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Procedures and equations for sizing of structures and windrows for composting animal mortalities
Abstract
Dead animal composting as a disposal method on U.S. farms began with poultry in the 1980s and later was adapted to swine. Most recently it has been adopted for other livestock (cattle, sheep), exotic animals, and road kill. In the past, specific recommendations were adopted for composting each species and failed to recognize the similarities for composting different species. This article describes the current procedures in composting animal mortalities and presents equations for animal decomposition times and sizing of the composting system. Results presented were supported by research on poultry (2 kg), calves (40 kg), and swine (210 kg) and suggest times for animal decomposition can be calculated as a simple function of body weight. Sizing of the composting structure or windrow was based on creating a biofilter envelope around the animal and is applicable for any species from 2 to 650 kg. These results, based on the biofilter concept for dead animal composting, were compared with current recommendations for poultry and swine.
... In a normal windrow pile the compost additives are thoroughly mixed to ensure even and proper distribution of raw materials. A pile dedicated to carcass composting consists of a large bulk of the general compost mix, the carcass (which has a low C:N ratio, low porosity, and high moisture content), and recalcitrant carbon amendment (which has a high C:N, high porosity, and low moisture content) (Keener et al., 2000). The general method consists of a large layer of general mix compost on the bottom. ...
... Sufficient supplemental carbon is required around the carcass to absorb bodily fluids and to prevent odors from escaping from the pile (Keener and Ellwell, 2006). Finally, more general mix compost is added, at a minimum of 60 cm thick on all sides, to cover the entire pile (Bonhotal et al., 2002) Despite the aerobic nature of the windrow compost pile, the initial decomposition of the carcass is anaerobic (Keener et al., 2000;Keener and Ellwell, 2006). This is due to the high moisture content of the carcass itself, especially over the course of the first few days of breakdown. ...
... Within the aerobic zone, microorganisms degrade the organic materials and from the decomposing carcass into CO 2 , water vapor, and other macromolecules. The pile is not turned until the anaerobic decomposition of the carcass has been completed (Keener et al., 2000;Keener and Ellwell, 2006). ...
In a large agricultural operation, such as the one at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, disposal of deceased animals is an immense issue. The cost of transporting and rendering every dead animal is inhibitory to the general function of the agricultural operations and their thin budget. Therefore, we propose that composting mortalities could be an economical alternative. Composting is a recognized method for taking animal waste products along with carbon waste and turning it into a pathogen-free, nutrient-rich topsoil. Carcass composting is in fact performed in other countries and states to varying degrees of success. However, the California EPA limits carcass composing to only private land. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to determine the efficacy of killing pathogens by composting using bench top composting models. Ultimately, our goal is to provide “proof of concept” data in order to gain permission for a full-scale carcass compost pile to be set up at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo. Using thermo tolerant Salmonella senftenberg as an indicator organism, we performed bench top trials of traditional and carcass compost in the lab. Samples were inoculated with S. senftenberg and kept at 55°C for 15 days in accordance with the California EPA and Test Method for the Examination of Composting and Compost (TMECC). Samples were then plated and processed for multiple tube analysis and most probable number. Samples were also partitioned for a viability qPCR with propidium monoazide (PMA) to compare to the classic techniques. Using these methods we were then able to track and produce thermal death time data for S. senftenberg in both traditional and carcass compost. By comparing the types of compost, we were able to determine that the composting method presented by the California EPA and the TMECC produces safe, pathogen free compost, even when inoculated carcasses were introduced. However, even with removal of dead cells by PMA, qPCR did not outperform the classical microbiological methods for as tracking pathogen killing.
... Mortality composting systems are very different from conventional systems as they are an inconsistent mixture of high nitrogen content materials (carcasses) enveloped by high carbon content materials (wood by-products or crop residues) (Keener et al., 2000). ...
... The composting process is divided by many researchers (Rynk et al., 1992;Haug, 1993;Epstein, 1997;Keener, 2000) into 2 phases: heating and curing. During the heating phase, microorganisms break down organic matter at a very rapid pace, consuming large amounts of O 2 and generating enough heat to achieve thermophilic (40 to 71 o C) temperatures within the pile (Kalbasi, 2005). ...
... Bin composting is typically done in a building or structure with concrete flooring, where compost piles are constructed and contained within 3 sidewalls typically made from treated lumber or concrete, with a roof overhead to protect the piles from precipitation (Keener et al., 2000;Kalbasi et al., 2005). Bin composting structures can be built specifically for the purpose of mortality disposal or existing structures can be retrofitted. ...
A 12-week laboratory study was conducted to assess the minimum initial moisture content of compost bulking (envelope) materials necessary to sustain desired heat production and completion of carcass decomposition during emergency composting of swine carcasses. During full-scale field testing of a semi-enclosed emergency composting procedure, first developed and used by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency during an avian influenza outbreak in 2004, the ability of potential emergency compost envelope materials were evaluated on their ability to achieve elevated temperatures (>55 oC) necessary to inactivate pathogens and successfully decompose carcasses under a variety of initial moisture conditions, during cool and warm season trials. Two-way ANOVA modeling of results showed that envelope material type and envelope material initial moisture content had a significant effect on internal temperature production, with silage (52.5 oC) having the highest predicted internal temperature production. Counter to these findings, envelope material and initial moisture did not have a significant effect on carcass decomposition, and silage (72%) had the lowest predicted carcass decomposition. To corroborate and better understand these unexpected field test results, laboratory tests were carried out using the same envelope materials, under conditions of identical external temperature and a range of initial moisture contents. Results from the laboratory test showed that, when pre-moistened adequately, total oxygen uptake (and heat production potential) in ground cornstalks and similar materials were significantly higher (48 and 51 mg O2 respectively) than for moist silage (11 mg O2). Heat production potential increased significantly when initial moisture was increased from 15 to 35%, and no significant increase was noted when initial moisture content was raised to 60%. Animal tissue decomposition rankings observed in the lab agreed with those from field trials. Decomposition of tissue samples within cornstalks and oat straw exceeded 66% during the 10-day lab study, while decomposition in silage averaged only 54%. Animal tissue decomposition at initial moisture of only 25% was significantly improved over that observed at 15%, and no significant improvement in decomposition was noted when initial moisture was increased to 60%. These results are encouraging as they suggest modest increases in envelope material initial moisture can significantly improve mortality composting system performance. This is particularly important during emergency situations, as moisture addition can be a time consuming process and its practicality during emergency disposal operations will depend on the level of initial moisture necessary to achieve desired results.
... Carcass composting typically is done in one of three primary facility types: a bin, a static windrow or a minicomposter (Keener et al., 2000). Each of these options is described briefly in the following sections. ...
... For small-and medium-sized carcasses (for example, poultry, pigs, sheep) the active composting period (phase I) may be up to three months before the pile is turned (Keener et al., 2000). However, for a large carcass (mature beef and dairy cattle, horses or other large animals), the active composting phase may be up to six months (Auvermann, 2006). ...
... Minicomposters are used for small-carcass (for example, poultry) composting and are not suitable to handle large volumes of animal mortalities. For a northern climate, additional insulation might be required to reach desired temperatures for pathogen destruction and effective degradation (Keener et al., 2000). Also, higher capital investment is required. ...
Animal mortality losses are a normal part of livestock and poultry production facilities. Producers may have losses due to disease, accidents, inter-animal competition or natural disasters such as flooding. They need to think about mortality manage-ment before a death occurs to avoid having problems after the fact. The producer is responsible for disposing of these mortalities within 48 hours in an environ-mentally acceptable manner. Safe disposal of carcasses is an important issue for day-to-day, routine management of livestock and poultry mortalities to prevent disease transmission and to protect air and water quality. Therefore, carcass disposal remains one of the major problems facing livestock and poultry producers. Owners and operators of animal feeding operations (AFOs) have several options for disposing mortalities, including rendering, incineration, burial and composting. Each option has a set of advantages and disadvantages that must be considered during planning for and prior to mortality disposal. Producers must take special precautions with the disposal of diseased animals because states may have stricter and different mortality handling and disposal requirements pertaining to certain infectious diseases. The following is a brief discussion of each disposal option. Contacting your local regulatory agency to determine what regulatory requirements may need to be met before adopting any of the following options also is helpful. Rendering Rendering is the process of converting animal carcasses into pathogen-free, useful by-products such a feed protein. In the process of rendering, the carcasses are exposed to high temperatures (about 130 degrees Celsius or 265 degrees Fahrenheit) using pressurized steam to ensure destruction of most pathogens. However, rendering poses biosecurity concerns due to transportation of livestock mortalities to multiple locations en route to the rendering plant (Fonstad et al., 2003). The rendering market has changed in recent years as the price of meat and bone meal has decreased and the use of many rendered byproducts has been eliminated due to concerns related to transmissible bovine spongiform encephalopathies (BSE or mad cow disease). Since 2005, cattle infection with the BSE disease has had a highly negative impact on the industry.
