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Economic returns and allocation of resources in the wildlife sector of Botswana
Abstract
Wildlife utilization in Botswana was studied to find out (1) whether it generates positive contributions to national income, and (2) which combinations of uses can generate most income. Financial and economic models of different land uses were combined in linear programming and cost-benefit analyses. Results show that the wildlife resource in Botswana can contribute positively to national income, and this justifies government investment in the sector. The sector is economically efficient, and contributes to Botswana's economic development. Wildlife uses need to be fully developed in ways that maximize their economic contributions. Non-consumptive tourism on high-quality wildlife land will give the greatest economic returns, and should get priority. Safari hunting, community-based wildlife use (where viable), and limited intensive ostrich and crocodile production should also be given priority for investment. Other uses should get lower priority, but all should be developed. On about a third of wildlife land, wildlife uses have a clear economic advantage over livestock uses. The remaining two thirds of wildlife land has poor capacity to generate use value. Here, commercial livestock ranching is not an economic threat, but traditional livestock keeping is. A ban on consumptive wildlife uses in Botswana would significantly exacerbate this threat.
... However, the creation of TFPs has also alienated adjacent resident communities due to limited resource access and restrictions (Metcalfe 2003;Meskell 2005;Schoon 2008;Soto 2009). In addition, TFPs have faced myriad financial, sociocultural and ecological challenges as managers attempt to strike a balance between conservation, poverty alleviation and community-based tourism development (Barnes 2001;Jones 2005;Spenceley 2008;Soto 2009). 68 N.N. ...
... However, there is recognition of the need to involve local communities in the planning and implementation of projects that occur in their area. This aspect is critical, since lack of participation and involvement of local communities in decision-making and management of the resources in PAs has generally caused conflicts between organisations and local communities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;Bauer 2003;Meskell 2005;Brandon 2007;Himoonde 2007;Hoehn and Thapa 2009;Nicholas et al. 2009a;Nguyen et al. 2011). ...
... It is important that the government has a policy framework that guides implementation and other related management of activities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;MLG 2005;Moswete et al. 2009). In order to develop an inclusive management strategy and framework for KTP, it is paramount that all relevant stakeholders are consulted. ...
Local and national public sector stakeholders are considered to be primary stakeholders and their knowledge and support for conservation initiatives of transfrontier parks are important for sustainable management of resources. Hence, it is critical to assess the attitudes and opinions of a major stakeholder group in order to establish partnerships between protected areas (PAs), adjacent communities and other management agencies. This study employed a qualitative inquiry to identify and assess factors that influence public sector stakeholder support for community-based ecotourism (CBE) development and for conservation of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to solicit data from 15 local and national representatives who have worked or resided in the Kgalagadi region for a period of at least 6 months. Findings revealed variations in opinion between local and national representatives in relation to collaboration and partnership initiatives, conservation projects, park management, tourism development and park benefits to local communities. There was overall uncertainty with respect to the designation of the KTP, since it had generated unfavourable conditions for adjacent local people, local authorities and village leaders. Nearly all local representatives indicated an imbalance with regard to resident collaboration and partnership in KTP conservation-related projects, and the general management activities. The contentions included concerns about land ownership and control, human–wildlife interactions, perceptions about communi- cation with park authorities, lack of transparency with respect to activities and inequality of park benefits. Two major policy concerns were a low level of community participation in park activities and a lack of collaboration and communication between management and residents.
... However, the creation of TFPs has also alienated adjacent resident communities due to limited resource access and restrictions (Metcalfe 2003;Meskell 2005;Schoon 2008;Soto 2009). In addition, TFPs have faced myriad financial, sociocultural and ecological challenges as managers attempt to strike a balance between conservation, poverty alleviation and community-based tourism development (Barnes 2001;Jones 2005;Spenceley 2008;Soto 2009). 68 N.N. ...
... However, there is recognition of the need to involve local communities in the planning and implementation of projects that occur in their area. This aspect is critical, since lack of participation and involvement of local communities in decision-making and management of the resources in PAs has generally caused conflicts between organisations and local communities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;Bauer 2003;Meskell 2005;Brandon 2007;Himoonde 2007;Hoehn and Thapa 2009;Nicholas et al. 2009a;Nguyen et al. 2011). ...
... It is important that the government has a policy framework that guides implementation and other related management of activities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;MLG 2005;Moswete et al. 2009). In order to develop an inclusive management strategy and framework for KTP, it is paramount that all relevant stakeholders are consulted. ...
This paper is derived from a broader study that examined community attitudes and perceptions towards ecological issues in Maun and Gaborone to determine how these could be harnessed towards ecologically sustainable urban development. The major problem in the two study sites is that there has been rapid urban growth since the 1970s, but very little attention has been devoted to the environmental implications of that growth. The environmental issues on which community attitudes and perceptions were sought included the following: urban water and waste water; urban solid waste management; urban impacts on wildlife; and urban energy conservation and management. These issues were selected on the basis of what the authors were able to obtain socio-ecological data on, given the time and financial constraints of the study. The urban ecosystems management model is used as an analytical framework that could be further harnessed by policy and decision-makers to mobilize stakekeholders towards sustainable urban development. A social survey method was used to generate data among heads of households in Maun and Gaborone. It was found that most ordinary members of the community were not involved by government authorities in decision-making affecting natural resource use and environmental issues. However and in general, the communities had positive attitudes and perceptions towards environmental issues. The major draw-back is that these communities are generally not consulted by state agencies in decision-making processes affecting their environment. It is concluded that this is inimical to ecological urban development.
... However, the creation of TFPs has also alienated adjacent resident communities due to limited resource access and restrictions (Metcalfe 2003;Meskell 2005;Schoon 2008;Soto 2009). In addition, TFPs have faced myriad financial, sociocultural and ecological challenges as managers attempt to strike a balance between conservation, poverty alleviation and community-based tourism development (Barnes 2001;Jones 2005;Spenceley 2008;Soto 2009). 68 N.N. ...
... However, there is recognition of the need to involve local communities in the planning and implementation of projects that occur in their area. This aspect is critical, since lack of participation and involvement of local communities in decision-making and management of the resources in PAs has generally caused conflicts between organisations and local communities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;Bauer 2003;Meskell 2005;Brandon 2007;Himoonde 2007;Hoehn and Thapa 2009;Nicholas et al. 2009a;Nguyen et al. 2011). ...
... It is important that the government has a policy framework that guides implementation and other related management of activities (Parry and Campbell 1992;Barnes 2001;MLG 2005;Moswete et al. 2009). In order to develop an inclusive management strategy and framework for KTP, it is paramount that all relevant stakeholders are consulted. ...
Local and national public sector stakeholders are considered to be primary stakeholders and their knowledge and support for conservation initiatives of transfrontier parks are important for sustainable management of resources. Hence, it is critical to assess the attitudes and opinions of a major stakeholder group in order to establish partnerships between protected areas (PAs), adjacent communities and other management agencies. This study employed a qualitative inquiry to identify and assess factors that influence public sector stakeholder support for community-based ecotourism (CBE) development and for conservation of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to solicit data from 15 local and national representatives who have worked or resided in the Kgalagadi region for a period of at least 6 months. Findings revealed variations in opinion between local and national representatives in relation to collaboration and partnership initiatives, conservation projects, park management, tourism development and park benefits to local communities. There was overall uncertainty with respect to the designation of the KTP, since it had generated unfavourable conditions for adjacent local people, local authorities and village leaders. Nearly all local representatives indicated an imbalance with regard to resident collaboration and partnership in KTP conservation-related projects, and the general management activities. The contentions included concerns about land ownership and control, human–wildlife interactions, perceptions about communication with park authorities, lack of transparency with respect to activities and inequality of park benefits. Two major policy concerns were a low level of community participation in park activities and a lack of collaboration and communication between management and residents.
