Article

Last rites for readability formulas in technical communication

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Abstract

Some reading researchers and technical communicators assume the efficacy of readability formulas. Reading researchers use such formulas to equalize the reading difficulty of texts used in experiments. Results of an informal Internet survey indicate that some professional writers and editors use readability formulas that are integrated into word-processing software. This article proposes that readability formulas fail to predict text difficulty. The results of an experiment demonstrate that "text difficulty" is a perception of the reader and therefore cannot be objectively calculated by counting syllables, word length, sentence length, and other text characteristics.

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... Readability is measured using the Fog index introduced by Robert Gunning (1952). Readability formula is designed to predict the level of difficulty of readers of a writing [18]. ...
... Companies that get a maximum score of 25 will be categorized as having a prospector strategy and companies with a total score of 5 will be categorized as having defender strategy. Furthermore, the types of business strategies are categorized based on the number of scores as follows: defender (5-10), analyzer (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20), prospector (21-25). ...
... Furthermore, the company's business strategy score (STRA) shows that a minimum value of 8 with a maximum of 22 with an average of 15. As described in the measurement of variables, business strategies are categorized based on the total score as follows: defender (5-10), analyzer (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20), prospector (21-25). In other words, the results of the descriptive statistical analysis show that the study sample has a range of strategy choices from defender, analyzer and prospector. ...
... DuBay (2004) mendefinisikan keterbacaan sebagai mudahnya pemahaman atau komprehensif karena gaya penulisan yang menyebabkan kemudahan dalam membaca kata-kata dan kalimat. Terdapat beberapa asumsi tertentu yang diwariskan oleh para penulis dan editor profesional terkait keterbacaan suatu tulisan (Connatser, 1999), yaitu: kalimat yang pendek lebih mudah dibaca dari pada kalimat panjang; kata-kata dengan suku kata yang sedikit lebih mudah dibaca daripada kata-kata dengan suku kata yang banyak; Kata-kata yang pendek lebih mudah dibaca daripada kata-kata yang panjang; kalimat aktif lebih mudah dibaca daripada kalimat pasif. Untuk mengukur keterbacaan dari suatu tulisan, diperlukan formula yang dapat digunakan untuk menentukan apakah suatu tulisan dapat dibaca dan dipahami atau tidak. ...
... Untuk mengukur keterbacaan dari suatu tulisan, diperlukan formula yang dapat digunakan untuk menentukan apakah suatu tulisan dapat dibaca dan dipahami atau tidak. Formula keterbacaan dirancang untuk memprediksi tingkat kesulitan pembaca terhadap suatu tulisan (Connatser, 1999). ...
... Kemudian, dukungan atas dugaan penelitian Li (2008) Gunning (1952). Formula keterbacaan dirancang untuk memrediksi tingkat kesulitan pembaca terhadap suatu tulisan (Connatser, 1999). Pengukuran ini berdasarkan kata "Foggy" atau kabut. ...
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This study aims to examine the effect of business strategy and earnings management on the readability of narrative information in the annual report. This research was conducted at publicly listed companies in Indonesia in 2015 to 2017, with a total sample of 495 firm-years. The results of this study prove that the company's business strategy has an association with the readability of narrative information on a compa-ny's annual report. However, there is no evidence that the level of readability of the annual report's narrative information is related to earnings management by the company. In summary, it can be concluded that the level of readability of the narra-tive information on a company's annual report tends to be driven because of the company's business characteristics, not because of the opportunistic motives of man-agement.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji pengaruh strategi bisnis dan manajemen laba terhadap keterbacaan informasi naratif laporan tahunan. Penelitian ini dil-akukan pada perusahaan terbuka yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia pada tahun 2015 sampai dengan 2017, dengan total sampel sebanyak 495 perusahaan-tahun.. Hasil penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa strategi bisnis perusahaan memiliki pengaruh terhadap keterbacaan informasi naratif laporan keuangan. Namun, tidak ditemukan bukti bahwa tingkat keterbacaan informasi naratif laporan tahunan berkaitan dengan manajemen laba yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan. Secara ringkas dapat disimpulkan bahwa tingkat keterbacaan pengungkapan informasi naratif laporan tahunan perusahaan cenderung didorong karena karakteristik bisnis perus-ahaan, bukan karena motif oportunistik manajemen.
... An annual report's readability will determine the communication quality between the company and its stakeholders (Dalwai et al., 2021). Several concepts regarding the readability formula found by previous experts were summarized by Connatser (1999) in four elements. First, shorter sentences are easier to read than long sentences. ...
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This study examines the effect of tax avoidance and corporate governance on the readability of annual reports. The readability of the annual report is measured using a gunning fog index. This quantitative research uses panel data regression analysis with a random effects model. The population of this study is manufacturing companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (IDX) during the period 2016-2019. The sample was selected using the purposive sampling method so that the selected sample in this study amounted to 196 observations. The results provide empirical evidence that tax avoidance affects the readability of the annual report negatively, while managerial ownership positively affects the readability of the annual report. Meanwhile, independent commissioners and audit committees have no significant influence. The results of this study can assist investors in determining which investment decisions they will choose and help tax authorities to allocate more resources to understand public financial statements, especially those that are not easy to read.
... Flesch (1948) finds a correlation of 0.71 between the FRE and text comprehension, and DuBay(2004)reports that readability formulas to capture between 50% and 84% of variance in text difficulty. While some question the validity of readability formulas(Connatser 1999;Duffy 1985),Kondru (2006) finds that "[readability formula] predictions correlate very well with the results of the actual readability measurements of expert judgments, comprehension tests, and the cloze procedures." (p. ...
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With the introduction of short-form disclosure documents, financial regulation in the EU emphasizes the use of plain language to facilitate comprehensibility. We evaluate whether these documents and the accompanying plain language guidelines improve the readability of mandatory product information addressed to mutual fund investors. Applying advanced text mining algorithms, we benchmark the readability of product information by means of objective and readily replicable methods. While mutual fund information on average does not come in plain language, we find that readability improved significantly following the introduction of Key Investor Information Documents (KIIDs). Improvements are driven by simpler syntax and writing style. By contrast, the authors find that the use of jargon remains pervasive and report noncompliance with mandatory design requirements. We discuss our results and propose potential disclosure improvements.