... Composting is regularly regarded as an environmentally acceptable method for organic waste disposal that protects surface and ground water and reduces pathogens as well as provides valuable nutrients to the farm (Kalbasi et al. 2005;Standford et al. 2000). Compost from the mortality of livestock is produced through burial of carcasses in a biofilter (Keener, Elwell, and Monnin 2000) in which microbial activities decompose the carcass tissues and generate heat, which can lead to high temperatures that kill targeted pathogenic microorganisms. Past studies have shown that a mortality composting system that uses inexpensive materials can be a relatively safe and cheap way to dispose of carcasses. ...
... Looper, Fitzgerald, and Rogers (2002) investigated the effects of aeration, moisture content, and C/N ratio on composting of animal carcasses and found that a C/N ratio of 25 to 30 reduced not only the time of decomposition but also the cost of treatment. Keener, Elwell, and Monnin (2000) recommended for the bulking material range of C/N ratios of 25 to 40, a moisture content of 50%, and a porosity of 35 to 45% for livestock mortality composting. Genaille, Chen, and Doan (2005) monitored cow carcass composting according to the type of compost-bulking materials (CBMs), and sawdust, when compared with sunflower hulls, straw, and woodchips, was the best CBM for mortality composting. ...
... Numerous researchers have documented that a properly constructed mortality composting pile (Keener, Elwell, and Monnin 2000) produces minimal offensive odors. Glanville et al. (2006) found only a limited odor after the first turning and no objectionable odors at the subsequent turnings during large animal mortality composting with the windrow method. ...
The treatment of livestock fatalities caused by epidemic diseases must be timely. Simultaneously, the contaminated excreta and bedding materials must also be treated on site without removal. The composting of manure with bulking materials is widely used on the farm, and the temperature during the composting reaches over 60°C under appropriate conditions of moisture and oxygen, with a suitable carbon to nitrogen ratio. These characteristics of composting can be applied to the degradation of dead livestock. Hence, this study was conducted to evaluate the degradability of mortalities during composting with bulking material comprised of swine manure and sawdust. The laboratory and field studies were conducted using mimic swine mortalities (MSM) and real swine mortalities, respectively. The sawdust to swine manure ratios of 20:80, 40:60, 70:30, and 100:0 were treatments identified as T1, T2, T3, and T4. In the laboratory study, high degradation of the mortalities (>85%) occurred in all treatments, except the T1 treatment. The T2 treatment obtained high degradation at a desirable level. In the field study, the degradation of the soft tissues of the mortalities in the T2 and T1 treatments reached 99.7 and 84.5%, respectively. The final C/N ratio of treatment T2 (17.5) was higher than treatment T1 (16.8). The addition of swine manure helped to develop relatively rapid temperature homogeneity between the mortality and the bulking materials, and the sawdust to swine manure ratio of 40:60 proved best for swine carcass degradation.
... Composting biomass components is a nonsteadystate process. Many researchers (Murphy and Carr 1991;Rynk 1992;Haug 1993;Diaz et al. 1993;Manser & Keeling 1996;Morris et al. 2002;Reinikainen and Herranen 1999;Keener et al. 2001;Harper et al. 2002;and Langston et al. 2002) have divided the composting process into two major phases. The first phase, the developing or heating phase, is characterized by high oxygen consumption, thermophilic temperatures (> 55°C or 131°F), rapid reductions in biodegradable volatile solids (BVS), and odor potential. ...
... The composting time depends on the size and weight of carcasses, temperature profile, material formulation, preparation processes, aeration and management decision (e.g., monitoring of pile conditions, turning and moving piles that have transitioned from the primary to secondary phase, and moving to storage/curing areas). Keener et al. (2001) classified carcasses into four different weight groups, small, or less than 23 kg (50 lb) with an average of 10 kg (22 lb), such as turkey; medium, or 23 to 114 kg with an average of 70 kg (50-250 lb, with an average of 154 lb), such as swine; large, or 114 to 227 kg with an average of 170 kg (250-500 lb, with an average of 374 lb), such as a calf; and very large and heavy carcasses, those exceeding 227 kg (500 lb), such as mature bovines and horses. ...
... The air-filled porosity affects availability of oxygen, temperature, microbial activity, composting time, and bulk and packed densities. This porosity should be around 35% to facilitate the air penetration inside the pile and maintain optimum microbial growth (Keener et al. 2001, Harper et al., 2002, and Looper 2002. In a composting process, aeration and degradability can be improved by reducing the particle size while increasing the surface area, as long as porosity remains above 30% (Rynk, 1992). ...
For the last two decades, carcass disposal by burial is being replaced with alternatives such as composting. Improper animal mortality disposal may generate various environmental and health hazards such as odor nuisance (resulting from the anaerobic breakdown of proteins) that can reduce the quality of life and decrease property values. Pathogens, which may still be present in the decomposed material, are capable of spreading diseases in soil, plants, animals and humans. The potential leaching of harmful nitrogen and sulfur compounds from animal mortalities to ground water is another concern. To control these side effects, compost facility operators need to know and understand the science, and guidelines of the carcass composting. While basic principles of carcass composting are similar to those for composting of organic materials, its management issues including appropriate composting methods for large or small scale carcass composting, quantities and types of carbon sources, composting time, odor and leachate control, and equipment requirements differ from composting of organics.
The purpose of this study is to review the previous works related to carcass composting and provide information on recent advances in small and large scale carcass composting enabling higher decomposition rates, minimum usage of carbon source materials, easier and shorter management control strategies and reduced land requirement while producing a useful end product without negative impact on public safety and environmental parameters.
... Conversely, the length of time the compost remained at peak temperature was more influenced by heating cycle than ambient temperature, increasing by 115% on average (P < 0.05) after each turn of the compost. Turning temporarily aerates compost (Keener et al. 2000;Mukhtar et al. 2003) and increases compost homogeneity (Keener et al. 2000;Stanford et al. 2000), factors which likely increased the time compost remained at maximum temperature. Although rate of compost temperature decline was higher (P < 0.05) for JAN than FEB, it is unlikely that a, b, c ,d Means in a column with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05); SEM, standard error of the mean. ...
... Conversely, the length of time the compost remained at peak temperature was more influenced by heating cycle than ambient temperature, increasing by 115% on average (P < 0.05) after each turn of the compost. Turning temporarily aerates compost (Keener et al. 2000;Mukhtar et al. 2003) and increases compost homogeneity (Keener et al. 2000;Stanford et al. 2000), factors which likely increased the time compost remained at maximum temperature. Although rate of compost temperature decline was higher (P < 0.05) for JAN than FEB, it is unlikely that a, b, c ,d Means in a column with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05); SEM, standard error of the mean. ...
... Ultimately, differences in nutrient analyses of compost amendments, weight of cattle carcasses (which could vary by a factor of 3 within a single windrow) and ambient temperature, did not alter the overall effectiveness of composting of JAN relative to FEB. Considering carcasses, manure and C-containing amendments, wide ranges in initial C/N ratios from 25:1 (Kalabasi et al. 2005) to 49:1 (Mukhtar et al. 2003) and DM contents 40-60% (Keener et al. 2000;Fonstad et al. 2003;Kalbasi et al. 2005) have been reported as acceptable matrices for efficient mortality composting. As fluctuations in water content, nutrient analyses and availability would be the norm for compost amendments, our results support the contention that composting may be a viable option for mortality disposal over a wide-range of onfarm conditions. ...
After imposition of fees for disposal of cattle carcasses by the rendering industry, on-farm methods of
mortality disposal are being investigated. Three open-air mortality compost windrows were constructed
in January (JAN) and February (FEB) of 2004 in the cold, semiarid climate of southern Alberta,
Canada. Windrow A included a base of barley straw a minimum of 46 cm thick, a layer of cattle
mortalities (n=12) and a layer of stockpiled manure (minimum of 46 cm) covering the mortalities.
Windrows B and C also had a bottom layer of barley straw, with windrow B containing 9 mortalities
in 2 layers and windrow C containing 12 mortalities in 3 layers. Due to ambient temperatures < 0oC,
carcasses (range 236 to 673 kg) were frozen at the time of windrow construction. Type ‘T’ thermocouples
were embedded at the base of B and C windrows and temperatures within 120 cm of the surface
were measured using a stainless steel dial probe. Windrows were turned 3 times at 3 mo intervals.
