular, repeated through the 'economy of thought and action' (Salingaros, 2001). ...
... Something similar occurs in the Stockholm Library, where there is little at the scale between the window, blocks, and the width of the building. These buildings show a lack of hierarchy of sizes, something that has been criticised as unnatural in architecture, notably by Salingaros (2000). ...
... So fundamental was this dynamic view of architecture to him that, in a survey of Ruskin's writings on architecture, Unrau (1978) found it convenient to divide the writer's opinions into chapters on ornament viewed at long distance, intermediate distances, and at close range. A modern version of this argument is to be found in Salingaros (2000), where the author reasons that buildings ought to possess features in a scaling hierarchy of sizes, justifying this by likening buildings to complex hierarchical systems found in nature and engineering. Other reasons why hierarchies of sizes are most naturally based on power law, such as equation (1) here, may be found in Salingaros and West (1999). ...
Old buildings may be easier to read than modern buildings because they possess visual depth. This is the finding of an experiment that analysed building elevations and newspapers looking for a connection between their character and the size – frequency distribution of their component parts. It was found that drawings of older buildings sometimes displayed 1/ f scaling and thus resembled natural scenes, but that this was rarely the case for modern buildings. The same distribution was also found in newspaper pages. We hypothesise that this distribution allows buildings to appear interesting and changeful when approached from afar in the same way that it makes newspapers easy to read over a range of distances, on a newsstand, over a shoulder, and so forth.
... This is a straightforward result from fractal fluency, since a fractal will incorporate several levels of scale into itself. When working with buildings (say, up to six stories), the number of well-defined scales from the overall size down to the architectural detail is somewhere around seven if we use the most common traditional scaling factor of approximately 3 [131]. ...
This article reviews current research in visual urban perception. The temporal sequence of the first few milliseconds of visual stimulus processing sheds light on the historically ambiguous topic of aesthetic experience. Automatic fractal processing triggers initial attraction/avoidance evaluations of an environment’s salubriousness, and its potentially positive or negative impacts upon an individual. As repeated cycles of visual perception occur, the attractiveness of urban form affects the user experience much more than had been previously suspected. These perceptual mechanisms promote walkability and intuitive navigation, and so they support the urban and civic interactions for which we establish communities and cities in the first place. Therefore, the use of multiple fractals needs to reintegrate with biophilic and traditional architecture in urban design for their proven positive effects on health and well-being. Such benefits include striking reductions in observers’ stress and mental fatigue. Due to their costs to individual well-being, urban performance, environmental quality, and climatic adaptation, this paper recommends that nontraditional styles should be hereafter applied judiciously to the built environment.
... Although more challenging, incorporating fractal patterns into the built environment will be more impactful. The call for fractal architecture is not new and today's advocates [18][19][20][21][22][23] are often inspired by Alexander's work. Yet the need for fractal designs-whether for the interior or exterior of individual buildings, or for the arrangement of multiple buildings-is escalating. ...
Fractal objects are prevalent in natural scenery. Their repetition of patterns at increasingly fine magnifications creates a rich complexity. Fractals displaying mid-range complexity are the most common and include trees, clouds, and mountains. The “fractal fluency” model states that human vision has adapted to process these mid-range fractals with ease. I will first discuss fractal fluency and demonstrate how it enhances the observer’s visual capabilities by focusing on experiments that have important practical consequences for improving the built environment. These enhanced capabilities generate an aesthetic experience and physiological stress reduction. I will discuss strategies for integrating fractals into building designs to induce positive impacts on the observer. Examples include fractal solar panels, fractal window shades, and fractal floor patterns. These applications of fractal fluency represent a fundamental and potentially impactful form of salutogenesis.
... Ornaments can help to relate different-scale regions to each other. It can also embody a level of scale itself in order to allow people to relate to an object or building' (Salingaros, 2000). Defining transition zones: an ornament is often found in areas that attract attention, whether used to disguise particular parts or to amplify specific features. ...
... Each architectural construct includes several geometrical relationships, through which styles and affiliations can be distinguished. And this study deals with shape morphology, correlations and topological sequence [7], as follows: ...
All buildings are characterized by possessing a set of architecturalelements and details that are most important in giving the characteristic ofthe architecture as a style, where these details and architectural elementshave configurations structurally different and this difference in structuralismdistinguishes the form of another where any architectural configuration ischaracterized whether to indicate functional aspects or aesthetic formalaspects that has privet and special style which is consistent with thegeographical or historical background to this style. This study will focus onone of the architectural configurations of the gates, by testing a sample ofthese architectural configurations from different time periods such asAssyrian style gate, Romanian style gate and Babylonian style gate ... Etc.as a sample for analyses. This study consist of three stages, the first one isthe theoretical framework for analysis and the formation of gates ingeneral, the second stage is a test of the sample of gates by analyzing anddismantling of components to the basic elements of form and then encodedin digital form and make it a matrix , finally the last stage .It is the processof restructuring elements (Re-forming elements) by using the probabilitiesof the matrix to produce new patterns which has structural propertiessimilar to the original elements.