... These two may seem mutually exclusive, and it may be suggested that a choice should be made between one or the other. In southern Africa they are commonly practised side by side, and although they are mutually exclusive on a local scale, there is growing evidence that they are not entirely mutually exclusive at the district and national levels (Barnes, 1998a(Barnes, , 2001. This assertion is examined in more detail in this article, using data from Namibia and Botswana. ...
... A budget and cost-benefit analysis approach was used to determine values associated with tourism land uses in the study area. Barnes (2001) presented a more detailed description of these methods. Briefly, the financial profitability (return to the investor) and the economic efficiency (contribution to the national economy) were measured using spreadsheet models. ...
... Some use was made of results from a linear programming allocation analysis, which aimed to determine the most economically efficient spatial allocation between wildlife uses in the wildlife sector of Botswana (Barnes, 1998a(Barnes, , 2001. Here data from enterprise models, as described above, were used to develop the linear programming matrix. ...
Over the 20th century, wildlife-based tourism has experienced significant growth, with increasing emphasis placed on ecotourism as one of the most beneficial forms of sustainable tourism. A widely accepted argument is that ecotourism is a non-consumptive practice far better received than those consumptive forms, such as sport or trophy hunting tourism. This paper discusses aspects of perception, consumption and conservation of wildlife in relation to the North–South divide and the controversial issue of sport and trophy hunting tourism. By presenting results of research conducted in Namibia and Botswana, this paper presents a provocative argument that ecotourism embraces forms of consumptive tourism, which can prove to be beneficial to the economy, the environment and local communities.
... Un programme de conservation basé sur l'écotourisme peut être bénéfique à plusieurs titres : (i) en apportant une aide financière pour la gestion des aires de protection (e.g., dans le bassin du Congo;Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999), (ii) par la création de revenus pour les communautés locales qui permet ainsi un changement d'activité depuis une exploitation consommatrice vers une exploitation non-consommatrice des ressources naturelles (e.g., la plongée avec les réquins; Vianna, Meekan, Pannell, Marsh, & Meeuwig, 2012) et (iii) par le changement d'attitude de ces communautés à l'égard de la conservation des ressources(Krüger 2005). Au Botswana, l'écotourisme est l'activité la plus lucrative dans les zones qui offrent des paysages de qualité et sont riches en espèces(Barnes 2001). D'autres part, les programmes d'éducation et de sensibilisation à l'environnement sont souvent associés à l'écotourisme et stimulent la participation des visiteurs au financement de projets de conservation à plus long terme après le voyage(Wearing & Neil 1999).Brightsmith (2008) a évalué l'efficacité d'un programme de conservation basé sur la réalisation d'un travail par les touristes. ...
... Deuxièmement, la beauté du paysage, la diversité et l'abondance des espèces sauvages n'est pas indispensable pour la mise en place de la chasse aux trophées. En effet, la grande majorité des chasseurs interrogés dansLindsey (2006) aux Etats-Unis peuvent chasser dans un site qui n'a pas un paysage exceptionnel, ni une grande densité d'espèces à observer et dans lequel il y a également de l'élevage de bétail(Lindsey et al. 2006).Ainsi la chasse aux trophées est l'activité la plus viable économiquement dans les environnements de qualité intermédiaire(Barnes 2001;Leader-Williams & Hutton 2005). Troisièmement, la chasse aux trophées peut également se dérouler dans un cadre d'instabilité politique (e.g., Pakistan,Lindsey et al. 2006;Rosser et al. 2005) et les revenus peuvent ainsi être relativement stables même en cas de crise politique (e.g., réforme des terres au Zimbabwe; V.Booth, 2002). ...
Trophy hunting, which is a form of recreational hunting with the main objective of collecting a trophy of interest, is a controversial subject. This activity could potentially generate an anthropogenic Allee effect (AAE). This demographic process states that the valuation of rarity could drive rare species exploitation and even lead to their extinction. Our project aims at testing the potential for an AEE in trophy hunting. We demonstrate that rare species have a high financial value, regardless of the trophy size, indicating that there is a high demand for those species. We also show that the number of trophies traded internationally and the number of recorded trophies by the Safari Club International (one of the largest clubs for international trophy hunters in the USA) rises as the degree of rarity (as measured by a rarity index) increases. Trophy hunting of rare species has been proposed as a tool to fund their conservation. However, our results indicate that there is a risk of an AAE for rare species. Furthermore, the combined effects of trophy hunting, illegal hunting, corruption as well as the lack of population knowledge and of management controls have potential to result in the unsustainable exploitation of rare species of high financial value. Nonetheless, trophy hunting has potential to generate strong financial incentives that are necessary for wildlife preservation. Such incentives are only likely to be effective if strict measures are required and enforced to prevent overexploitation of rare trophy species
... Hunting tourism represents travelling and tourist activities whose basic motives are hunting and shooting game (Brainerd, 2007;Lovelock, 2008;Leader-Williams, 2009;Nygard, Uthardt, 2011), and as such, considerably contributes to valorization of peripheral or insufficiently used areas where tourist activities are poorly developed (Baker, 1997;Lindsey et al., 2006;Gunnarsdotter, 2006;Samuelsson, Stage, 2007;Matilainen, 2007;Willebrand, 2009;). Hunting tourism can have significantly positive effect on the local community (Chardonnet et al. 2002;Bauer, Herr, 2004;Samuelsson, Stage, 2007;Sharp, Wollscheid, 2009;Mbaiwaa, Stronza, 2010;Naidoo et al., 2016) and bring it considerable economic benefit (Barnes 2001;Bauer, Herr 2004;Hull et al., 2007). ...
Hunting activities were considerably developed on the territory of hunting area "Karadjordjevo", but the development stopped due to economic and political instability at the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century. This research aims to evaluate support of the local community in the previously well-known hunting destinations nowadays when hunting tourism are under the pressure of different groups who underestimate their importance. The survey was conducted in the municipality of Backa Palanka in 2018, and the results show that the local population is generally prone to the revitalization of hunting tourism. According to the results analysed in this research, local population on the territory of Mladenovo and Karadjordjevo generally supports development of hunting tourism. Local people do not have negative attitude about hunting, and, in most cases, are prone to hunters and hunting regardless of being hunters themselves or having a hunter in their family.
... Botswana's wild side presents abundant opportunities to adopt a wild educational policy (Ketlhoilwe & Velempini, 2021). Thirty-nine percent of Botswana's territory consists of protected areas; thus, Botswana exhibits an exceptional level of conservation (Barnes, 2001). Protected areas include Moremi Game Reserve, Chobe National Park, Nxai Pan National Park, Makgadikgadi Pans National Park and Central Kalahari Game Reserve (Magole, 2009;Taylor, 2000;LaRocco, 2019;Bolaane, 2013). ...
This paper examines the notion of wilding pedagogy and its potential for comprehensive transformation through educational policy. This paper argues that given current unsustainable human practices, significant changes can be achieved by aligning education and policy. This paper begins by defining wilding pedagogies and providing an overview of Botswana’s background and prospects. It contends that Botswana has the potential to enhance the quality of education by promoting active and transformative learning experiences. Furthermore, this policy can lead to improved academic performance by acknowledging cultural linkages, honouring land, returning to a holistic approach aligned with the principles of the wild in education.
... Crocodiles are economically important, with assets on a single well managed crocodile farm. Studies in Botswana have shown that the financial return on investment in crocodile farming is in fact higher than the mean economic rates of return (Barnes, 2001). ...