Samples were collected from initial compost amendments and prior to each turning for determination
of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), N, C and coliform bacteria. Ambient temperature was 13oC
higher (P < 0.05) for the initial heating of FEB as compared to JAN compost, although the rate of compost
temperature decline did not differ between replicates in this period. Days at maximum temperature
did not differ between replicates and maximum temperatures in all windrows exceeded 55oC.
After 3 heating periods and 9 mo, flesh was not evident and only fragments of bones (max wt. 740 g)
were found. Results of this study demonstrate that ambient temperatures < 0oC and frozen mortalities
provide no barrier to the use of open-air windrows for disposal of cattle mortalities. As well,
stacking up to 3 layers of full-sized cattle mortalities in a windrow did not affect temperature profiles,
residual flesh or bone, or analyses of the finished compost. Under the climatic conditions of southern
Alberta, layering mortalities would reduce space requirements for large-animal mortality composting
in a feedlot setting.
... Carcass composting typically is done in one of three primary facility types: a bin, a static windrow or a minicomposter (Keener et al., 2000). Each of these options is described briefly in the following sections. ...
... For small-and medium-sized carcasses (for example, poultry, pigs, sheep) the active composting period (phase I) may be up to three months before the pile is turned (Keener et al., 2000). However, for a large carcass (mature beef and dairy cattle, horses or other large animals), the active composting phase may be up to six months (Auvermann, 2006). ...
... Minicomposters are used for small-carcass (for example, poultry) composting and are not suitable to handle large volumes of animal mortalities. For a northern climate, additional insulation might be required to reach desired temperatures for pathogen destruction and effective degradation (Keener et al., 2000). Also, higher capital investment is required. ...
... Although composting does no disposal of dead birds, the process biologically transforms the dead birds into valuable manure. Composting reduces the volume of the organic waste and destroys pathogens if the process is controlled properly (Keener et al., 2000). Composting of dead birds, animals, slaughter house and hatchery wastes under temperate conditions have been reported (Murphy, 1988;McCaskey, 1994;Blake et al., 1996;Lawson and Keeling, 1999). ...
... High temperature above 55°C for three days killed parasites, faecal and plant pathogens within the pile and at temperature above 66°C, microbial activity declined rapidly with activity approaching low values as compost temperatures exceed 71°C (Keener et al., 2000). When temperature exceeds 62°C weed seeds were also destroyed (Looper, 2002). ...
... From this it could be inferred that the turning and addition of moisture helped to homogenize the compost mix and increased the microbial proliferation by the way of supplying oxygen. Extremely high temperature may retard the favourable microbial population, particularly when temperature increased above 66°C microbial activity declined rapidly due to thermal inactivation of favour- Table 1 Peak temperature, thermophilic temperature (above 55°C) and composting period while composting dead birds Treatment Peak temperature (°C) able bacteria and the same was very low when bin temperature exceeds 71°C (Keener et al., 2000). ...
Composting of dead birds with caged layer manure (CLM) and farm yard manure (FYM) was carried out to study the feasibility of composting as an alternative for disposal in Tamil Nadu State, India. The dead birds were sequentially layered with manure substrate and carbon source as per recipes formulated in mini-compost bins (4 · 4 · 4 feet). The temperature profile of both CLM and FYM group reached the peak by second week of composting and started declining steadily. The temperature profile was better during summer and monsoon and bins were able to maintain temperature above 60 °C (thermophilic) for 3-4 weeks. Season had no influence on attainment of peak temperature and it ranged between 51.8 and 70.4 °C. The persistency of thermophilic temperature (above 55 °C) was prolonged during summer (17.5-65 days) followed by monsoon (24-39 days) and winter (15.5-21.5 days). No putrefied or obnoxious odour or fly menace was observed during all the seasons of composting. The composting process took 107-127.5 days to finish during summer, 84.5-91 days in monsoon and 61.5-73.5 days in winter. The FYM was able to retain moisture higher (41-54% at the end of primary stage and 27.5-48.2% at the end of secondary stage) than CLM group (17.5-39.3% at primary stage and 20.4-33.5% in secondary stage). Weight reduction was more in FYM group (31.8-58.7%) than CLM group (19.3-48.6%). The volume reduction was uniform in all the seasons, it ranged between 39% and 59.3%.
... Similar to windrow composting, a bottom layer of carbonaceous material and the layering of carrion are recommended within bin systems. Upon completion of the initial heating cycle, composted carrion can be transferred to a secondary bin, with soft tissues typically being completely decomposed during the primary phase (Keener et al. 2000). According to NABC (2004), every kilogram of carrion waste needs approximately 300 cm 3 of combined bin capacity for optimal composting. ...
... According to NABC (2004), every kilogram of carrion waste needs approximately 300 cm 3 of combined bin capacity for optimal composting. Keener et al. (2000) developed models for calculating the optimal volume of compost bins for composting poultry carrion. ...
... Although forced aeration using fans or compressed air can provide sufficient oxygen to facilitate the complete degradation of organic matter in compost, natural convection has been shown to be more economical and suitable for carrion composting, especially when infectious pathogens are associated with the waste ). Keener et al. (2000) also recommended the transfer of compost from a primary to a secondary compost pile or bin to ensure adequate aeration and mixing of compost. Furthermore, the nature of the composting matrix mixed with carrion can affect the availability of oxygen for microbes involved in carrion decomposition. ...
... It takes place under aerobic, thermophilic natural biological decomposition process (Sivakumar, 2006). It is a natural process which is speeded by participation of organic waste through prescribed manner for optimum microbial growth (Keener et al., 2000). ...
... The rise and fall of microbial activities is directly related with the rise and fall of temperature (Tiquia and Tam, 2002). Microbial activity weakened rapidly when temperature reaches above 66°C and gradually reaches low values as temperature of compost reaches above 71°C (Keener et al., 2000). Most pathogenic bacteria and parasites are killed and most viruses are inactivated at the temperature of 55°C for 3 consecutive days (Berge et al., 2009). ...
An exploratory study was conducted to evaluate the physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of dead poultry and litter compost during different stages of composting in winter season. The present study was conducted under completely randomized design (CRD) by repeating the experimental trial for three times. For this purpose, three compost bins were loaded with organic waste comprising dead poultry and litter by following the internationally accepted standard method of bin filling. Sampling was done at the end of each phase to record the data for physicochemical, mineral and microbiological parameters. The data were analyzed by using ANOVA technique under CRD. The results indicated higher maximum temperature, maximum moisture, and crude protein in primary phase, average temperature in secondary phase, dry matter, ash, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium content in curing phase of composting. However, nitrogen content, C:N ratio and bacterial count were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced during curing phase of composting. It may be stated that composting technology is an environmentally safe method of dead birds’ disposal that can be used to convert organic waste into useful organic fertilizer. © 2017, Pakistan Agricultural Scientists Forum. All rights reserved.
... Initial decomposition is anaerobic in and around the carcass, however as the decomposition process continues, gases and liquids are released; they diffuse away from the area and are trapped in the aerobic zone of the surrounding material. Microorganisms within this zone ingest and degrade the gases into CO 2 and water vapor (Keener et al. 2000). The compost pile is not turned until anaerobic decomposition of the carcasses has been substantially completed. ...
... The estimated area that was to be used for composting was approximately 1000 m 2 . Deads compost pile construction was modeled after the method described by Keener et al. (2000). The initial deads compost pile (labeled "Deads I") was built by constructing a manure/straw mix base approximately 0.6 m thick with an area of 4 x 6 m to accommodate the producer's available equipment. ...
Pork producers in Saskatchewan are continuously looking for new developments that are both economic and environmentally sustainable. Composting is considered a potential option for dead animal management that may meet both requirements. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether or not composting is viable for dead animal disposal for hog producers in Saskatchewan. The mortalities were composted in a test compost pile consisting of a straw/manure mix that was provided by animal shelters of the operation. Deads were added to this mix at time increments of 10-14 days. An additional compost pile composed of straw/manure mix was constructed for comparison purposes. Temperature, oxygen, volume reduction, and moisture conditions were monitored to track microbial activity and to evaluate the overall progress and efficiency of the mortalities composting. Observations of the compost pile during pile turning revealed that the carcasses were broken down successfully. This was verified when the compost pile was screened resulting in a minimal amount of uncomposted materials.