... For repetition in architectural composition and its effects on the form's visual structure, it may be indicated in various appearances. That can appear through the building's structural elements, architectural elements such as opening system (doors and windows), or the ornamental decorations which repeated in geometrically arranged chains of shapes, and all that emphasizes a clear image of the whole composition's parts (Salingaros, 2000). ...
This research is a study on the facade of shophouses in George Town, Penang and how they are affected by the installation of modern building services elements. The unplanned insertion of their equipment distorts of the visual characteristics of the shophouses facade. Thus, the research's primary objective is to explore the necessary means to achieve integration between these two architectural systems namely, the authenticity of the facade and the positive inclusion of the services elements. Visual analysis as a measurement tool is the key for linking the two sides of its equation, by adopting qualitative exploratory designed methodology, as it is adequate to fulfill the research objectives, lines with inquiries and fitting for the scope of research. Theoretical and purposeful sampling were utilized to select the six known styles of the shophouses facade in George Town, and also to choose from the six conservation areas in George Town World Heritage Site (GTWHS). Framework analysis, as well as content analysis techniques, was used to analyze the different types of the collected data. Various kinds of findings have resulted from the analysis: Visual characteristics of each style of the shophouses facade in George Town based on principles of design analysis. Also, the impact of the modern building services on the shophouses facade, as some types of building services installations have more visual impact on the shophouse facade than others. The highest impact is the outdoor air-conditioning units, commercial signboards, and shading parts, which affect more than 60% of the visual characteristics of the shophouse facade. The study identified the transformation of the relation type and visual integration level between building services and the facade in the original and the current state of the shophouse. Finally, the primary outcome of the study is concluding improvements of the guidelines for the building facade components that related to the building services installations. The refined recommendations included original colors paintings, traditional shapes mimicking, and precise positioning for any new installations. These recommendations can be adopted for the optimum visual integration for conserving heritage shophouses in future.
... This tool can enhance the interaction and shared understanding among team members and can assist in the efficient coordination of design activities [3]. The information contained in the patterns can provide critical guidance to urban designers on how to make appropriate decisions about the design task at different levels of scale and detail [23,24]. ...
Urban design is a complex problem-solving activity that commonly requires the aid of a variety of methods to support the process and enhance the quality of the outcomes. How to help designers with suitable methods to deal with ill-defined urban problems constitutes a major challenge in the urban design domain. In this regard, the use of urban design patterns is considered as a method that can contribute to urban design problem-solving. However, this tool was never investigated to understand its role in the task-related activities that take place during the design process by designers working in a team, and its influence on the creativity of the final design outcome as perceived by urban designers and students. Therefore, an empirical research based on a controlled experiment was carried out to explore the aid provided by design patterns during the conceptual stages of the process. Sixty-three master students working in teams of three were assigned a set of patterns to solve an urban design task. They were requested to use this material to produce as many creative conceptual solutions as possible. At the end of the sessions, they evaluated the creativity of their outcomes, and they completed a questionnaire about the aid afforded by the patterns. The solutions were also assessed by two independent urban designers. The study contributed to gain a better insight into the main design activities derived from the use of patterns as problem-solving tools and to unveil their contribution to urban design. The aid provided by the urban patterns was mainly concerned with task-related activities, and thereafter with team interactions. Overall, the use of patterns was seen to enhance the functionality of the design. Implications for design practice and design education are discussed.
... Each architectural construct includes several geometrical relationships, through which styles and affiliations can be distinguished. And this study deals with shape morphology, correlations and topological sequence [7], as follows: ...
All buildings are characterized by possessing a set of architectural elements and details that are most important in giving the characteristic of the architecture as a style, where these details and architectural elements have configurations structurally different and this difference in structuralism distinguishes the form of another where any architectural configuration is characterized whether to indicate functional aspects or aesthetic formal aspects that has privet and special style which is consistent with the geographical or historical background to this style. This study will focus on one of the architectural configurations of the gates, by testing a sample of these architectural configurations from different time periods such as Assyrian style gate, Romanian style gate and Babylonian style gate ... Etc. as a sample for analyses. This study consist of three stages, the first one is the theoretical framework for analysis and the formation of gates in general, the second stage is a test of the sample of gates by analyzing and dismantling of components to the basic elements of form and then encoded in digital form and make it a matrix , finally the last stage .It is the process of restructuring elements (Re-forming elements) by using the probabilities of the matrix to produce new patterns which has structural properties similar to the original elements.