Assessment of Nile Crocodile utilization was carried out in six communities of Dunukofia local government area in Anambra state. A sampling intensity of 0.5% of the total population of each community was used to get a sample size of 323 respondents. Data were collected through questionnaire and complemented with personal observation and in-depth interview. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage and mean and presented as tables and charts. Results revealed that 85.14% of the respondents do not utilize crocodile meat as food while 14.86% of the respondents utilize crocodile meat as food. The highest number of respondents (66.67%) eat crocodile meat because of its taste while the least number (2.08%) because it is cheap. Results on non-consumptive utilization of Nile crocodile revealed that highest number of respondents (43.65%) utilize crocodile for traditional medicine while the least number (6.19%) reported that crocodile is utilized for tourism. The result also revealed that the sources of crocodile are the river (68.42%), markets (28.17%), and hunters (3.41%). A high percentage of the respondents (88.50%) are not interested in starting crocodile farming while 11.50% of the respondents are interested in starting crocodile farming. Majority of the respondents (65.73%) are not interested in starting crocodile farming because crocodiles are dangerous, 21.68% do not have the skills, 7.34% said crocodile farming is not popular and the least (5.24%) reported that it is high capital. Crocodile body parts utilized as revealed by the respondents were the whole body (53.56%), the head (30.03%), the limbs (10.84%), and the tail (5.57%). It is recommended that the locals be encouraged to engage in crocodile farming to help conserve the remaining crocodile population in the wild as well as create employment opportunities.
... Furthermore, it has been shown in Namibia and Botswana, the success of natural reserves where local communities have the freedom to manage wildlife harvesting and conservation measures by themselves [92][93][94]. ...
Background: The National Park of Banc d’Arguin (PNBA, Mauritania) was founded in 1976 to preserve the largest West African wintering area for shorebirds. In the face of increasing pressures, the PNBA’s authorities have launched an appeal to determine the park’s socio-economic value to adjust its management plan better.
Methods: In this context, we have created an exhaustive inventory of known characteristics of bird species present in the PNBA to investigate their potential in terms of ecosystem services for local populations. Two regulating and supporting services were also valued based on data availability: nutrients input and carcasses removal.
Results: We found that 53% of the 233 bird species associated with the PNBA are highly dependent on the park and its coastal and marine ecosystems for their life cycle. We were also able to identify services with a high potential for the park, such as nutrient cycling and bird-watching. We finally valued nutrients input and carcasses removal at € 1.8 to € 133.7 million/year and € 2900 to € 4800/year, respectively.
Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of protecting the PNBA’s birds beyond the sole ornithological interest behind its creation and reinforces the argument about the importance of this protected area in terms of conservation.
... This presents an additional source of income for peripheral regions where other forms of tourism are underdeveloped (Baker, 1997;Gunnarsdotter, 2006;Lindsey et al., 2006;Lindsey et al., 2007;Matilainen, 2007;Samuelsson & Stage 2007;Willebrand, 2009). It was indicated that hunting tourism can have a significant positive effect on the local community (Bauer & Herr, 2004;Chardonnet et al., 2002;Mbaiwaa & Stronza, 2010;Naidoo et al., 2016;Samuelsson & Stage, 2007;Sharp & Wollscheid, 2009) with considerable economic benefits (Barnes, 2001;Bauer & Herr, 2004;Hull et al., 2007). ...
This guidebook is part of the HUNTOUR project, which pursues to provide educational materials and hence supports decision-making on the development of hunting tourism in European countries. The guidebook aims to present methodological possibilities for the evaluation of hunting tourism potential by showcasing new case studies.
... Furthermore, hunting in whatever form has been identified as one of the major drivers of wildlife extinction (Gasto, 2020). With optimal utilization of ecotourism as a better option for income generation, substitute trophy hunting which is not eco-friendly can be put to rest without affecting the income generation of the reserve or protected areas (Barnes, 2001;Kiss, 2004). ...
This study investigated the hunting activities around Sambisa Forest reserve, Borno State, Nigeria. The method adopted for data collection involved the use of a structured questionnaire administered to four communities namely; Bama, Kawuri, Maidumari, and Konduga around the Sambisa Game Reserve. Descriptive statistics were used in analysing the data, and the outcomes were presented in frequency and percentage format. The illiteracy (89%), large household size of 6-10 (47%), age class of 31-40 years (65%), and the use of guns (90%) by the respondents (illegal hunters) greatly influence hunting activities around the Game Reserve. The hunting activities are greatly linked to poverty, as most of the respondents lack conventional education which would have given them jobs with stable income, thereby reducing pressure on wildlife hunting.
... As a selective form of tourism, hunting tourism can be seen as an additional opportunity for the development of marginal rural areas where there are no other types of tourism present (Baker, 1997 Sharp & Wollscheid, 2009). Also, both provide significant economic benefits (Barnes, 2001;Bauer & Herr, 2004;Hull et al., 2007). Chardonnet and colleagues (2002) point out that the socio-economic impact of hunting on the local community since the end of the 20 th century in the EU is significant. ...
Successful development of hunting tourism requires the support of a local community and positive attitudes of residents. This research aims to explore the population in the Vojvodina region (Serbia) which was well known hunting tourism destination in Europe during the ’70s and ‘80s. The survey included a final sample of 206 respondents. This study showed that residents mostly approve of and support hunting tourism revitalization. However, they find that it needs to be implemented sustainably, according to the law, without threatening the habitat and game funds. This study also explored different predictors that shape attitudes towards hunting tourism. Results show that being a hunter, having a higher level of education, frequently having outdoor activities in nature, being interested in the topic of hunting and hunting tourism, and having a dominant meat diet lead to a more positive attitude towards hunting tourism.
... In this chapter, we focus on the non-consumptive wildlife-based tourism that takes place in nature conservation areas, particularly in the Chobe National Park (CNP), Botswana. According to Barnes (2001), a non-consumptive wildlife-based tourism should be prioritised in the southern African context. This should be planned 171 and developed in a sustainable way Snyman & Spenceley, 2012) that benefits local communities that often bear a burden of living and practising their livelihoods with wildlife populations (Child & Barnes, 2010;Chiutsi & Saarinen, 2017). ...
Environmental change is an ecologically complicated and contentious issue that usually has consequences on the structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Consequently, the impacts of environmental change will be more pronounced on both the natural resource base and dependent industries such as wildlife-based tourism. However, the extent of knowledge on environmental change, especially in protected areas in Botswana, is relatively limited. Creating knowledge on the nature and scale of environmental change is a fundamental step to responsive policy formulations and planning of adaptation measures. This chapter examines the perceived impacts and implications environmental change has on the sustainability and management of the Chobe National Park (CNP), Botswana. Sixty-seven safari tour guide respondents were purposively sampled in this study, drawn from the mobile and fixed tourism operators in Chobe District. In addition, nine key informants were also purposively sampled. Descriptive statistics and a thematic analysis approach were used for analysing the data. The results demonstrate that respondents held negative perceptions towards environmental change on wildlife-based tourism. The important assumption is that the consequences of environmental change on wildlife-based tourism management in Chobe National Park should not threaten its sustainability and High Cost; Low Volume (HCLV) Policy position.KeywordsEnvironmental changeWildlife-based tourismPerceptionsSustainabilityChobe national parkBotswana
... The latter economic aggregate is defined as GNI minus the depreciation of physical assets due to their use and obsolescence. Consider that NDP (or NNI: Net National Income) is the economic aggregate used to measure the increase in wealth of a country in the long run (Barnes 2001;Spant 2003ESA 2010. With the increase in the share of depreciation, the gap between NNI and GDP increases, where the latter aggregate is instead used to measure economic well-being (Antolini 2016). ...