... Since the release of heat is directly related to the microbial activity, temperature is a good process indicator. Many authors (Rynk 1992; Haug 1993; Keener et al. 2001; Reinikainen et al. 2001; Díaz et al. 2002 ) said that the composting con be divided on two different phases: The first one, the active or heating phase, with a great consume of oxygen (aeration needed), thermofilic temperatures, odour potential and rapid reductions in biodegradable solids. In this phase the temperatures of composting materials typically follow a pattern of a rapid increase to 45-60°C which is maintained for several weeks (Gonzalez et al. 2005). ...
... Adding coarse materials such as straw or woodchips can increase the overall porosity, although some coarse materials will be slow to decompose. Porosity must be around 35% to facilitate the air penetration inside the pile and to maintain optimum microbial growth (Keener et al. 2001). During the turning process, oxygen is introduced into the windrow but it normally is rapidly consumed by microorganisms often within a matter of hours. ...
A major issue facing modern society is waste management, and the best method to manage agricultural and animal wastes for agricultural use (soil conditioning and agricultural production) is by recycling through composting. From a scientific point of view, the composting process is started and managed under controlled environmental conditions rather than accepting the results of natural, uncontrolled decomposition. The design of successful composting systems requires an understanding of biological, physical and chemical processes such as carbon and nitrogen uptake and heat production and transfer. When managed properly, composting improves the handling characteristics of any organic residue by reducing its moisture content, volume and weight. The process increases the value of raw wastes by destroying pathogens and weed seeds and creating a media for the production and proliferation of beneficial organisms. The study of waste production and management lends itself to interdisciplinary study and farm composting provides an opportunity for real-world problem solving with cooperative learning groups. This work is organised in three parts. In the first one, we review developments on the composting as an animal wastes management strategy through the analysis of objectives and conditions for composting, facilities and alternatives, composting ingredients and qualities of compost. The second part, devoted to show the composting as a suitable method for carcasses disposal, contains the formulation and general principles of the method and the specific procedures, with their advantages and disadvantages. At the end, a new closed semi-continuous composter designed for the in-situ composting of animal mortalities, developed at the University of Valladolid, is presented, and the results of several tests carried out are discussed.
... The most important size or capacity parameters for the first two phases of mortality composting and storage of end products include the daily mortality rate, mean carcass weight, composting time (which determines total loading for the primary phase) and appropriate dimensions (Dougherty 1999;Keener et al. 2001, Morse 2001, Langston et al. 2002McGahan 2002;Tablante et al. 2002). ...
... Usually their water contents are higher than poultry carcasses, and conserving moisture is less critical. Keener et al. (2001) used trapezoidal windrow systems with a variety of dimensions. For example, medium and heavy carcasses need less top width (up to 30 cm or1ft) and more bottom width up to 390 cm (13 ft) and 450 cm (15 ft), respectively. ...
A successful carcass composting enterprise relies on proper design, layout, management, cost analysis, en- vironmental impacts, and quality of the finished product. A well-designed carcass composting process with adequate capacity and a practical layout facilitates an even flow of inputs and outputs. It will also prevent environmental insult (such as wastewater, odors and gases) from compost by-products and the finished product. A well designed system will be economical and will produce an end product that is free of most pathogens and serve as a soil amendment for agricultural activities.
... Although acceptable C:N ratios for mortality compost have been reported from 25:1 to 49:1 (Mukhtar et al. 2003;Kalbasi et al. 2005), construction of a mixture of liquid manure and straw-based compost with C:N ratios in this range was not possible as WC would have been much higher than recommended. Accordingly, the HI treatment was targeted at 65% WC as 40-60% WC has been reported as optimal for mortality composting (Keener et al. 2000;Fonstad et al. 2003;Kalbasi et al. 2005). Use of a more nitrogen-rich bulking agent such as hay (Barrington et al. 2002) would have reduced the initial C:N ratio, but would have at least doubled the cost of disposal relative to that using straw. ...
... These results were not expected as the moisture levels in the HI treatment (64% WC) were slightly above those recommended for efficient composting (Keener et al. 2000, Kalbasi et al. 2005) and the potential existed for regions in HI compost to have an even higher WC as application of liquid manure was not completely uniform. Inconsistent heating between bins of the same treatment was more evident for HI ( Figure 3) and MED (Figure 4) as compared to LO (Figure 5), possibly due to the increased difficulty of evenly distributing liquid manure at higher application rates. ...
During disease outbreaks, composting has been used to safely dispose of carcasses and infectious solid manure. However, optimized methods have not been established to use liquid manure (> 80% water content, WC) from dairies as the substrate for mortality composting. In April of 2007, a 3×2 factorial study was conducted in wooden compost bins (240 × 240 × 140 cm) lined with 0.5 mm plastic to a height of 50 cm. Three levels (LO, 95 kg; MED, 236 kg; HI, 606 kg wet wt.) of liquid manure (91% WC) were applied to barley straw containing a single calf mortality (avg. wt 130 kg). Compost temperature and carcass degradation were evaluated in each bin over 52 d. As an indication of compost efficiency, viability of 4 types of weed seeds (wild buckwheat, Polygonium convolvulus L, BW; dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, DL; stinkweed, Thlaspi arvense L., SW; and wild oat, Avena fatua, WO) was determined from seeds retained at the laboratory (Control) or from those placed in sealed nylon bags (50 μm pore size) embedded at 3 locations in each bin. Initial C: N ratios ranged from 58:1 (HI) to 68:1 (LO), while initial WC was 64, 52 and 42% for the HI, MED and LO treatments, respectively. Rate of compost heating and peak temperature (58.6 vs. 46.5°C) was increased (P < 0.05) for HI as compared to LO. Rate of temperature decline was lower (P < 0.05) and calf decomposition was visibly superior for HI as compared to LO. Viability of WO was eliminated by all compost treatments, but that of BW increased (P < 0.05) in MED and LO as compared to Control. Although HI did not eliminate BW viability, this treatment showed the the most promise for incorporating liquid manure as a substrate in contained mortality compost.
... As is common in real-world conditions, moisture content of the sawdust was lower and that of the manure matrix higher than the 0Á5-0Á6 kg kg À1 recommended for optimal degradation of tissues in mortality compost (Keener et al. 2000). Compost temperature tends to increases with increased activity of microflora before both plateau and decline at 70-72°C (Tiquia et al. 2002). ...
... Infiltration of species with similar morphology such as B. subtilis or B. licheniformis into nylon bags may have occurred and may have been influenced by compost matrix (Amner et al. 1991). Microbial biodegradation in compost has been shown to be optimal at water activities ≥0Á9 (Reuter et al. 2010), provided that moisture content of compost remains between 0Á5 to 0Á6 kg kg À1 (Keener et al. 2000). Consequently, increased microbial growth in manure as compared to sawdust compost may have decreased spore survival in manure, although it was not possible to distinguish between effects of water activity and microbial growth in this study. ...
AimsTo investigate impact of sporulation and compost temperatures on feasibility of composting for disposal of carcasses contaminated with Bacillus anthracis.Methods and ResultsTwo strains of B. cereus, 805 and 1391, were sporulated at either 20 or 37°C (ST) and 7 Log10 CFU g−1 spores added to autoclaved manure in nylon bags (pore size 50 μm) or in sealed vials. Vials and nylon bags were embedded into compost in either a sawdust or manure matrix each containing 16 bovine mortalities (average weight 617 + 33 kg), retrieved from compost at intervals over 217 days and survival of B. cereus spores assessed. A ST of 20°C decreased spore survival by 1.4 log10 CFU g−1 (P < 0.05) compared to a 37°C ST. Spore survival was strain dependent. Compost temperatures > 55°C reduced spore survival (P < 0.05) and more frequently occurred in the sawdust matrix.Conclusions
Sporulation and compost temperatures were key factors influencing survival of B. cereus spores in mortality compost.Significance and impact of studyComposting may be most appropriate for disposal of carcasses infected with B. anthracis at ambient temperatures < 20°C under thermophillic composting conditions (> 55°C).This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Composting of dead animals has been a disposal method on poultry farms in the United States since the 1980's and was later adapted to swine (Keener et al., 2000). Composting became legal in Canada in 1994 but the practice has not become common (Walker, 2001). ...
... Recently this method of disposal has been extended to include cattle and sheep (Keener et al., 2000). ...
... The air-filled porosity affects the availability of oxygen, temperature, microbial activity, composting time, bulk and packed densities. The porosity should be around 35% to facilitate the air penetration inside the pile and maintain optimum microbial growth (Keener et al., 2001;Harper et al., 2002;Looper, 2002). Looper (2002) indicated that the optimum particle size of composting material for proper aeration ranged from 3.1 to 12.7 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in). ...