... This tool can enhance the interaction and shared understanding among team members and can assist in the efficient coordination of design activities [3]. The information contained in the patterns can provide critical guidance to urban designers into how to make appropriate decisions about the design task at different levels of scale and detail [23,24]. ...
Urban design is a complex problem-solving activity that commonly requires the aid of a variety of methods to support the process and enhance the quality of the outcomes. How to help designers with adequate methods to deal with ill-defined urban problems constitutes a major challenge in the urban design domain. In this regard, the use of urban design patterns is considered as a method that can contribute to urban design problem-solving. However, this tool was never investigated to understand its role in the task-related activities that take place during the design process by designers working in team, and its effect on the creativity of the final design outcome as perceived by urban designers and students. Therefore, an empirical research based on a controlled experiment was carried out to explore the aid provided by design patterns during the conceptual stages of the process. The study contributed to gain a better insight into the main design activities derived from the use of patterns as problem-solving tools, and to unveil their contribution to urban design. Implications for design practice and design education are discussed.
... Advocates of fractal architecture (Bovill, 1995;Joye, 2007;Salingaros, 1999;Salingaros, 2002;Salingaros, 2006;Salingaros & West, 1999) are often inspired by the work of the architect Christopher Alexander who was a critic of conventional architecture and its lack of reflection of human aspirations and needs (Alexander, 1975). Yet, although fractals appear in the patterns generated by the skylines (Stamps, 2002) and boundaries (Batty & Longley, 1994) of cities, fractal buildings remain conspicuously absent. ...
Many environmentalists are focused on “saving” nature, but if people do not interact with nature, these efforts will not be enough. Thus, this article focuses on characterizing human-nature interaction based on the idea of interaction patterns: characterizations specified concretely so as to establish a meaningful category while abstractly to allow for endlessly unique instantiations. Over 60 interaction patterns are discussed to illustrate the idea of interaction patterns, keystone interaction patterns, and a Nature Language. Finally, we propose a new design approach, Interaction Pattern Design, and show how it extends biophilic design, and can be used to deepen a vision and the practice of environmental sustainability: from that of surviving to thriving through experiencing the fullness of life.
... Pattern representations also provide explanations about how they relate to other patterns, and offer solution examples through photographs, diagrams, and text information. The principles represented by the patterns can advice designers how to take appropriate decisions at different levels of scale and detail (Salingaros 1999;2000a). ...
We explore the use of scenarios and design patterns by a team of designers, and analyze their contribution in the early phases of the urban design process. The results show that design patterns aided in defining problems and analyzing idea solutions, mainly from a technical and functional perspective. Scenarios, on the other hand, were helpful to generate new ideas, and to enhance design creativity. Both methods were found to influence the type of design activities developed. Independently of the design approach considered, working in team showed to be central to enrich and enhance many aspects of the urban design activity.
... The largest scale establishes relations between distant elements in a manner that renders their arrangement ordered (rather than random). The relationship between these two scales contributes to the positive perception of a building's architecture (Mehrabian, 1976;Salingaros, 2000). Finally, the overall harmony links all the intermediate scales together through techniques that employ symmetries common in traditional design and architectures. ...
In 1944, the celebrated physicist, Erwin Schrodinger, famously asked, "What is Life?" Neither Schrodinger nor generations of illustrious scientists after him have been able to satisfactorily answer this question. What is generally agreed upon, however, is that being alive is about being complex: forming, transforming, and maintaining a structural organization that consists of multiple constituents arranged in specific orders and patterns. The advances in the theory of complexity have come not just from biologists, but also from architects and urban theorists. In this essay, I discuss how theorists from both life and architectonic sciences have come to a similar conclusion: that patterned and organized form ensures proper function and, ultimately, life. I show how deviation from this principle in biology leads to cancer and death; in architecture, the deviation allows the takeover of mechanical and imagery-based building ideologies leading to dysfunctional and 'lifeless' building and public spaces. © 2014 Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research.
... Consequently, the fractal geometry helps to create mixed, dynamic and personalized façades, Salingaros [11] In order to come up with a coherent façade, the hierarchical subdivision of the architectural scales must be clearly defined, and the small units should be coordinated with the large ones. Basing on empirical researches of Christopher Alexander, Salingaros [12] proposes a specific ratio for the consecutive scales in the hierarchy, given approximately by the constant e ≈ 2.7. This constant constitutes the base of natural logarithms and arises in the most successful and psychologically comfortable buildings. ...