Tourism is based on the physical movement of people, and it is therefore of fundamental importance to have a transport system that is functional and that can facilitate travel to tourist destinations. However, transport is also important in itself because it ensures the freedom of movement for people and reduces social distances, in turn promoting growth and economic development. For this reason, it is necessary to design a transport and infrastructure system that is functional and promotes the accessibility of tourist destinations. Nodal analysis, applied to tourism flows in Italy, highlights the contradiction of a transport system which has enforced the policy of large hubs, in a country where there are many tourist destinations. Nevertheless, the nodal analysis methodology applied to the tourist flows show the need to strengthen the connection between the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian coasts, as well as the connection with some regions of the south, such as the Basilicata region. Moreover, it would be appropriate to enhance the railway line on the Adriatic dorsal in order to reach some tourist regions with greater ease. In the same way, the geographical configuration of Italy makes an enhancement of the ports highly desirable, creating an intermodal system.
... On the other hand, protectionists argue that hunting of any form is the main driver of wildlife extinction. They also emphasize ecotourism as feasible means of generating income from wildlife and has proven successful in creating income from and for several major national parks and privately-owned land (Barnes, 2001;Kiss, 2004). In their view, they hold that nature should not be interfered within any way (WWF, 1999). ...
... Práticas éticas e humanas são parte integrante da boa gestão e da ciência da conservação. Entretanto, é preciso entender os fatores, incentivos e os mercados da conservação, bem como o papel do uso sustentável dentro de políticas e práticas da conservação (BARNES & JAGER 1995, BARNES 2001, BROWN 2017 (YOUNG & MEDEIROS 2018). Se a gestão dessa UC não consegue extrair renda diante de tamanhas facilidades, pode-se imaginar como está situação de outras tantas unidades espalhadas pelos rincões remotos do país, em especial da Amazônia. ...
By historical reasons, public policies related to native and exotic fauna management in Brazil have been responsible for several processes of biological invasion by promoting incentives to exoticism in expressing opposition to the benefits of the Convention on Biodiversity Diversity (CBD), which Brazil is one of the main protagonists during the Eco-92 Conference (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). I describe what Brazilian government has made since then for natural resources management, especially on sustainable uses from wildlife to avoid and restrict the commercial exotic animal production. I use specific cases of invasive exotic fauna, including the feral hog and wild boar (Sus scrofa) invasions at national scale, to evaluate the Brazilian government's commitments and responsibilities in relation to the demands from society related to the management and use of fauna, especially from the socio-economic and environmental point of view. I discuss the causes, consequences and challenges to the public managers for wildlife use and conservation, and its particular socio-economic and environmental conflicts that are disastrous and compromising the biological megadiversity in Brazil. Considering the national and regional scenarios presented, I also deal with ecological issues concerning the distribution and occupation of invasive wild boar in Mato Grosso do Sul state, starting with the occurrence survey and the mapping of the conflicts related to the presence of wild boar (javali/javaporco) and also of the feral hog (porco-monteiro) in the Pantanal plain in recent years. I present the spatiotemporal evolution of the process of invasion of feral pigs, especially regarding the most recent cycle of invasion involving wild boars and their hybrids (javalis/javaporcos). I identify some factors that have influenced this dynamic, showing the localities where the encounter between these populations and the oldest population of the feral hog (porco-monteiro) in the Pantanal has been taking places. It is also estimated the frequency of detection and occupation of the feral pigs in the state, as well as the percentage of the area invaded by wild boars/hybrids (javalis/javaporcos) in the state and their local relative abundance. The detection and occupation (invasion area) of feral pigs are tested between both, and also in relation to the effect of socioeconomic and environmental variables that could be associated to the occurrences of feral pigs as habitat types detected in the landscape and land uses identified in the state. In addition, I present feral pig population estimative all over the MS state, considering the current frequency and also population size predictions, if the abundance reaches their thresholds of environmental saturation, modeling the feral pigs distribution and occupation. Finally, the relative frequency of detection between the three species of suiforms, Sus scrofa and the two native species, Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu, is presented and discussed, as well as the possible relationships among them and the implications for the conservation of native biodiversity. These aspects were related to the management policies of invasive feral pigs and the conservation of regional biodiversity, in the light of what has already been discussed in all chapters. At the end, I critized the current model of extremely protectionist management of wildlife by the Brazilian State, which repels investments in research and development, and propose a new management model for fauna based on scientific and technological knowledge and supported by free market initiatives.
... Around half of the country is communal land, with agriculture (mostly free ranging livestock rearing) being the most predominant land use outside of protected areas (Central Statistics Office, 2013). Rainfall occurs in the Austral summer between November and April (the wet season) and ranges from an average of 250 mm in the south-west to 650 mm in the north and north-east (Barnes, 2001). During the wet season temperatures are high (18-45°C). ...
Across Africa, many raptor species, especially vultures, are in steep decline. Botswana is regionally important for numerous raptor species including vultures, but recent population trends of raptors within this country are totally unknown. In 2015-2016 we repeated road transects for raptors across northern Botswana that were first conducted in 1991-1995. In total, we re-surveyed 20,712 km of transects. From these data we explored changes in abundance of 29 species. Fourteen species (48%) showed significant declines. Of these, 11 species declined by > 50% and three species declined by 37-50%. Non-significant declines of > 70% were shown for four species , of 30-65% for six species and of < 10% for a further two species. In contrast only three species, all large eagles-tawny eagle (Aquila rapax), brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus) and black-chested snake eagle (Circaetus pectoralis), showed significant but small increases of between 6 and 15%. For most species, population trends were similar both inside and outside of protected areas, with only two species showing significantly different trends. Declines of bateleur eagle (Terathopius ecaudatus) were lower inside protected areas. In contrast, brown snake eagles showed stable populations inside protected areas but large increases outside of protected areas. These re-surveys suggest extremely worrying trends for multiple raptor species in Botswana, and highlights the benefit of repeating historical surveys to understand population trends in countries that lack systematic monitoring of wildlife populations.
... Musengezi (2010) as cited by Cloete and Rossouw (2014) revealed that the financial returns of wildlife properties for areas next to KNP exceed those of extensive commercial beef production and provide a significant number of employment opportunities. The study by Barnes (2001) on the returns of and allocation of resources in the game sector has found that game in Botswana can increase the national income since this country has substantial and generally healthy wildlife population. However, an increase in national income depends on the ability of the country in ensuring that wildlife utilization activities are fully developed in spatial and temporal patterns that maximize their economic contributions. ...
The integration of livestock and game farming is an increasingly important alternative for optimal land use in South Africa. In addition to climate change and the increasing aridity of large sections of land, there is also a growing demand to feed the population. Hitherto such integration has been practiced on a relatively small scale by commercial farmers on privately owned land, and by smallholder farmers on communal land. The latter use the land for grazing livestock, but this readily leads to an overutilization of the resource, resulting in serious land degradation. This paper examines perceptions and costs/benefits associated with integrating livestock with Game. While the Cost/Benefit Analysis (CBA) result for livestock farming alone was 0.67, indicating that the project is not sustainable, the CBA for integrated Game and livestock farming was 1.13, implying that it’s sustainable. The Net Present Value (NPV) for the Game+/livestock farming was also positive, indicating that it is a worthwhile investment when compared with livestock farming only.
... A strong linkage exists between environmental management and sustainable national economic development, which would in turn enhance the welfare of the human population both at country and global levels (Barnes, 2001). Otherwise, there is likelihood that degradation in socio-economical and biophysical systems would continue with net negative impacts on human welfare especially for rural communities that are heavily dependant on usage of natural resources. ...
... Th ese types of tourism belong to a wider group of activities called consumptive wildlife tourism (Macmillan & Phillip, 2008). Its development, as Barnes (2001) argues, contributes to the protection of natural resources of, both, animate and inanimate nature. From the marketing point of view, angling and hunting are principally the market niches (Curtin, 2013) as these activities are highly specialized activities. ...