... Water, as a medium, transports nutrients to beneficial microorganisms, facilitating production of required enzymes in the compost process. The required moisture content (wet basis by mass) for carcasses depends on the material characteristics, but typically range from 40-60% (Murphy and Carr, 1991;Keener et al., 2001;Franco, 2002). As previously noted, excess water (>60%) removes oxygen from the small pores of the compost pile and inhibits its aerobic activity. ...
Composting is the enhanced biological decomposition of organic materials in a primarily aerobic environment. During the process, microorganisms break down organic materials to stable, usable organic substances in a process which consumes oxygen and releases heat, water, and CO
2
. Under controlled conditions, the composting process is described in two phases, primary and secondary. Chemical and physical properties of the raw wastes affect the rate of composting. Particle size and surface area of the waste material influence the type of microorganisms involved and the degree of biological activity in the composting process. Composting allows safe disposal of birds and manure and reduces environmental degradation. Composting of poultry manure and dead birds is still a debatable topic, however, with some scientists in favour of composting due to its overwhelming advantages while others are against composting due to certain disadvantages/environmental hazards. The present article is an effort to encompass the overall composting process, its applications as well as troubleshooting various associated issues.
... However, the reality is that a pile in which a dead animal is composted is an inconsistent mixture. Therefore composting a dead animal must be approached in a slightly different way (Keener et al., 2000;NPPC, 1997). Figure 1 is a schematic showing the process followed for composting animal mortality. ...
... It may be on a farm or in a building at commercial level. Composting can use dead animals and biofilter the animals from pathogens in high temperature (Keener et al. 2000). Two types of composting systems are used (1) open and (2) close; organic compounds are decomposed either in open pile or rows or in a closed container or closed reactors (Jones 2000). ...
This book examines how biotechnology can improve livestock breeding and farming, and thereby also animal products. In the first chapters the reader will discover which techniques and approaches are currently used to improve animal breeding, animal health and the value of animal products. Particular attention is given to reproduction techniques, animal nutrition and livestock vaccines that not only enhance animal health but also have a significant effect on human health by ensuring safe food procurement and preventing zoonotic diseases. In addition, modern biotechnology can increase not only productivity but also the consistency and quality of animal food, fiber and medical products. In the second part of the book, issues such as how animal biotechnology could affect the environment and the important topic of animal waste management are explored. In the concluding chapter, the authors discuss future challenges related to animal biotechnology. This work will appeal to a wide readership, from scientists and professionals working in animal production, to those in farm animal management and veterinary science.
... Composting is the biological decomposition of animal tissues under controlled or managed conditions to a condition where storage, handling, and use as a soil amendment is achieved in a safe, aesthetically acceptable, and environmentally sound manner. Animal tissue composting may be effectively and economically done in several different systems (Fulhage, 1994;Keener et al., 2000;Murphy and Handwerker, 1988;Rozeboom et al., 1997;Stanford et al., 2007). ...
The objectives of this study were to determine the effectiveness of using animal tissue compost (ATC) as a substrate amendment for ornamental plant container production. The compost was produced using soiled sawdust bedding mixed with assorted animal tissues and actively composted for at least 6 months and cured for 6 to 10 months. Five substrate treatments that consisted of four different ratios of ATC and Canadian sphagnum peatmoss were formulated, all containing 20% medium grade horticultural perlite. Four species [geranium (Pelargonium x hortorum 'Maverick Red'), marigold (Tagetes erecta 'Inca II Yellow'), pansy (Viola x wittrockiana 'Delta Premium Yellow Blotch'), and petunia (Petunia x hybrida 'Prostrate Wave Purple Improved')] were evaluated with weekly plant measurements. Geranium and petunia exhibited 100% survival for all treatments. Marigold and pansy showed 100% survival for the control treatment (0% ATC) and the treatment with the smallest amount of ATC (20% ATC). Treatments for pansy and marigold with more than 40% ATC exhibited 40% to 90% survival. All ATC substrate treatments produced the same number of flowers and buds as the control in geranium, marigold, and petunia, while the treatments containing 20% to 60% of ATC for pansy exhibited more flowers and buds than the control. Measurements of pH and electrical conductivity (EC) varied based on treatment. Based on the species and the ratios of peat, ATC, and perlite tested here, ATC has the potential to be a peat extender in floriculture substrates when used in ratios of 20% or less.
... The animal mortality compost pile is an inconsistent mixture consisting of a large mass of material (the animal carcass) with a low C/N ratio, a high moisture content, and nearly zero porosity covered by another material (the carbon amendment) with a high C/N ratio, moderate moisture level, and good porosity. Due to lack of oxygen, the decomposition process is anaerobic in and around the animal carcass, but an aerobic zone was formed when gasses are produced and diffuse away from the carcass (Keener et al., 2000). This indicates the necessity to determine the transformation of nitrogen in this special composting environment. ...
In this study, nitrogen transformation strains, including three ammonium transformation strains, one nitrite strain and one nitrogen fixer, were inoculated at different swine carcass composting stages to regulate the nitrogen transformation and control the nitrogen loss. The final total nitrogen content was significantly increased (p < 0.01). The bacterial communities were assessed by amplicon sequencing and association analysis. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the four most dominant phyla.,Brevibacterium, Streptomyces and Ochrobactrum had a significant (p < 0.05) and positive correlation with total nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen content in both groups. The quantitative results of nitrogen transformation genes showed that ammonification, nitrification, denitrification and nitrogen fixation were simultaneously present in the composting process of swine carcasses, with the latter two accounting for a higher proportion. The ammonium transformation strains significantly (p < 0.05) strengthened nitrogen fixation and remarkably (p < 0.01) weakened nitrification and denitrification, which, however, were notably (p < 0.05) enhanced by the nitrite strain and nitrogen fixer. In this research, the inoculated strains changed the bacterial structure by regulating the abundance and activity of the highly connected taxa, which facilitated the growth of nitrogen transformation bacteria and regulated the balance/symbiosis of nitrogen transformation processes to accelerate the accumulation of nitrogen.
... Moreover, pH has a pivotal role in the type of microorganisms that predominate in different soils (Lynch and Hobbie, 1988;Matthies et al., 1997). Other environmental factors, including moisture, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and the like also play an important role in the microbial community composition (Keener et al., 2000;Pettersson M, (2004, Doctoral thesis, Lund University, Sweden). Soil properties may also affect the microbial community (Carter et al., 2007) and, hence, the carcass decomposition process (Pfeiffer et al., 1998). ...
The leachate generated by the decomposition of animal carcass has been implicated as an environmental contaminant surrounding the burial site. High-throughput nucleotide sequencing was conducted to investigate the bacterial communities in leachates from the decomposition of pig carcasses. We acquired 51,230 reads from six different samples (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 14 week-old carcasses) and found that sequences representing the phylum Firmicutes predominated. The diversity of bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences in the leachate was the highest at 6 weeks, in contrast to those at 2 and 14 weeks. The relative abundance of Firmicutes was reduced, while the proportion of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria increased from 3-6 weeks. The representation of phyla was restored after 14 weeks. However, the community structures between the samples taken at 1-2 and 14 weeks differed at the bacterial classification level. The trend in pH was similar to the changes seen in bacterial communities, indicating that the pH of the leachate could be related to the shift in the microbial community. The results indicate that the composition of bacterial communities in leachates of decomposing pig carcasses shifted continuously during the study period and might be influenced by the burial site.
... It may be on a farm or in a building at commercial level. Composting can use dead animals and biofilter the animals from pathogens in high temperature (Keener et al. 2000). Two types of composting systems are used (1) open and (2) close; organic compounds are decomposed either in open pile or rows or in a closed container or closed reactors (Jones 2000). ...
This chapter includes information about modification of animal products using biotechnology and the importance of different modifications on the natural composition. The species considered for modified products include beef and dairy cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, and a wide variety of fishes. Moreover, the discussion includes the importance of animal food, nongenetically engineered animal modified food products, genetically engineered animal modified food items primarily for meat, milk, or egg and genetically engineered animal food along the transgenic approach for animal welfare. Modern biotechnology can improve productivity, consistency, and quality of alter animal food, fiber, and medical products. The transgenic technology is potentially valuable to alter characters of economic importance in a rapid and precise way. The food safety issue related to genetic engineering is also included in this chapter. The harm of such modified food and transgenic strategy should also be understood by the reader along with its advantages. In this context, transgenic approaches in animal biotechnology are under discussion that ranges from animal food production to their adverse effects.