Buildings must be able to adapt and adjust to change in order to achieve a sustainable architecture, reduce waste and keep harmony with nature. Adaptability advocates the design and organization of the built environment according to different scales and levels (layering). With this in mind, the fractal theory seems to be an interesting approach to explore architectural adaptability. It allows us to conceptualize spatial organization as a multi-scale pattern. Fractals are everywhere in natural forms. They facilitate the creation of coherent, organic and complex structures which fit harmoniously in the natural environment and interact with it. Fractals emerge in evolution due to the natural need for efficiency and optimization. Fractals are used in different fields including architecture and urbanism. Nevertheless, the most of the publications deal with urban planning (city or neighborhood levels) or with aesthetic (detail level) but little about spatial and functional configuration of the building (architectural level). Our research focuses on the latter; it aims to highlight contributions of fractals to adaptability and evolutionability of buildings by implementing fractal geometry as an architectural ordering of the built environment.
... This type of structure often occurs in natural landscape formations, such as mountains and valleys. Proponents of more organic, humanistic architecture have argued convincingly in favour of multi-scale architectural design (Alexander, 1979; Salingaros, 2000). ...
We present an investigation into the relation between design principles in Japanese gardens, and their associated perceptual effects. This leads to the realization that a set of design principles described in a Japanese gardening text by Shingen (1466), shows many parallels to the visual effects of perceptual grouping, studied by the Gestalt school of psychology. Guidelines for composition of rock clusters closely relate to perception of visual figure. Garden design elements are arranged into patterns that simplify figure-ground segmentation, while seemingly balancing the visual salience of subparts and the global arrangement. Visual 'ground' is analyzed via medial axis transformation (MAT), often associated with shape perception in humans. MAT analysis reveals implicit structure in the visual ground of a quintessential rock garden design. The MAT structure enables formal comparison of structure of figure and ground. They share some aesthetic qualities, with interesting differences. Both contain naturalistic asymmetric, self-similar, branching structures. While the branching pattern of the ground converges towards the viewer, that of the figure converges in the opposite direction.
... Research into complex systems has been stimulated in recent years by studies of chaos. One outcome of this research has been a greater interest in the study of complexity in its own right (Simon, 1996, p.181;Salingaros, 1997) including the study of complex systems that are ordered and not at all chaotic. It is proposed that CAD models, at least as we currently understand them, belong in the latter group, in both: a) design complexity, since order is normally an objective of design; and b) CAD complexity, since the CAD model is an embodiment of some form of order. ...
When educators or students estimate the complexity of proposed CAD projects, in order to judge feasibility, two conceptions of complexity may be considered. The first, design complexity, based on visible features of the object to be modelled, is the easier to assess beforehand, but is not very reliable. The second, CAD complexity, based on the actual CAD embodiment of the design, is suggested as potentially a more useful guide, in spite of evident difficulties with assessment in advance. Clearer articulation of this under utilised concept is proposed for both educational and more general reasons, and this becomes the focus of the paper.
... (1996, p. 183) Research into complex systems has been stimulated in recent years by studies of chaos. One outcome of this research has been a greater interest in the study of complexity in its own right (Simon 1996, p.181;Salingaros 2000), including the study of ordered complex systems. ...
The feasibility of a proposed CAD project is often judged in terms of two conceptions of complexity: design complexity, based on visible features of the object to be modeled; and CAD complexity, based on the actual CAD embodiment of the design. The latter is suggested as a more useful guide. Clearer articulation of this underutilized concept is proposed for use in both educational and industrial settings. A formal model of CAD complexity is introduced, and initial experiments to determine the complexity of CAD models are described.
... An objectively measurable structural quality of nature is the selfsimilarity observed across different size scales. This special quality of scale invariance can be identified and quantified by a parameter called the fractal dimension, D. Fractal geometry has been used successfully to describe many common natural patterns (Gouyet 1996; Mandelbrot 1983) and also man-made patterns in art (Frame and Mandelbrot 2002; Mandelbrot 1983), architecture (Bovill 1995; Goldberger 1996; Salingaros 2000 ), landscape design (Van Tonder et al 2002), and archaeology (Brown et al 2005). The powerful Investigations of human EEG response to viewing fractal patterns Abstract. ...
Owing to the prevalence of fractal patterns in natural scenery and their growing impact on cultures around the world, fractals constitute a common feature of our daily visual experiences, raising an important question: what responses do fractals induce in the observer? We monitored subjects' EEG while they were viewing fractals with different fractal dimensions, and the results show that significant effects could be found in the EEG even by employing relatively simple silhouette images. Patterns with a fractal dimension of 1.3 elicited the most interesting EEG, with the highest alpha in the frontal lobes but also the highest beta in the parietal area, pointing to a complicated interplay between different parts of the brain when experiencing this pattern.