The development in tourism should be done within the framework of environmentally friendly tourism. A part of environmentally friendly tourism is the development of "green" hotels. The main objective of this study was to investigate the extent to which visitors to the protected natural areas are interested in "green" hotels. It was conducted on a sample of visitors to ten protected natural areas in the Czech Republic. The results reveal a low interest for this type of accommodation. Pro-environmental orientation of visitors is comparable to other areas. Relaxation is the most participated activity among these visitors. Non-parametric regression with the normal distribution of dependent variable and Log Function was used to identify predictors of such an interest. A higher degree of interest was identified among the environmentally oriented visitors. A higher degree of interest was also identified among bicycle tourists, gamekeepers, anglers (who are gamekeepers at the same time) and female anglers. A higher interest in environmentally friendly accommodation is generally higher among female tourists rather than among male tourists. Those categories have identified the main target segments (each distinct one from another) of the potential creation of the supply of such an accommodation in vulnerable areas.
... In Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s, 59% of surveyed PLCAs were profitable (Langholz, 1996). Financial models suggest that ecotourism has the potential to generate a greater return on investment than hunting in some southern African countries, while both activities fare poorly in others (Absa Group Ecomonic Research, 2003;Barnes and de Jager, 1996;Barnes, 2001). Consumptive uses of wildlife, such as meat sales and hunting, have nonetheless become important industries in southern Africa (Bond et al., 2004;Novelli et al., 2006). ...
... They provide important ecosystem services such as helping to maintain wildlife abundance and richness, and enhancing carbon storage (Ripple et al., 2014). They can also bring in large revenues through tourism (Barnes, 2001;) and hunting (Jorge et al., 2013; Lindsey et al., 2006), but they can be a financial burden through predation on livestock (Rust & Marker, 2014). Despite their value, large carnivores across the world are in decline (along with their prey: Ripple et al., 2015) as a result of the growing human population and increasing pressures on the environment (Di Marco et al., 2014; Gittleman, Macdonald & Wayne, 2001; Nowell & Jackson, 1996; Ray, Hunter & Zigouris, 2005; Woodroffe, 2000), and they are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbance (Ray, Hunter & Zigouris, 2005; Sillero-Zubiri & Laurenson, 2001). ...
Large carnivores are decreasing in number due to growing pressure from an expanding human population. It is increasingly recognised that state-protected conservation areas are unlikely to be sufficient to protect viable populations of large carnivores, and that private land will be central to conservation efforts. In 2000, a fast-track land reform programme (FTLRP) was initiated in Zimbabwe, ostensibly to redress the racial imbalance in land ownership, but which also had the potential to break up large areas of carnivore habitat on private land. To date, research has focused on the impact of the FTLRP process on the different human communities, while impacts on wildlife have been overlooked. Here we provide the first systematic assessment of the impact of the FTLRP on the status of large carnivores. Spoor counts were conducted across private, resettled and communal land use types in order to estimate the abundance of large carnivores, and to determine how this had been affected by land reform. The density of carnivore spoor differed significantly between land use types, and was lower on resettlement land than on private land, suggesting that the resettlement process has resulted in a substantial decline in carnivore abundance. Habitat loss and high levels of poaching in and around resettlement areas are the most likely causes. The FTLRP resulted in the large-scale conversion of land that was used sustainably and productively for wildlife into unsustainable, unproductive agricultural land uses. We recommended that models of land reform should consider the type of land available, that existing expertise in land management should be retained where possible, and that resettlement programmes should be carefully planned in order to minimise the impacts on wildlife and on people.
... This means that fewer visitors are required to generate a given level of income, possibly reducing the related environmental impact (Gössling, 2000;Mayaka et al., 2004). Trophy hunting, once it is recognized as having financial and economic benefits to local populations, engenders a positive and protective attitude towards wildlife in those populations, resulting in a positive impact on conservation (Baker, 1997;Barnes, 2001;Barnes, 2003, Barnes et al., 2002;Novelli and Humavindu, 2005). This would be especially true for Namibia, where the revenue generated by trophy hunting is seen as being a major factor in the increased development of wildlife conservancies on communally owned land (Lindsey, 2008). ...
... There is research suggesting that trophy hunting, once it is recognized as having financial and economic benefits to local populations, engenders a positive and protective attitude towards wildlife in those populations, resulting in a positive impact on conservation (Baker, 1997;Barnes, 2001;Barnes, 2003, Barnes et al., 2002;Novelli and Humavindu, 2005). This would be especially true for Namibia, where the revenue generated by trophy hunting is seen as being a major factor in the increased development of wildlife conservancies on communally owned land (Lindsey, 2008). ...
The international outcry and indignation which followed the killing of " Cecil the Lion " in Zimbabwe in July 2015 opened a Pandora's Box on the ethical and economic implications of trophy hunting, especially in African countries. Private trophy hunting operators such as Hunters Namibia Safaris, a Namibian company, more than ever before, had to justify their business. No easy task when your trade is often described as being controversial, unsustainable and, in many instances, cruel. While the debate on trophy hunting was always intense internationally and locally, the death of " Cecil the Lion " only escalated it. Governments, trophy hunting operators, professional hunters, communities impacted by trophy hunting, and national and international NGOs all had a point of view in the heated debate over whether or not trophy hunting is indeed a sustainable and worthwhile activity. Some countries such as South Africa and Namibia tout the success of the industry in terms of economic gain and wildlife conservation. Botswana took another direction and banned trophy hunting in 2013. But now the country faces the loss of income that hunters provided, as well as growing instances of wild animals such as lion and elephant threatening rural communities. So who is right and who is wrong about the sustainability of the industry? Some say that a well-regulated trophy hunting industry plays an important role in the conservation of wildlife and guarantees immediate and long-term economic benefits for communities (as well as the country as a whole). Others say the opposite – according to this view, trophy hunting is an unsustainable and unethical practice which wreaks havoc amongst big cat populations, elephants and endangered species such as black rhino.
... wildlife watching, taking photos, feeding of wildlife or similar activities). However, even the consumptive wildlife tourism is fundamentally dependent on the same prerequisites for tourism as the wildlife tourism and its development contributes to the natural resources protection at the level of both animate and inanimate nature (Barnes, 2001;Buckley, Castley, de Pegas, Mossaz, & Steven, 2012). ...
in the world scale, there are various forms of how the hunting tourism is carried out. there is a considerably specific situation in the czech republic originating in the historical development. the assessment of the diversification of the demand for tourist activities was chosen to be the aim of this article. this assessment is based on a questionnaire survey among tourism participants who consume the specific products of the hunting tourism in the tourist regions of Bohemian Forest and south Bohemia. A guided tour in a game enclosure with a professional commentary and wildlife observation showed to be the most interesting offer. the most important thing is the identification of five main segments of demand called " ordinary " gamekeeper's hunting, " occasional " gamekeeper's hunting, angling activities, hunting without the killing and complementary activities. the differences among the latter five segments were identified in the representation of respondents as far as their gender and their membership in a community of anglers or gamekeepers are concerned.
... It is important to analyze these initiatives in order to further understand the relationship between conservation and human well-being [1][2][3]. Examples from southern Africa suggest strong linkages between the quality of natural resources and their management, and a variety of socioeconomic and livelihoods indicators [5,[9][10][11]. Nevertheless, rigorous empirical evaluations, even in this part of the world, remain rare [12,13]. ...