... Pathogen inactivation in the primary and secondary phase of composting can be reduced if there is clumping of solids, non-uniform temperatures below required levels, or if pathogens are reintroduced at the end of the heating phase (Haug 1993). Avoiding these unfavourable conditions for proper composting can be achieved with uniform airflow and temperatures throughout the composting process (Keener et al. 2000). High core temperatures can ensure that proper composting is taking place and is acting as a pasteurisation process. ...
California is the largest agricultural producer in the United States and local dairy industry produces 21.5% of the national milk supply. There are 1470 dairies, 1789 million dairy cows and a total annual milk production of 18 million metric tons. The amount of dead cows to be disposed of is remarkable in intensive farming and it increases in periods of extreme weather events, such as drought in California. Composting of bovine mortalities is prohibited in California as a means of disposal of carcases, and can only be done under an emergency declaration. Composting is an effective disposal method that can aid in carcase disposal, especially during an emergency. The objective of this study was to use screened dairy manure solids (SDMS) as the composting amendment for carcase decomposition. Our hypothesis was that temperatures would be sufficiently high and of sufficient duration to destroy most bacteria within the carcases and that the leachate from the carcases would penetrate less than one foot into the underlying soil. No significant amounts of leachate were noted in the collection pipes buried beneath either soil type. Total bacterial counts exceeded 1 Â 10 6 CFU/ml in approximately 19% of the swab samples from the sample collection pipes. The sandy soil had higher bacterial counts than the clay soil. Results of these trials indicate that adult dairy cows can be successfully composted without significant impact on the nearby surrounding environment. The basic hypotheses have been verified by the simple and multiple regression and chi-square non-parametric test.
... It may be on a farm or in a building at commercial level. Composting can use dead animals and biofilter the animals from pathogens in high temperature (Keener et al. 2000). Two types of composting systems are used (1) open and (2) close; organic compounds are decomposed either in open pile or rows or in a closed container or closed reactors (Jones 2000). ...
To fulfill increased world food demand and to overcome the consequences related to natural and industrial changes, scientists have been trying to select and improve both feedstuff and livestock, genetically. Biotechnology, also involving chemical and physical techniques, is applied to nutrition to increase the abundance (availability) of feed and to improve the digestibility of nutrients in those feeds. Additionally, animal nutrition studies are conducted to determine the safety of human food and modeling of some human diseases. Manipulating animal ability to absorb and utilize more nutrients starts from the plant breeders and continues until where those nutrients are utilized in the body. Microorganisms that have symbiotic life with livestock organism are transgenically manipulated to improve nutrition. Adding new genes to feedstuff gives nutritionists more applicational tools for improving nutrition and animal health through feeds. In contrast, application of recombinant DNA technology to farm animals needs more effort and may result in uncontrollable consequences.
... It may be on a farm or in a building at commercial level. Composting can use dead animals and biofilter the animals from pathogens in high temperature (Keener et al. 2000). Two types of composting systems are used (1) open and (2) close; organic compounds are decomposed either in open pile or rows or in a closed container or closed reactors (Jones 2000). ...
Consumers and society may be least willing to accept the modern practices for genetic modification of animals. Public and animal welfare organizations criticism on animal cloning and transgenic modification is a hurdle in production of modified animal food. Ethical and moral concerns are also reduced the acceptability of such technology for the production of cheap and better animal food. Moreover, food industries are also very sensitive about the acceptance of consumer’s towards the products from genetically modified animals. Consumer is concern about the safety of such a food as compare to naturally produce animal food. Segregation and compulsory labeling about GMO’s food products by regulatory authorities also produce assumption of less safe and inferior food as compare to convention animal food products.
... Where escaping odours may be a problem, the pile is capped with a biofilter material to trap and destroy the odours. Keener et al. (2000c) have successfully used the latter approach for dead animal composting, in which the pile is capped with 25-50 cm of biofilter material. These systems are usually turned using a front-end loader, once at the end of the high-rate phase of composting and once between the stabilising and curing phases. ...
There are many challenges and opportunities in composting poultry litter removed from broiler houses. These include reducing operational costs and managing compost moisture, NH3-N losses, and odours. This review paper reports on systems for composting broiler litter that require little or no amendment, while controlling N emissions. Poultry litter, as removed from broiler houses, has a moisture range of 22-50%, N content of 3-5.9%, and a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 9-12. Recommendations, based on field studies and economic analysis, have concluded that composting broiler litter is most economically done with little or no amendment and at starting moisture levels around 40% or less. Pilot and field studies using various composting methods, some of which employ continuous or intermittent aeration regimes as well as static windrows or piles, have been reported. Related studies based on composting un-amended caged layer manure are discussed along with their application to broiler litter. Results suggest the most applicable system for broiler litter for producing a low moisture, high N product would be an in-vessel system with forced aeration, mechanical turning, and a high NH3 level (>160 ppm) in the ambient environment surrounding the compost. Such a system would not produce a mature compost, but would lead to a stabilised (10-18.6% dry matter loss), dry product (10-18% moisture), with high nitrogen content (12-15% total N loss) that could be marketed to nurserymen and gardeners, as well as general farmers.
... In 2010 and 2011, a total of 3.4 million livestock were buried [1]. Livestock carcasses must be disposed of safely to prevent secondary contamination (odors, pathogens and excess nutrients) [2]. So we need a way to quickly decay livestock carcasses. ...
A method of rapidly decaying livestock carcasses is sought through Corine glutamicum, and furthermore, lysosomes are used to remove toxic microorganisms from livestock carcasses. The landfill was constructed on a laboratory scale. Optimized growth conditions of C. glutamicum that could quickly decay livestock carcasses were determined. Lysosomes were extracted from egg whites and used to treat contaminated soil to confirm their antimicrobial activities. Condition of C. glutamicum was activated, regardless both anaerobic and aerobic conditions, soil exists and, to be close to the optimum conditions as possible temperatures, moisture content was about 1/10 of the culture. Lysosomes were found to be effective in clearing soil contamination. C. glutamicum can accelerate the decay of livestock carcasses. A combination of C. glutamicum and lysomes could be used to treat soil contamination caused by decomposition of livestock.
... Microbial communities are essential to maintaining soil quality because of their involvement in organic matter dynamics, nutrient cycling, and decomposition [9]. Keener et al reported that carcasses are degraded anaerobically by bacteria inside the carcass and aerobically by bacteria on the outer surface of the carcass [10]. Therefore, the rate of decomposition of a carcass correlates with environmental factors such as the availability of oxygen. ...
Objective:
Burial is associated with environmental effects such as the contamination of ground or surface water with biological materials generated during the decomposition process. Therefore, bacterial communities in leachates originating from the decomposing bovine carcasses were investigated.
Methods:
To understand the process of bovine (Hanwoo) carcass decomposition, we simulated burial using a lab-scale reactor with a volume of 5.15 m3. Leachate samples from 3 carcasses were collected using a peristaltic pump once a month for a period of 5 months, and bacterial communities in samples were identified by pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene.
Results:
We obtained a total of 110,442 reads from the triplicate samples of various sampling time points (total of 15 samples), and found that the phylum Firmicutes was dominant at most sampling times. Differences in the bacterial communities at the various time points were observed among the triplicate samples. The bacterial communities sampled at 4 months showed the most different compositions. The genera Pseudomonas and Psychrobacter in the phylum Proteobacteria were dominant in all of the samples obtained after 3 months. Bacillaceae, Clostridium, and Clostridiales were found to be predominant after 4 months in the leachate from one carcass, whereas Planococcaceae was found to be a dominant in samples obtained at the first and second months from the other two carcasses. The results showed that potentially pathogenic microbes such as Clostridium derived from bovine leachate could dominate the soil environment of a burial site.
Conclusion:
Our results indicated that the composition of bacterial communities in leachates of a decomposing bovine shifted continuously during the experimental period, with significant changes detected after 4 months of burial.
... Since 2010, major outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) have occurred in South Korea and a total of 3.4 million head of livestock, including 1.2 million swine, were buried in 2010-2011 [6]. Dead animals must be disposed safely to prevent issues such as odor, pathogens, and excess nutrients [7]. However, high levels of microbial contaminants, including bacteria and nitrogenous compounds, have been detected in groundwater near livestock carcass burial sites in South Korea [8,9]. ...