Wiele współczesnych elementów technicznych (jak barierki, włączniki światła, kontakty, kamery wideo itp.) ma zupełnie inną estetykę niż historyczne wnętrza, do których są dodawane. Umieszczanie tego typu komponentów w historycznych budynkach stwarza pytanie o ich widoczność i siłę zaburzania wizualnej jedności pomieszczenia. Metodą logicznej argumentacji, z wykorzystaniem wiedzy z psychologii percepcji, dokonano analizy zjawiska z dyscypliny architektury — zjawiska postrzegania owych elementów. Za pomocą analizy logicznej wykazano, że tego typu dodatki nie zaburzają harmonii wnętrz, więc nie tracą one swojego historycznego charakteru. Pojawia się zatem wniosek, że ich obecność w polu widzenia nie jest radykalną ingerencją w zabytek.
Abstract— The concept of Scaling has received attention in many different fields, including the fields (fractional
geometry, biology, physics, shape, function, architecture). The Scaling is considered one of the shape characteristics
of the forms in nature and has a fixed hierarchical scaling coefficient (2.7). The previous knowledge pointed to its
importance because it is related to the degree of cohesion of the formations of these forms and the degree of human
perception of them. But, there is a need to study the scaling of the shape aspect of the architectural facades in general
and the facades of the Mosul architecture in particular.Thus, the research problem is defined as "there is a need to
determine the scaling within the shapes in architecture in general and in the facades of mosul architecture in
particular." The research have a basic hypothesis that states "The traditional architecture facades have number of
scaling more than modern architecture facades"and secondary hypothesis stating "The scaling of traditional Mosul
housing are more numerous and coherent and closer to nature than the scaling in modern housing." Thus, the
research used the quantitative approach consisting of three stages, the first stage is creating a theoretical framework
on the characteristic of the scaling within the shapes in architecture, and the second stage is determining the method
of measurement and method of data analysis, where 9 samples were selected for facades of housing in Mosul city
distributed within four Periods, each period include three samples.The third stage was to discuss the results and
determine the conclusions. The research found that the houses facades of traditional period focused on small scales
while the transitional period focused on the big scales. The modern and contemporary period was characterized by a
balance between those scales, as well as the houses of the transitional and modern period were characterized by the
small number of Scaling in its facades unlike the contemporary and traditional heritage period.
Keywords— Scaling, Shape dimension, Hierarchical scaling coefficient, ideal number of scale, Mosulian housing
Hierarchical Scaling is one of the Architectural Engineering principles. this principle is
determined by the apparent scales within the basic elements of architectural design and the nature of the
hierarchy in its dimensions. This principle was discussed in previous studies in terms of its relation to
nature, its types in different levels of architecture and city.The property of the hierarchical scale was
discussed in the previous knowledge in terms of its relation to nature, its types and its general bases at the
level of architecture and city. Therefore, the need to study this principle appeared at the level of house layout
through studying its space syntax in different time periods and its reflection on several aspects.Thus, the
research problem was determined by "the need to explore the levels of the hierarchical scale within the
space syntax of the houses especially Mosulian house, and its variation within different time periods."
The research adopted the quantitative approach consisting of three steps, after introducing general
knowledge base of the concept of the hierarchical scale and the studies that dealt with it in architecture, first:
building a theoretical framework on the vocabulary associated with measuring the spatial hierarchical scale
within the space syntax, second: conducting a practical study on an elected group of Mosulian houses within
four periods, (20 houses distributed through, traditional, traditional-heritage, transitional and
contemporary),third: analysis of results and identification of conclusions.The research found that the
Mosulian houses within (the traditional -heritage period) was distinguished by its having a deep spatial
hierarchical scale, unlike the Mosulian houses (with a transitional period) that entails many indicators at the
level of the social dimension in achieving social isolation.
Keywords— hierarchical scale, space syntax, Mosulian houses .