Biodiversity conservation, as an environmental goal, is increasingly recognized to be connected to the socioeconomic well-being of local communities. The development of a widespread community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) program in Namibia makes it an ideal location to analyze the connection between conservation and socioeconomic well-being of local communities. Namibia's CBNRM program involves the formation of communal conservancies within rural communities and previous studies have found it to be successful on both ecological and economic fronts. In order to broaden the understanding of the program's impact to include social factors, we have conducted a comparative analysis to determine the effects of this program on household welfare outcomes. Data from two rounds of the Namibia Demographic and Health Surveys (2000 and 2006/07) and quasi-experimental statistical methods were used to evaluate changes in various health, education and wealth outcomes of those living in conservancies, relative to non-conservancy comparison groups. Regression results indicate mixed effects of the conservancy program at the household level. The program had positive effects on some health outcome variables, including bednet ownership, which was twice as likely to increase over time in conservancy compared to non-conservancy households. Program impacts were negative for education outcomes, with the proportion of school attendance of conservancy children being 45% less likely to increase over time than non-conservancy children. Wealth outcome results were inconclusive. Our findings highlight the importance of analyzing community conservation programs at a variety of scales when evaluating overall impact, as community-level benefits may not necessarily extend down to the household level (and vice versa).
... Wildlife in southern Africa has economic value (Barnes, 2001;Humavindu and Barnes 2003). In 2000, nearly one-quarter of income from safari hunters in Namibia accrued to the rural poor, making the industry important for economic development. ...
... In dry areas, higher returns can be yielded from indigenous species which are adapted to the ecological conditions than can be expected from agriculture and exotic species. Thus, in the more arid parts of Southern Africa, market forces are working for conservation, not against it (Barnes 2001; Barnes et al. 2002;Brown 2004). ...
... For southeastern Zimbabwe, which receives unreliable annual rainfall below 600mm, Child reported that wildlife alone provides more profit than either cattle or a combination of cattle and wildlife [18]. Economic analysis of community wildlife-use initiatives in Namibia and Botswana have shown that conservancy investments in Namibia and wildlife resources in Botswana are economically efficient and contribute positively to national economic wellbeing [19][20][21][22]. Additionally, data from South Africa confirm that switching to wildlife increased employment five times, the total wage bill 30 times, created numerous upstream and downstream economic multipliers and doubled land values [18,23]. ...
Annual rural incomes in Southern Africa show large rainfall-induced fluctuations. Variable rainfall has serious implications for agro-pastoral activities (crop cultivation and livestock keeping), whereas wildlife and tourism are less affected. The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of wildlife income in reducing rainfall-induced fluctuations in households’ annual incomes. We analyse costs and benefits from agro-pastoral systems in southeastern Zimbabwe by means of a two-tier longitudinal survey and wildlife benefits through analysis of wildlife revenues. We use the portfolio theory framework to investigate whether wildlife conservation has the potential for farmers to reduce risk associated with agricultural production. Results show that even though wildlife income is small, it tends to be less volatile than income from the agro-pastoral system. Furthermore, the addition of wildlife as an asset to the rural farmers’ portfolio of assets showed that wildlife can be used as a hedge asset to offset risk from agricultural production without compromising on return. The potential of diversification using wildlife is, however, limited since agriculture and wildlife assets are positively correlated. We conclude that revenues from wildlife have some potential to reduce annual household income fluctuations, but only to a limited extent. We argue that if wildlife is organised on a more commercial basis, a more substantial role can be played by wildlife income in reducing variations in rural households’ incomes.
... Without revenue from hunting, political pressure might be exerted to turn these areas over to domestic livestock production, which could irreversibly damage these ecosystems (e.g. Barnes 2001). Twenty per cent (140,000 km 2 ) of Zambia's land area is made up of Game Management Areas, whereas only half as much land is designated for National Parks (Lewis & Alpert 1997). ...
... If the returns to labour are factored as a benefit rather than a cost, the net social benefit of nature-based tourism is greatly increased. The danger of including returns to labour as a benefit is the creation of state-subsidised tourism that is uncompetitive without ongoing support.Table 9.3: Comparative financial and economic rates of return of wildlife-based versus cattle ranching enterprises in the south-eastern Kalahari, Botswana, illustrating the effect of government subsudes(Barnes 2001). Financial rates of return give an indication of the private incentive for investment in an activity, while the economic rate of return considers the total effect on the welfare of society. ...
... As land uses, they tend to be complementary and not mutually exclusive. The results above, and general studies (Barnes, 2001) have shown that combinations of both non-consumptive and consumptive uses will generate maximum benefits. To provide the incentives needed for massive investment in rhino conservation, all possible uses should be explored for rhino. ...
... The economic viability as demonstrated in this paper and the financial incentives available for communities in conservancy development fit in the broader framework of rural or national development. We have not measured the economic efficiency of the CBNRM programme as whole, or the wildlife sector as a whole, but evidence from Botswana-where this has been done (Barnes, 2001;Barnes et al., 2000)-suggests that the economic viability of individual conservancies extends to the broader context. Thus, allocation of conservancy land to wildlife, and not to other uses, is likely to be economically sound. ...
264 (0)61 249 015 Fax: + 264 (0)61 240 339 email: contact@dea.met.gov.na http://www.dea.met.gov.na This series of Research Discussion Papers is intended to present preliminary, new or topical information and ideas for discussion and debate. The contents are not necessarily the final views or firm positions of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Comments and feedback will be welcomed. Edited by Directorate of Environmental Affairs Cover illustration by Helga Hoveka Work on this paper has been supported through funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), through the World Wildlife Fund (US) LIFE Programme, under terms of Agreement no. 623-02510A-00-3135-00, the Overseas Development Institute, with funding from the British Department of International Development (DFID), The Swedish Government (Sida) and by the Namibian Government.
... Conservation. [2], [27], [40], [107], [110], [143], [155], [169], [203], [247], [294], [306], 5.4. Development. ...
There continues to be considerable interest in the potential for applying Operational Research (OR) in less-developed countries. A recent paper provided a bibliography of published research from West Africa. This paper extends that bibliography to the other sub-Saharan nations, with the omission of South Africa. In some parts of this region, there have been numerous applications described in the literature, while in others there is very little on record. As in the earlier paper, the material has been collected from a wide range of journals, extending from the regular OR literature to many application journals. In addition to the references, the paper describes the manner of collection of this information, and discusses the resulting picture of OR in sub-Saharan Africa.
... This is usually carried out by foreign hunters who are willing to pay a fee for the experience and ⁄ or the trophy attained (Hofer, 2002). Large areas of habitat are set aside for the purpose of trophy hunting and can therefore create incentives for conservation in areas where the potential for ecotourism is limited (Barnes, 2001; Lindsey, Roulet & Romanach, 2007). This is particularly the case in remote, less scenically attractive sites and ⁄ or habitats where there are high concentrations of people and livestock (Lindsey et al., 2006). ...
Within the Kilombero Game Controlled Area (KGCA) of Tanzania, protection is offered to large mammal populations by trophy hunting concessions that maintain natural habitat through the prevention of extensive human encroachment. The opinions of local communities to wildlife management operations such as trophy hunting play an important role in their long‐term viability. This study addresses the influence of socio‐demographic factors on the opinions of local communities to trophy hunting in areas that are not part of community‐based management projects, which is where most research of this type has previously been conducted. Semi‐structured questionnaires were conducted in 24 villages within the Kilombero Valley (fifteen interviews per village) in August–December 2007. The extent to which socio‐demographic factors including location (e.g. village of residence) and individual respondent characteristics (e.g. gender and age) influenced the respondents’ opinions was analysed. Of these socio‐demographic factors, all, except age and district of residence, were found to influence the opinions of local residents.
Socio‐demographic factors play an important role in determining local communities’ attitudes towards trophy hunting, and this must be taken into account during the design and assessment of wildlife management conservation strategies, both locally in the KGCA and in similar national and international initiatives.