We investigated the impacts of leachates from a swine carcass burial site and a cow manure heap on the geochemical and microbiological properties of agricultural water samples, including leachate, groundwater from monitoring wells and background wells, and stream water. The leachate from the livestock burial site showed extremely high electrical conductivity, turbidity, and major ion concentrations, but low redox potential and dissolved oxygen levels. The groundwater in the monitoring wells adjacent to both sites showed severe contamination from the leachate, as indicated by the increases in EC, turbidity, Cl⁻, and SO4²⁻. Bacteria from the phylum Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes and Archaea from the phylum Euryarchaeota were the major phyla in both the leachates and manure heap. However, the class- or genus-level components of these phyla differed markedly between the leachate and manure heap samples. The relative abundance of Firmicutes decreased from 35% to 0.3~13.9% in the monitoring wells and background wells at both sites. The Firmicutes in these wells was unlikely to have originated from the transportation of leachate to the surrounding environment because Firmicutes genera differed drastically between the leachate and monitoring wells. Meanwhile, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) from the livestock carcass burial site were detected in the monitoring wells close to the leachate. This was likely because the release of carcass decomposition products, such as organic acids, to adjacent areas improved the suitability of the local environments for SRB, which were not abundant in the leachate. This study highlights the need to better understand microbial community dynamics along groundwater flow paths to evaluate bacterial transport in subsurface environments and provides new insights into the effective management of groundwater quality at both farm and regional scales.
... Glanville pointed out that although deep burying had the lowest cost and was easy to operate, it leads to environmental pollution, especially contamination of groundwater (Glanville 2000). As aerobic composting is a biotechnology that is highly safe and in line with the concept of safe disposal (Keener et al. 2000), it is the most suitable technique for disposing of dead pigs and has been widely adopted (Fulhage and Ellis 1996). ...
Improper disposal of dead pigs by pig farmers may have an adverse impact on the ecological environment and food safety. In this paper, disposal of dead pigs by pig farmers in four main pig production provinces in China (Jiangsu, Anhui, Hubei, and Hunan) was empirically investigated. Then, pig farmers’ awareness and evaluation of current combined government policies for the safe disposal of dead pigs were analyzed. Furthermore, the influential effects of combined government policies on the disposal of dead pigs by pig farmers were examined using Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL). Results indicated that the issue of disposal of dead pigs by farmers was very complex and was influenced by the combination of subsidy and compensation, facility and technology, and supervision and punishment policies. The findings also indicated that the different types of policies had different effects and interacted with each other. Among these three combinations, supervision and punishment policies were the most influential policies and facility and technology policies were in most urgent need to improve for regulating the current state of the disposal of dead pigs by farmers. These findings have implications for sustainable pig production.
Rapid application of strict biosecurity measures is the first step to prevent and control the introduction of avian influenza
(AI) or Newcastle disease (ND) viruses. Biosecurity comprises two elements: bio-exclusion and bio-containment. Bio-exclusion
includes all measures aimed at excluding infectious agents from uninfected premises. It requires the prevention of direct
and indirect contact of infected animals or contaminated inanimate carriers (fomites) with poultry. Bio-containment includes all measures aimed at maintaining the infection within the premises from where the
diagnosis was first obtained. Decontamination of the infected farm is one of the actions that must be adopted during the biocontainment
process (EFSA 2005). Secondary spread of AI and ND is achieved mainly through human-related activities, such as the movement
of staff, vehicles, equipment and other fomites. Further outbreaks may occur following restocking of birds in establishments
that have not been adequately sanitised.
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis causes Johne's disease (JD) in ruminants, with substantial economic impacts on the cattle industry. Johne's disease is known
for its long latency period, and difficulties in diagnosis are due to insensitivities of current detection methods. Eradication
is challenging as M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis can survive for extended periods within the environment, resulting in new infections in naïve animals (W. Xu et al., J. Environ.
Qual. 38:437-450, 2009). This study explored the use of a biosecure, static composting structure to inactivate M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Mycobacterium smegmatis was also assessed as a surrogate for M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Two structures were constructed to hold three cattle carcasses each. Naturally infected tissues and ground beef inoculated
with laboratory-cultured M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis and M. smegmatis were placed in nylon and plastic bags to determine effects of temperature and compost environment on viability over 250 days.
After removal, samples were cultured and growth of both organisms was assessed after 12 weeks. After 250 days, M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis was still detectable by PCR, while M. smegmatis was not detected after 67 days of composting. Furthermore, M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis remained viable in both implanted nylon and plastic bags over the composting period. As the compost never reached a homogenous
thermophilic (55 to 65°C) state throughout each structure, an in vitro experiment was conducted to examine viability of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis after exposure to 80°C for 90 days. Naturally infected lymph tissues were mixed with and without compost. After 90 days,
M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis remained viable despite exposure to temperatures typically higher than that achieved in compost. In conclusion, it is unlikely
composting can be used as a means of inactivating M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis associated with cattle mortalities.
Composting may be considered as a simple process. However, it requires specific aerobic conditions and control of its important parameters (oxygen, temperature, moisture content). Composting technology is an effective means for the recovery of organic waste and the amendment of soils. This aerobic process involves various microorganisms for the decomposition of organic matter and its transformation into a product to sustainably improve soil fertility.
Many wildlife management situations require the disposal of animal carcasses. These can include the lethal removal of wildlife to resolve damage or conflicts, as well as clean-up after mortalities caused by vehicle collisions, disease, oil spills (Figure 1) or other natural disasters. Carcasses must be disposed of properly to protect public sensitivities, the environment, and public health. Improper disposal of carcasses can result in public outrage, site contamination, injury to animals and people, and the attraction of other animals that may lead to wildlife damage issues. Concern over ground water contamination and disease transmission from improper carcass disposal has resulted in increased regulation. Successful carcass disposal programs are cost-effective, environmentally sound, and protective of public health. In addition, disposal practices must demonstrate sensitivity to public perception while adhering to state and local guidelines. This publication discusses the range of options available for the responsible disposal of animal carcasses. Proper disposal of carcasses protects the sensitivities of the public, reduces the potential for the spread of zoonotic diseases, prevents nutrient losses to surrounding soils and ultimately, groundwater, and reduces human-wildlife conflicts. Failure to dispose of carcasses appropriately can cause unwanted media attention and public outrage. The overall goal of any animal carcass management plan is to ensure clean, safe disposal of all materials in a manner that protects human, animal, and environmental health.
Following closure of the last remaining equine slaughter plants in the United States in 2007 there is an increased need for equine carcass disposal. Based upon their knowledge of the equine industry, the authors estimate that approximately 200,000 horses must be removed from population each year. Disposal options for carcasses include burial, landfill, incineration, composting, or rendering. The most attractive option, for reasons discussed in the paper, is composting, which has been successfully implemented in a variety of environments and situations.
Disposal methods of managing carcass in Korea livestock production systems include burying, digesting, rendering, carcass dumping to manure pile, dead animal disposer and mini-incinerator. Burying was usually the most practical method of carcass disposal in our livestock farms. Burying, carcass dumping to manure pile, dead animal disposer and mini-incinerator may have environmental regulatory and economic liabilities when used as a means of carcass disposal. In many cases in this survey, these disposal methods offer a poor choice for the producer due to individual site conditions, geology, cost, air emissions, rendering plants. A survey questionnaire that addressed the issues to livestock producers was prepared. The questionnaire addressed two main topics as follows: 1) types of livestock and generation amounts of carcass 2) Number of breeding animals and disposal methods of livestock mortality. A total of 36 livestock producers were interviewed. The results of obtained in this survey were summarized as follows: The number of breeding poultry, swine, beef cow and dairy cow was 251,000, 2,600, 142 and 92 heads per year and the generation amounts of annually carcass was 0.46, 15.32, 0.36, 1.36 tons per year of each poultry, swine, beef cow and dairy cow farms, respectively. The disposal methods of carcass were burying (42%), carcass dumping to manure pile (36%), rendering (8%), incineration (6%), digesting (6%), carcass disposer (2%), respectively. These results can be used as basic information to establish the standard of carcass composting facility.
The term “animal waste” is used for the dung or fecal material of livestock such as ruminants, poultry, swine, horse, birds, and other mammals with or without litter.