Hierarchical Scaling is one of the Architectural Engineering principles. this principle isdetermined by the apparent scales within the basic elements of architectural design and the nature of thehierarchy in its dimensions. This principle was discussed in previous studies in terms of its relation tonature, its types in different levels of architecture and city.The property of the hierarchical scale wasdiscussed in the previous knowledge in terms of its relation to nature, its types and its general bases at thelevel of architecture and city. Therefore, the need to study this principle appeared at the level of house layoutthrough studying its space syntax in different time periods and its reflection on several aspects.Thus, theresearch problem was determined by "the need to explore the levels of the hierarchical scale within thespace syntax of the houses especially Mosulian house, and its variation within different time periods."The research adopted the quantitative approach consisting of three steps, after introducing generalknowledge base of the concept of the hierarchical scale and the studies that dealt with it in architecture, first:building a theoretical framework on the vocabulary associated with measuring the spatial hierarchical scalewithin the space syntax, second: conducting a practical study on an elected group of Mosulian houses withinfour periods, (20 houses distributed through, traditional, traditional-heritage, transitional andcontemporary),third: analysis of results and identification of conclusions.The research found that theMosulian houses within (the traditional -heritage period) was distinguished by its having a deep spatialhierarchical scale, unlike the Mosulian houses (with a transitional period) that entails many indicators at thelevel of the social dimension in achieving social isolation.
This research presents an analytical tool to quantitatively assess and compare the aesthetic value of facades, by focusing on their formal order (O) and complexity (C). A total of fifteen facades of the colonial building heritage (19th–20th centuries) of Algiers old city center were aesthetically assessed and compared. The method uses Birkhoff’s aesthetic measure and calculates the aesthetic value for each facade. These values were ranked and compared using statistical analysis. The results lead to classify the evaluated facades into four sets according to the importance of their aesthetic values: very high, high, average and low. The results can serve to elaborate a guideline of design principles to help operating on this site. However, this research shows some limitations and suggests the need for further research into aesthetic preference. A valuation survey is necessary to improve this method and to test Birkhoff’s formula empirically.
A rock garden, also known as a rockery or an alpine garden, is a small field or plot of ground designed to feature and emphasize a variety of rocks, stones, and boulders. Gardeners who enjoy growing a wide variety of plants are the best advocates of rock gardens. This type of garden can contain a mixture of evergreens, deciduous shrubs, bulbs, perennials and annuals. Collectively, the design they create is a myriad of colour, form and texture. Rocks, purchased or on-hand should provide the basic framework of the design. The best arrangement will look as if nature had a hand in it’s creation. Observation of natural outcroppings along highways and hillsides can be copied on a miniature scale. We can group small rocks together to give the impression of larger masses worn away by time and weathering. Medium stones should be used in groups of two or three. Bury large boulders halfway in the ground for stability. Cohesiveness is best achieved by using only one kind of rock in the garden. Limestone and sandstone are the two types readily available in this area.
Aesthetics, in essence, is a mathematical phenomenon. The ancient Pythagoreans were not the only ones who explicitly held this opinion. Others described the enjoyment of art as the unconscious calculations of numerical proportions between time intervals or between spatial distances in the case of visual art or architecture. Philosophers and Art Critics have been widely debating about the nature of beauty and other aesthetic concepts for long times. Although the debates may offer important insights into the aesthetic questions and provide useful perspectives, they do not provide a tool for measuring Aesthetics. One often cannot confirm why an object is beautiful or not. Aesthetics is commonly approached as a qualitative issue. The architectural aesthetics assessment is suffering the diversity of different philosophical approaches concerning aesthetics and the vagueness of its related terminologies. Moreover, the subjective biases of the evaluator penetrate the credibility of architectural aesthetic assessment. The Quantitative Aesthetics is presented as a complementary realm for the existing qualitative aesthetic approaches for more refine architectural aesthetic assessment. The Across-Cultural aesthetics is the departure point in this research for an objectively based aesthetic assessment. The universal agreement on the beauty of some works of art and architecture emphasizes the existence of some universal laws that is innately manipulated in our cognitive machinery. Some theorists searched this objective beauty and formed different models to evaluate the objective aesthetics quantitatively. The research presents some of quantitative measures, applies, analyses, and criticizes their resultants. The researched quantitative measures are: Birkhoff's Edited Measure for Architectural Aesthetics, Salingaros Thermodynamic Measure, Levels of scale, and Scale Coherence Factor. The research hypothesizes the usefulness and the variability of these measures by applying them on different buildings covering diverse architectural aesthetic probabilities.
In recent years, trends have emerged focusing on exploration the architectural identity through the study of the domestic architecture properties, as a result appeared a large number of architectural studies that have targeted the crystallize the privacy of every society. The most striking feature in the Kurdistan architecture are the buildings that express cultural identity of the Kurdish community, also they are basis upon which the architectural identity, which represented the cultural identity to the Kurdish community, in various fields (social, cultural, political, historical, humanitarian, immigration and defensive tactics and Immunization). All of these elements and others represented the cultural identity of the Kurdish society and reflected directly on the architectural identity of the community, the pattern of local architecture in Kurdistan region is real reflection of the nature of the society. Culture and level of economic and social status, therefore architecture formed an original part of the cultural identity as a responsive basic need of society and the nature of the living conditions. The lack of attention to local architectural character of the mountains regions, led to the appear buildings do not belong to the identity of the local architecture, and due to the lack of research for local architecture Characteristics, it will study the architectural style (the principles form of traditional face) in ancient amadiyah city buildings, and the design characteristics of its buildings, so that architects benefit from it in modern buildings design.