... For conservation outside of parks to be successful, sufficient revenues must be generated from wildlife to offset opportunity costs associated with protecting wildlife and habitats. Ecotourism represents one means of generating revenues from wildlife, and has proven successful in creating income from and for several major national parks and privately owned wildlife areas in Africa, and to a lesser extent communally owned wildlife areas (Barnes, 2001; Kiss, 2004; Thirgood et al., 2006). However, there are not enough tourists to generate revenues for all of Africa's protected areas or for most of the wildlife habitat that occurs outside of parks (e.g. in Zambia, Lewis & Alpert, 1997; Central Africa, Wilkie & Carpenter, 1999a; and even Kenya, Grunblatt et al., 1995 ). ...
There is a lack of consensus among conservationists as to whether trophy hunting represents a legitimate conservation tool in Africa. Hunting advocates stress that trophy hunting can create incentives for conservation where ecotourism is not possible. We assessed the hunting preferences of hunting clients who have hunted or plan to hunt in Africa (n=150), and the perception among African hunting operators (n=127) of client preferences at two US hunting conventions to determine whether this assertion is justified. Clients are most interested in hunting in well-known East and southern African hunting destinations, but some trophy species attract hunters to remote and unstable countries that might not otherwise derive revenues from hunting. Clients are willing to hunt in areas lacking high densities of wildlife or attractive scenery, and where people and livestock occur, stressing the potential for trophy hunting to generate revenues where ecotourism may not be viable. Hunting clients are more averse to hunting under conditions whereby conservation objectives are compromised than operators realize, suggesting that client preferences could potentially drive positive change in the hunting industry, to the benefit of conservation. However, the preferences and attitudes of some clients likely form the basis of some of the problems currently associated with the hunting industry in Africa, stressing the need for an effective regulatory framework.
... Trophy hunting is viable in several countries that receive few conventional tourists (e.g., CAR, Chad, and Ethiopia), and in remote parts of countries that are popular among tourists (e.g., northwest South Africa, and southern Tanzania). In Botswana, 74% of the wildlife estate relies on revenues from consumptive wildlife utilization (Barnes, 2001). Hunting has several advantages over photographic ecotourism which enable the industry to generate revenues under a wider range of scenarios. ...
There is a lack of consensus among some conservation NGOs and African governments concerning the acceptability and effectiveness of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. This lack of consensus is due partly to a lack of reliable information on the economic significance and ecological impact of the industry. We provide a review of the scale of the trophy hunting industry, and assess both positive and negative issues relating to hunting and conservation in Africa. Trophy hunting occurs in 23 countries in Africa, with the largest industries occurring in southern Africa and Tanzania, where the industry is expanding. The trophy hunting industry has remained static or is shrinking in Central and West Africa. A minimum of 1,394,000 km2 is used for trophy hunting in sub-Saharan Africa, which exceeds the area encompassed by national parks. Trophy hunting is thus of major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism. However, there are a number of problems associated with the industry which limit conservation benefits. Several of these problems are common to multiple countries, suggesting that if solutions were developed, conservation benefits would accrue over large areas.
This article interrogates how the provision (or absence) of state infrastructure such as roads, bridges, permanent buildings, water reticulation, electricity, and transport facilities in regions hosting the lucrative tourism industry is linked to state control and regulation of the use of space, as well as the daily lives of conservation-adjacent citizens. Using the dialectic of legibility and illegibility in the context of Botswana’s expansive wildlife tourism industry, it examines how ambiguous government expansions and retractions of infrastructure function as mechanisms of state-building in relation to the natural environment. In Botswana’s western region, the provision of infrastructure draws out previously sparsely populated and seasonally mobile people from “the bush” to live in state-sanctioned villages, pulling them into a relationship of “legibility” with the state. However, in the north, where the bulk of the tourism industry is based, the calculus is different. The allocation of infrastructure is delayed or denied in order to maintain the fiction of a people-free wilderness that appeals to foreign tourist consumers—pushing local people into “illegibility”. The myth of a people-less wilderness produces highly differentiated modes of state intervention in rural areas, shifting local peoples’ ability to interface with the state, the tourism industry, and other citizens. This article conceptualizes illegibility not as a form of resistance to, or avoidance of, state power but in the unique context produced by enclave wildlife tourism, an alternative manifestation of state power.
The Chobe National Park River Front (CNPRF) is renowned for a high population and variety of wildlife species in Botswana. The park has become popular for nature-based tourism and wildlife safaris. With increased numbers of wildlife tourists there have been reports on problems of overuse and vehicle congestion in some parts of the Chobe National Park. In order to mitigate crowding and vehicle congestion on the popular Chobe River Front route, the DWNP introduced and implemented Upper and Nogatshaa routes. The purpose of the study is to assess wildlife tourists’ frequency of use and potential environmental impacts on the Chobe River Front, Nogatshaa and Upper routes of the Chobe National Park. Data were collected in June 2013. A semi-structured questionnaire and face-to-face interviews were employed to elicit information from guides operating from fixed lodges, guides from mobile tour safaris and wildlife officials based at Sedudu gate. In addition, participant observation was also used to collect additional data for this study. The results revealed that the Chobe River Front of the CNP was heavily utilized by wildlife tourists, followed by the Upper route and the least used was Nogatshaa. The Chobe River Front route was the most preferred, while Nogatshaa is the least preferred route. The study revealed that there are benefits associated with the newly created vehicle decongestion routes at the CNP. Observations have been made to indicate that the two new routes have relatively relieved the Chobe River Front from tourist vehicle pressure; lessened the congestion of tourist vehicles particularly at animal sightings or encounters of predators (leopards, lions), have relatively relieved the Chobe River Front from tourist vehicle pressure; lessened the congestion of tourist vehicles particularly at animal sightings or encounters specifically predators (leopard, wild dogs, lions) and also creation of a few waterpoints along the Upper and Nogatshaa routes appears to have contributed towards spreading of wild animals over a large area thereby alleviating competition for foraging and water and thereby reducing grassing pressure at the CRF. However, there are still issues of congestion during game drives particularly along the River bank route and at the CRF viewing site. Hence, we still can make a general statement that the decongestion strategy that was meant to alleviate tour operators and tourists’ traffic pressure from the Chobe River Front has possibly not achieved the intended purpose as yet. Managerial implications include improving the use of Upper and Nogatshaa routes by providing better facilities and service to all types of visitors and tourists to make it appealing. It is recommended that the park management should consider devising a strategy to attempt to demarket the Chobe River Front route to reduce visitor pressure, vehicle congestion and alleviate negative impact on animals and associated resources of the CNP.
Data derived from several sources were used to determine basic economic values for the trophy hunting industry in Namibia for the hunting season in 2000. Some 3640 trophy hunters spent 15 450 hunter-days, taking 13 310 game animals. Trophy hunting generated at least N19.6 million) in direct expenditures, or gross output. Gross value added directly attributable to the industry was conservatively estimated at some N9.2 million). Trophy hunting constitutes at least 14% of the total tourism sector and is a significant component of the Namibian economy. Some 24% of the income earned in the trophy hunting industry accrues to poor segments of society in the form of wages and rentals/royalties. About 21% of income generated is captured by the government, through fees and taxes. Trophy hunting is an important contributor to development. More research on the economics of the industry is needed.
The completion of a national wildlife inventory in 2004 enabled the development of a set of wildlife accounts for Namibia, comprising both physical and monetary asset accounts, as well as production or flow accounts. Some 2.04 million larger wild animals made up the physical wildlife asset base which produced gross output of some N 700 million to the gross national product (GNP). Non-consumptive wildlife-viewing tourism generated 62% of the total wildlife sector GNP contribution. Hunting tourism and live game production generated 19 and 10%, respectively. The wildlife use sector represented 2.1% of national GNP in 2004. Its contribution will likely triple in the next 30 years as the sector reaches potential. Namibia’s standing wildlife assets in 2004 were estimated to have a value of N$10.5 billion, a value comparable with those estimated for fish and minerals. Findings suggest that development in the sector should emphasise both non-consumptive and consumptive tourism. Property rights should be secured, through the concessions policy and the community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) programme. Investments in building appropriate stocks of wildlife in both communal and private land should be facilitated.