Food safety risk has become more of a social risk associated with human behaviors. In China, pig farmers, affected by economic incentives, will tend to intentionally break food safety rules. They may add excessive feed additives, use veterinary drugs illegally, or even randomly dump dead pigs into rivers. The behaviors of pig farmers have a direct impact on the safety and quality of pork, public health and the environment. Therefore, an empirical study was conducted on the behaviors of pig farmers in Jiangsu and Anhui Provinces of China. In this paper, we analyzed the pork safety and quality related behaviors of pig farmers. Using the a multivariate probit model, we identified the critical factors of these behaviors. The results demonstrated that the years of farming experience had a significantly negative effect on farmers’ safety related behaviors. However, the effect of farming experience on quality related behaviors was not significant. The influences from the scale of farming and specialization were complex, and the different knowledge of pig farmers affected their safety or quality related behaviors accordingly. Therefore, relevant government departments should avoid blindly expanding the farming scale, and educating farmers may be an effective way to improve management performance.
Composting livestock mortalities is an environmentally sound and biosecure means of waste management. A 2-year study on cattle mortality composting was conducted on four farms in Manitoba in 2004 and 2005. A total of 20 static compost piles with 24 carcasses were constructed with either straw, sawdust, woodchip, or sunflower seed hull as carbon amendment, and with or without a bottom plastic liner. Temperature and moisture content (MC) were monitored at four different layers in each pile during 7 months. Nutrients in the soil beneath the pile were analyzed to assess the effect of a liner on leaching. Results showed that the pile temperature ranged from 10 to 60°C and MC ranged from 10 to 80%. Differences in MC and temperature were observed among the layers in a pile. Several factors affected the trends, such as weather condition, amendment type, and location inside the pile. Among the amendments used, sawdust resulted in the most suitable pile temperatures and MC during the composting process. The presence of a second carcass did not require additional amendment and increased temperature. For the straw amendment, the plastic liner resulted in reduced nutrient levels in the soil, which was observed only in 2 out of 15 cases. For the sawdust amendment, the plastic liner did not make any differences in the soil nutrient.
The composting of farm animal mortalities is becoming an increasingly popular means of on-farm carcass disposal due to its low costs and the added benefit of a soil amendment as an end product. Although the process has been around for many years, it is only recently that the air emissions generated from the composting process are being studied. Current best management practices are based on maximizing the rate of breakdown and do not necessarily mitigate unwanted gaseous emissions. Ammonia is a chemical of particular concern since it is commonly emitted from the breakdown of organic wastes and results in nitrogen loss from the final soil amendment as well as causing issues varying from odour to potential health risks. Once the ammonia is released into the atmosphere, it can subsequently take part in the formation of secondary inorganic aerosols or be washed out through wet deposition and enter surface or ground waters, causing eutrophication or acidification.
The study of ammonia emissions from composting deadstock and other agricultural wastes has been a topic of great interest lately due to the concern of air quality impacts from the respective facilities. Previous deadstock composting research has shown that ammonia emissions are strongly affected by increasing the pile pH above 8. To verify these findings and ascertain the uncertainty in the data, a project was initiated to look at composting poultry deadstock while using different amendments within the pile and observing the effects on ammonia emissions.
A project measuring and comparing physical and chemical parameters within different zones of carcass compost piles built on two different surfaces was conducted in 2011. Physical and chemical parameters reflect processes within the carcass compost piles. Information gathered could be useful in improving carcass compost management systems. Previous work has revealed zones in carcass compost piles that are visually distinguishable (Rynk et al. 1992), however, only a few of these zones have had their physical and chemical characteristics analyzed. Data collected from three carcass compost piles on the soil and three on impervious platforms were analyzed for nutrients, bulk density, moisture, pH, conductivity, and metals. The carcass compost piles developed an identifiable structure with zones that could be distinguished based on color, texture, moisture and chemical composition. There was statistical significance between zones for all measured parameters except total carbon in all piles. This structure appears to help minimize nitrogen losses by intercepting both soluble N in fluids and gaseous ammonia and concentrating them in the organic material. Measurements in the bottom zone built on impervious surfaces only, revealed that water flowing under these piles was a significant mechanism for nutrient loss.
Composting is an environment-friendly method for animal carcass disposal, but in China there is a lack of literature on mortality composting, which is scarcely applied in livestock industries by far. This pilot experiment was conducted to investigate the disposal load and the feasibility of composting swine mortalities in northern parts of China during winter. Composting bins with capacity of 0.95 m3 were used to dispose nursery mortalities, and on-farm swine manure and the available agricultural waste (corn stalk) were collected and mixed according to the requirements of manure composting. Two treatments of double-layer carcasses and single-layer carcasses, and no carcass control were designed. There were twelve composting bins, among which four were allocated to each treatment and control groups. Inside each composting bin of the treatment groups, dead nursery pigs with weight of 4.6-21.4 kg each were placed in layer (s), each layer contained 3 dead animals with total weight of 28.0-30.0 kg. For the single-layer treatment, dead nursery pigs were put in the middle of each bin with the upper and lower parts filled with mixture of swine manure and corn stalk. Inside the composting bins of double-layer treatment, 30 cm mixture was placed between two layers of dead nursery pigs, with mixture beneath and over dead pig layers too. The composting bins were aerated with ventilation rate of 100 L/(m3·min), the experiment lasted for 8 weeks from December 2012 to January 2013 in Beijing. The results showed: the daily ambient temperatures ranged from 2.7℃ to -11.2℃, with the valley value of -17.8℃ during the entire experimental period. The daily average temperatures inside composing bins exceeded 50℃ within 3-5 d, and the daily average temperatures inside composting bins kept above 50℃ for 32 and 23 d for the double-layer and single-layer treatment groups respectively, which could secure pathogen inactivation and meet the non-hazardous requirement of national standards. No significant difference in degradation rates was found between single-layer and double-layer carcasses composting, and the average degradation rates after 6 w and 8 w composting were 93.6%±3.5% and 96.8%±0.8%, respectively, only small portion of skeletons of the carcasses was left. Therefore, dead swine composting with animal manure is feasible, and the composting bin with height of 1m could disposal two-layer dead nursery pigs simultaneously with the total mass of 58 kg. The pH value of the composting mixture varied in the range of 7.9 to 8.6. Organic matter and total carbon contents of the composting mixture declined with time, and turned to be 47% and 27% respectively at end of experiment. However nitrogen content showed different variation trend, it increased with time and reached 2.9% after 8 w composting, and nitrogen contents of double-layer and single-layer treatments increased by 8.9% and 3.7% from their control basement, respectively. Since the substrate used for swine carcasses composting in this study was the same as swine manure composting, carcasses composting can be incorporated into swine manure composting system. The combined system can operate all the year round, even in the northern part of China. ©, 2014, Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering. All right reserved.
The study of ammonia emissions from composting poultry mortalities has been a topic of interest due to concerns about air quality effects from agricultural facilities. In previous poultry mortality composting research, it was reported that ammonia emissions are strongly affected by increasing the pH of the compost pile above 8. To verify these findings, a project was initiated to examine composting poultry mortalities while using different amendments within the pile and observing the effects on the gaseous emissions. Each pile was constructed using 2 layers of spent hen carcasses, with one layer below and one layer above the intermediate amendment. Each pile design was constructed in triplicate to assist in data verification and statistical analysis. All piles were constructed using fresh woodchips for the base and cap material. The intermediate amendments were chosen based on their availability, applicability for mortality composting, and pH buffering. The control pile had woodchips as the intermediate amendment, as it had a pH closest to neutral (7.4). The 2 additional pile designs consisted of intermediate amendment layers with either poultry compost, a lower pH material of 5.5, or poultry litter, a slightly higher pH material of 7.5. Air samples were collected using a dynamic flux chamber drawing fresh air across the pile face at a known volumetric flow rate of approximately 370 m(3)/h. Based on the results of this experiment, using poultry litter for composting may not be an appropriate best management practice if the objective is to minimize ammonia emissions.
Minimizing waste generation and recycling have become the focus of governmental agencies in many countries to reduce human
impact on the environment. With this focus, composting has received a high ranking in the hierarchy of recycling methods and
continues to gain importance throughout the world for the conversion of organic by-products to new resources. Adoption of
composting for capturing and recycling organics however is not without environmental and economic issues and requires approaches
which manages the process from the cradle (source separation) to the grave (high value markets). This paper addresses the
challenges and opportunities in composting organic matter. Its focus is on reducing operational cost and managing odors. Composting
systems and principles are presented along with results of optimization studies based on engineering analysis as well as pilot
scale and large scale composting studies. Results are from studies on many organics including, municipal solid waste (MSW),
biosolids, short paper fiber (SPF), yard trimmings, and animal manures. A list of guidelines for developing and managing efficiently
composting systems are presented̈Compost value for growing plants, both as a fertilizer and biocontrol agent are outlined
along with other uses in protecting the environment.
KeywordsWaste management-Municipal solid waste-Biosolids-Clean air act-Clean water act-Windrow