Keyword: SPATIAL CONFEGURATION, PRINCIPLE FORMLOCALE ARCHITECTURE, QUBAHAN SCHOOL.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the adhesion of polymer materials printed directly onto fabrics using entry-level fused deposition modelling (FDM) machines. A series of functional and decorative parts were designed to explore the limitations and to identify potential applications.
Design/methodology/approach
– A series of shapes and structures were designed as 3D computer-aided design (CAD) solids to determine whether complex parts could be printed directly onto the surface of fabrics. The structures were fabricated using an entry-level FDM printer with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polylactic acid (PLA) and nylon on eight different types of synthetic and man-made woven and knit fabrics. The results were recorded according to four parameters – the warp, bond, print quality and flex – before comparing the data sets.
Findings
– Among the three polymers, PLA showed the best results when printed on the eight different types of fabrics, having extremely good adhesion with little warp, yet displaying a high quality of print with good flexural strength. For the fabrics, woven cotton, woven polywool and knit soy had excellent adhesion when the three polymers were deposited.
Research limitations/implications
– Future work should cover a wider range of polymers and textiles and incorporate more functional features for testing. Other aspects include modifying the fibre surface through mechanical or chemical means to achieve a more efficient adhesion with the fibre and examining the deposition process in terms of temperature, pressure and build density. Future work should also investigate the feasibility for large-scale production.
Practical implications
– This paper supports work on wearable electronics by integrating comfortable textiles with hard wearing parts without compromising on quality and fit and combining additive manufacturing processes with textiles to maintain the drape characteristics of the fabric. Polymer–textile deposition will contribute to new applications and functional products such as orthopaedic braces for medical use or for decorative features such as buttons and trimmings for garments.
Originality/value
– This paper has contributed to new knowledge by providing a better understanding of polymer materials being printed directly onto fabrics using entry-level FDM machines.
The authors explore the significance of the quantitative aesthetic assessment of architectural
forms based on the objective and intrinsic qualities of the architectural structures from an
outsider point of view aiming to put evaluators on a common ground and a solid return point in
discussing architectural aesthetic issues. The research examines the suitability and credibility of
the reconfiguration of Birkhoffʼs aesthetic measure (The Aesthetic Measure (M) = Order (O) /
Complexity(C)) as an analytic and critique tool for the assessment of architectural aesthetics.
The research applies the formula for evaluating formal architectural aesthetics by practicing
some adjustments to the definitions of its parameters; Order and Complexity. The output of this
measure is an index of how much the building carries natural beauty/architectural life through
terms of Order and Complexity. The new formula is examined by applying it on different
buildings and the result is compared to a preference test applied on selected categories of
evaluators of different backgrounds.
Birkhoffʼs edited Measure showed positive credibility in comparing different buildings
aesthetically. The values resulted from this measure represented the relationship between
Order and Complexity in buildings by the Aesthetic Measure (M). Comparing the measure
scores to the preference test also showed close agreement between the results. Further
research is needed to corroborate the efficiency of Birkhoffʼs edited Measure of Architectural
Aesthetic Assessment.
The author reviews visual perception studies showing that fractal patterns possess an aesthetic quality based on their visual complexity. Specifically, people display an aesthetic preference for patterns with mid-range fractal dimensions, irrespective of the method used to generate them. The author builds upon these studies by presenting preliminary research indicating that mid-range fractals also affect the observer's physiological condition. The potential for incorporating these fractals into art and architecture as a novel approach to reducing stress is also discussed.
Pattern languages help us tackle the complexity of a variety of systems ranging from computer software, to buildings and cities. Each ‘pattern’ represents a rule governing one working piece of a complex system, and the application of pattern languages can be done systematically. Design that wishes to connect to human beings needs the information contained in a pattern language. This paper describes how to validate existing pattern languages, how to develop them, and how they evolve. The connective geometry of urban interfaces is derived from the architectural patterns of Christopher Alexander.
