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Caves as sacred spaces on the Tibetan Plateau
Abstract
Caves-both natural and created by excavation-are common on the Tibetan plateau. Although the beginnings of cave use on the plateau are currently unknown, caves became especially important with the advent of Buddhism in the seventh century AD. Today, caves continue to be used in both secular and sacred contexts. In this chapter, although my focus is primarily upon the use of caves within a religious or ritual context, it is necessary to identify and define the material indicators of caves used primarily as dwellings or habitations. Using historical, literary, and anthropological warrants, I then turn to a discussion of why some caves have sacred connotations on the plateau. Finally, I examine two specific manifestations of the sacred: the use of caves as symbolic foundations for temples, shrines, and so-called power places, and the meaning and use of caves within the context of pilgrimage.
... They lend power to landscape features such as rocks, spring, plants and caves. Those caves which are considered as power places often serve as pilgrimage destinations (Aldenderfer 2005, 10–11). ...
The Iberian Peninsula is rich in caves, rockshelters, avens and rock fissures which were used for the deposition of the dead from the Palaeolithic until early historical times. This article discusses contexts with human remains which date to the Neolithic and Copper Age (mid sixth to late third millennia cal BC). Since cave deposits during this period often contain disarticulated multiple individuals ranging from a few to hundreds of people their analysis and interpretation is not easy. Ethnographic analogy with cave burials from all over the world shows that similar deposits can result from a range of diverse practices and processes and are imbued with different meanings.
Caves have always inspired human imagination and Ancient Greece was no exception. This chapter focuses on the rituals performed in sacred caves in worship of Pan and the Nymphs. Their worship, described vividly in the Dyskolos of Menander, required corporeal effort to access the sanctuary, for sacrifice, preparation and the communal consumption of food and drink by the participants, as well as the performance of ritual dances, probably accompanied by chanting and music. This chapter considers not only how the visual and aural qualities of these places inspired ancient thought, but how they stimulated or deprived human senses and made individuals believe that they were the abodes of sacred spirits. Pan and the Nymphs have special connections to sound and resonance, and there appears to be a reciprocal connection between ritual performances and the sonic qualities of grottos. Yet most archaeological research in caves of Pan and the Nymphs has focused on the visual characteristics of the sites and makes no reference to their aural qualities. This chapter suggests that acoustic survey should be reinforced at these sites, to gain an understanding of whether or not sound was a determining factor in their recognition as sacred places appropriate to this cult.
Most religions of the world identify one or more caves as sacred using them as extraordinary sites for meditation, ritual, art, burial, and/or related purposes. These are extraordinary places as spaces at the interface between the natural and supernatural and also between geology and biology on the one hand and religion, culture, and history on the other. Sacred caves facilitate a holistic perspective and synthesis integrating the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities, instead of the usual isolation or academic compartmentalization. This essay discusses a geographical comparison of a representative sample of sacred caves to reveal how different cultures and religions construct meaning for caves as sacred, the main similarities and differences among them and the distinctions between the sacred and the profane. It explores: what makes a cave sacred? Who uses sacred caves, where, when, how, and why? I draw on my field research on sacred caves in Thailand as well as an extensive literature survey. The anomalous and mysterious character of caves contributes to the sacredness of some, although historical, cultural, and/or religious factors may also be involved. Most are associated with Buddhism in Asia and the Maya in Central America. I also discuss prehistoric caves and sacred caves in indigenous, Abrahamic, and Asian religions. I conclude with comments on scientific research and conservation efforts and show caves which are also major tourist sites.
In a cave system in Mebrak (Mustang District, Western Nepal), a team of archaeologists investigating extensive abandoned settlements in the high Himalayas made an extraordinary discovery in 1995. One of the caves had been used as a community burial chamber from ca. 400 BC to 50 AD. Inside, approximately 30 naturally mummified bodies rested in bed-like wooden coffins exhibiting ornamental carving and elaborate painting. The dead had been furnished with a rich store of grave goods consisting of both personal ornaments and objects of daily life as well as the remains of domestic animals. Due to the favourable climatic conditions, all of the artefacts, which also include fur and textile garments, are in a surprisingly good state of preservation. The anthropological analysis shows that the group's demographic structure is balanced, and that the individuals exhibit morphometric affinities to Mongolian populations. Within the highly homogenous group, shared morphological patterns characterize three—possibly familial—subgroups. There is evidence of successful surgical treatment, implying considerable medical knowledge. The general state of health shows the individuals to have been well adapted to their extreme environment on the edge of human habitation.
Until recently, there has been no sense of a Tibetan prehistory. Beginning in the 1970s, however, Chinese archaeologists began to systematically explore the plateau, and began to draw an outline of the deep Tibetan past. The pace of research accelerated rapidly in the 1990s, which brought this outline into sharper focus. This paper reviews what is known of Tibetan prehistory until the seventh century A.D., when the Tibetan empire was established. Topics covered in this paper include a consideration of the antiquity of a human presence upon the plateau, changing adaptive strategies following the end of the glacial epoch, the advent of the Neolithic, and the emergence of social and political complexity. Despite significant advances in our knowledge of the Tibetan past, much work remains to be done before models of process can be examined in any detail.