This report evaluated the 2003 Botswana CBNRM programme in 2003. The study used statistics, available literature and in-depth case studies based on fieldwork.
Safari hunters’ acute awareness of the widely held negative perceptions of their practice has led to their development of strong justifications and defensive assertions in favour of hunting. Far from being a primarily destructive practice, they claim that safari hunting in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, can be seen as an exemplary form of ecotourism, which benefits local communities, facilitates environmental conservation and provides the ultimate nature experience for participants. While research supports their claims to an extent, the ethical quandaries evinced by hunters themselves, the complex dialectic between local and global controls, and the elite, racialised and gendered nature of hunting speaks to a more complex and conflicted situation.
Technical and economic factors hinder effective ecological restoration, especially in developing countries. Three examples show how social policy, economic threats and opportunities, and national and international development policy are driving the restoration of degraded landscapes in southern Africa. First, new opportunities in nature tourism, together with the declining profitability of traditional ranching, have led to diversification into game farming, tourism, and hunting, all initiatives that rely on properly functioning ecosystems. Second, new environmental legislation is forcing industries, particularly mining, to restore land upon termination of their activities. Third, through South Africa’s “Working for Water” program, an elegant solution to problems of excessive water use, local residents are developing skills in clearing alien plants and restoring rangelands.
The purpose of this article is to elicit the motivations or push factors of self-drive visitors to game parks in northern Botswana, in order to describe the product. A survey was conducted and visitors' experiences were observed. The most important motivations were nature, adventure, escape, and mega-fauna. It is suggested that promotion material should not only emphasize specific species (the Big 5) but also include camp-life, creating an image of relaxation away from daily routine, as well as overland safaris. The unique attributes of the destination should be used to differentiate it and provide the benefits visitors are seeking, thereby increasing visitation.
Switching from cattle farming to game ranching has become commonplace in the Northern Cape Province. The need to assess the financial implication of such a switch arose from the question of whether game ranching is financially superior to cattle farming in this province. Comparative economics was used in this case study to analyse the profitability, as well as the financial feasibility of three scenarios to determine the financial implications of such a switch. Estimations were based primarily on hunting (biltong and trophy) and live game auctions, the two pillars of the game industry in this province. Results indicate that game ranching can be more profitable, i.e. generate a higher gross margin per hectare than cattle, although not in all cases. Despite this higher profitability, the results indicate further that it is not always financially viable to convert from cattle farming to game ranching, due to the high level of capital investment required. This may have tremendous cash flow implications for the first few years of operation.
The potential for improvements to tourism planning through development of tourism satellite accounts (TSAs) to measure economic activity, and tourism asset resource accounts (TARAs) to measure the natural asset base, was studied in southern Africa. It was concluded that economic efficiency in tourism development would be enhanced if all the countries pursue plans to develop TSA, TARA and economic models for tourism planning. Basic TSA, including consumption, production, supply and use, employment and capital tables are required. TSA development should take place step by step, with specific data collection surveys and agreements between the stakeholders. Surveys should be focused on both tourists and the suppliers of tourism products, and should be carried out by central tourism agencies in collaboration with national accounting agencies. TARAs should involve both physical accounts for specific resources, such as water or wildlife, as well as land accounts for general tourism activity and potential. TSAs and TARAs should be integrated with input-output/social accounting matrix modelling tools. Countries should match the rigour of their TSA and TARA development with their anticipated capacity for analysis and planning. Donors could assist in the process, especially in a regional context.
There exist few quantitative assessments of the relationship between biodiversity per se and economic benefits at scales that are relevant for conservation. Similarly, the merits of Community-Based Natural Resource
Management programs for both wildlife and people are contested. Here, we harness two databases, on wildlife surveys and financial
benefits, to address these issues for communal conservancies in northwest Namibia. We use ordination methods to characterize
the diversity and stability of large wildlife assemblages on conservancies, and demonstrate that diversity (but not stability)
is an important explanator of conservancy financial benefits. Our results indicate that for this area of Namibia, biodiversity,
as represented by large wildlife assemblages, has an important, positive effect on the tangible financial benefits that people
derive from conservation programs.
KeywordsAfrica–Biodiversity–Community-based conservation–Community ecology–Ecosystem services–Diversity–Ecotourism–Stability–Wildlife
In this study contingent valuation and analysis of records were used to investigate demand for wildlife‐viewing visits and entry to protected areas in Botswana. Wildlife‐viewing tourists experienced consumer surpluses amounting to some 20 per cent of their trip expenditures or 41 million Botswana pula in aggregate. They were willing to pay some 4 per cent of their trip expenditures (8 million pula in aggregate) to a Botswana wildlife conservation fund. Price elasticity of demand for wildlife‐viewing trips was close to unity for all visitors, but appears to have been inelastic for campsite users and elastic for lodge users. Demand for entry to and use of parks was strongly price inelastic over the range of a large fee increase in 1989. However, the fee increase was excessive for visitors from southern Africa. The findings provide some guidelines for policy. Botswana could possibly capture more tourism income by soliciting donations to a conservation fund and further differentiating fees.
In this study, economic cost‐benefit models were applied to analyse the trade‐off between the export of farm‐bred live ostrich and crocodile and the retention of these animals in domestic breeding and rearing industries in Botswana. Intensive ostrich and crocodile enterprises contribute positively to economic growth, but expansion is constrained by limits on input. The important factors that affect the economic efficiency of live exports are the magnitude of any differential between export and domestic prices; the domestic capacity to use retained stock in an economically efficient manner; and the age class of exports. Live ostrich exports are economically efficient when there is a high price differential Export of live crocodile other than adults is economically sound with any positive price differential With both species, continuous export of slaughter‐age juveniles yields most economic value. Policy on live exports needs to be flexible and responsive, which makes regulation by government unwise.
Financial and economic cost‐benefit models were applied to determine the worth of several planned community‐based, wildlife utilisation initiatives in Botswana, and to identify policy guidelines. Projects planned to incorporate small‐scale wildlife cropping. Rentals from safari‐hunting or wildlife‐viewing activities were found to have inherent viability, both financially and economically, particularly in the north of the country, where tourism is greatest. However, success is dependent on both good management and high densities of wildlife. In the Kalahari, game at low densities (more than 100 hectares per large stock unit) cannot be cropped profitably by communities and investments in game protection will result in economic gain. At higher game densities (between 100 and about 25 hectares per large stock unit), positive financial returns are possible with community‐based cropping but two considerations are important. First, investment in protection continues to pay economically and, second, cropping at close to maximum sustainable intensity is most profitable economically. Selective protection aimed at restoring proportions of drought‐sensitive game species also appears economically rewarding.
Analysis of the value of different potential combinations of elephant use in Botswana at various times since 1989 indicates that, with the 1990 CITES Appendix I listing, when international trade in elephant products was effectively banned, about half of potential, economic, use values were lost. Evidence suggests that the ban has helped slow the species' decline in many range states. But data from Botswana, where poaching levels have been low, indicate that most elephant range will be converted to livestock keeping in the next 15 years unless local communities can realise high elephant use values. The trade ban has jeopardised the future of the elephant in Botswana. The solution to elephant conservation involves investment in land and management, within appropriate property rights, for the existence of natural elephant populations. If the international community is serious about elephant conservation, it should actively assist African governments and local communities with funds and expertise for this. Total economic value should be maximised, including complementary combinations of non-consumptive and selected consumptive use values, as well as non-use values. African elephant values must contribute competitively to African rural development.