Residential development within heritage conservation areas is regulated by Development Control Plans (DCP) that provide guidelines about the shape and form that new houses, alterations and additions should take (DIPNR 2004). By understanding that the visual amenity of streets within a city plays an important role in creating a sense of place and community for its citizens (Lynch 1960) they attempt to sustain, through regulation, an urban pattern that has become valued by the community. The visual character of a building within a streetscape is often associated with the style of its construction -a set of visual characteristics that a group of buildings might share. These characteristics include the relationship of the parts of the building to each other, and to the building as a whole, the use of ornament and visible textures, and the scale of elements within the composition. Using algorithms developed within robotic research that enable a computer to interpret a visual environment (similar to those used in medicine and facial recognition for instance), this paper outlines how algorithms can be used to study the visual properties of the built environment. One of the methodological qualities of computer visualisation that makes it so useful for a comparative visual analysis of buildings is that the representational and symbolic meanings of a buildings style play no part. The organisation of the elements can be analysed without having to interpret their possible meaning at the beginning of the process. This paper builds on an established interdisciplinary approach, utilising architectural knowledge and computer visualisation to evaluate the visual character of detached housing within a heritage conservation area. The visual environment is analysed using computer software developed to locate the visual boundaries within a view of a streetscape both as an elevation and aerial view.
The research is focused on traditional timber frame structures (TFS) situated in rural areas. Often neglected, remaining examples
embody our build Heritage. However, architects have few tools to manage a conservation project in respect to the structural
authenticity of these constructions. Therefore, providing a complementary tool able to automatically recognize and reconstruct
traditional rural timber walling which have been structurally transformed is the major function of our research. The tool
should automate as much as possible the procedure in two steps. Firstly, record the available examples of gables and identify
their typologies. Secondly, formulate transformations hypothesis of a given wooden structure through time. The recording procedure
is made by analyzing pictures with image processing in order to extract the wooden structures from colored pictures. The typology
recognition is based on a statistical approach where’ as structural approach will help to achieve reconstruction hypothesis.
Structure recording and typology recognition will be presented in this paper.
KeywordsTimber framed structures-Conservation-Image processing-Features extraction-Reconstruction
Chaos theory and related things are described by way of differences between traditional (linear) science and non-traditional (nonlinear) science. Differences described between linear and nonlinear models of science respectively include the following: quantitative vs qualitative, analytic vs non-analytic, predictability vs unpredictability, fundamental scaling vs scaling relations, and superposition vs emergence. Common themes in non- traditional science are the existence of nonlinearity, scaling relations, and unpredictability. Data are provided that show that many social and psychological phenomena can be understood only through nonlinear modeling. It is concluded that as the old and new views of science coalesce, the newer mathematical tools will help make understandable the irregular and erratic features of everyday life.
Just walking through the vast main concourse of Grand Central Terminal in New York . . . almost always triggers in me a spontaneous and quiet change in perception. . . . The change—one that is reasonably well known to all of us . . . — lets me gently refocus my attention and allows a more general awareness of a great many things at once: sights, sounds, smells and sensations of touch and balance as well as thoughts and feelings. When this general kind of awareness occurs, I feel relaxed and alert at the same time. (Hiss, 1987, p. 45)
Inspired by thermodynamics, a simple model uses ideas of Christopher Alexander to estimate certain intrinsic qualities of a building. (1) The architectural temperature T is defined as the degree of detail, curvature, and color in architectural forms; and (2) the architectural harmony H measures their degree of coherence and internal symmetry. This model predicts a building's emotional impact. The impression of how much life a building has is measured by the quantity ℒ = TH, and the perceived complexity of a design is measured by the quantity C = 1(10 - H), where 10 - H corresponds to an architectural entropy. With the help of this model, new structures can be designed that have a dramatically increased feeling of life, yet do not copy existing buildings.
Presents a mathematical rule which helps to achieve visual coherence by linking the small scale to the large scale. This work develops the results of C. Alexander (1998), derived from theoretical physics and biology. A scaling hierarchy is proposed based on natural objects having scale differentiations of factors about 2.7 from the largest down to the very small. Buildings satisfying this rule are subconsciously perceived as sharing essential qualities with natural and biological forms. As a consequence, they appear more comfortable psychologically. Scaling coherence is a feature of traditional and vernacular architectures, but is largely absent from contemporary architecture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three laws of architectural order are obtained by analogy from basic physical principles. They apply to both natural and man-made structures. These laws may be used to create buildings that match the emotional comfort and beauty of the world's great historical buildings. The laws are consistent with Classical, Byzantine, Gothic, Islamic, Eastern, and Art Nouveau architectures; but not with the modernist architectural forms of the past 70 years. It seems that modernist 20th century architecture intentionally contradicts all other architectures in actually preventing structural order. Key words: structural order, architecture, design rules 1. INTRODUCTION Architecture is an expression and application of geometrical order. One would expect the subject to be described by mathematics and physics, but it isn't. There is no accepted formulation of how order is achieved in architecture. Considering that architecture affects mankind through the built environment more directly than any other ...