... Comprehensibility therefore is no longer a trait of a given text but becomes firmly connected to target groups and to real world effects." Connatser (1999) also writes that "most audiences of technical documents read to do. Therefore, usability testing of a document seems much more appropriate for measuring how effectively a text conveys technical information than a formula." ...
Thesis
This PhD was initiated by the Human Factors and Ergonomics in Design department at Airbus with the aim of optimizing an existing cockpit controlled language to integrate in future disruptive design. The need for clear and unambiguous communication is vital in safety critical domains, and the current controlled language was carefully constructed to avoid ambiguity and complexity, and is designed to help pilots operate and navigate the aircraft in normal and abnormal (in cases of emergency or failures) situations. In order to optimize the existing language, we set out to assess the appropriate levels of simplification that would achieve more accurate and faster comprehension with minimum pilot training. We first delved into the controlled language domain to form an overview of the existing controlled languages, their context, and rules. From this research we attempted to find solutions for optimization, but at the same time we strove to offer an original contribution to the field through this work.
... Review test text for possible difficulties due to phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Shorter words with fewer syllables, shorter sentences, and active verb tense may not be easier to read (Connatser, 1999). ...
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Issues pertaining to language and reading while developing and adapting tests are examined. Strengths and limitations associated with the use of readability formulas are discussed. Their use should be confined to paragraphs and longer passages, not items. Readability methods that consider both quantitative and qualitative variables and are performed by seasoned professionals are recommended. Research examining the use of readability formulas applied to test content is needed.
... 70 Research stimulated in part by this movement identified several factors that promote or inhibit comprehension, [71][72][73] including the fact that readability formulas (eg, Gunning's Fog Index) do more harm than good in guiding writers. [74][75][76] In the 1980s, the composition movement expanded interest in the writing process to the "composing process," or what happens in the writer's mind before writing. 47 Attention is placed on the social and political implications of writing. ...
... For computing readability, there are few standard formula that are widely used by experts in different fields such as business, health care, publishing, education, industry, military, etc. With these readability formulae, many articles were published by differ-ent researchers such as Manzo (1970), Bruce et al. (1981), Lange (1982), Connatser (1999) and Misra et al. (2013), etc. ...
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With the emergence of World Wide Web (WWW) as the primary reference channel of information, the need for making it barrier-free for all categories of users has evolved into a critical factor. Making the web resources barrier-free for users requires action across various dimensions such as accessibility and readability. This paper presents an analysis of accessibility, readability, and site-ranking of top ranked (N=20) government websites of India. The accessibility analysis has been carried out using aChecker and WAVE tools. The readability of the contents of the website is measured with six different indices such as Flesch-Kincaid reading ease, Flesch-Kincaid grade level, Gunning fog, SMOG, Coleman-Liau index and Automated Readability Index. The ranking of sites by National Informatics Centre (NIC) has been utilized to select the top ranked websites and their corresponding rankings are compared with global site ranking services such as Alexa. The correlation among these three factors of accessibility, readability, and site-ranking has been carried out with Spearman’s rank correlation method and the inferences derived from the results are presented.
... Formulas were developed using different criteria, but typically they used sentence length, word frequency and number of syllables per word as criteria (DuBay 2004), and they were built upon "criterion" passages taken from texts used in the U.S. educational system, typically referring to the American grade school level one would need in order to read a specific text. According to some scholars, this makes their general applicability questionable (Giles and Still 2005;Connatser 1999). ...
... Review test text for possible difficulties due to phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Shorter words with fewer syllables, shorter sentences, and active verb tense may not be easier to read (Connatser, 1999). ...
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Issues pertaining to language and reading while developing and adapting tests are examined. Strengths and limitations associated with the use of readability formulas are discussed. Their use should be confined to paragraphs and longer passages, not items. Readability methods that consider both quantitative and qualitative variables and are performed by seasoned professionals are recommended. Research examining the use of readability formulas applied to test content is needed.
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Technical writers and editors assume that readers are generally helped when nominalizations and the weak verbs that accompany them are replaced with the verb form of the nominalization. The study discussed here tests that assumption. Specifically, the study assessed the effect of nominalizations, nominalization imageability, and idea importance on readers' recall of technical prose. The results indicate that denominalized text is most effective in helping native speakers focus on more important information. Yet for nonnative speakers, nominalized text may work quite well. Conclusions and recommendations for further study are offered.
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Reading rate under a variety of conditions was investigated. Passages varying in difficulty level from grades 1-16 were read by 435 students varying from Grade 4 through college. For each reading ability level, reading rate was found to be approximately constant when estimates of rate were corrected for differences in word length. For example, college level students typically read the passages at each of a wide range of difficulty levels at an average rate of about 300 standard length words per minute, and they typically changed their rate about 14% from one difficulty level to another. Under one condition, an extra space was added between the words. Passages with these additional spaces were read by most ability levels at the same rate as normally spaced passages. Most readers, in typical or normal reading situations, appear to be able to move their eyes in a way that adjusts to differences in the spacing between words but does not adjust to differences in the information carried by the words. These data support the theory that individuals typically read at a constant rate rather than adjusting their rate to the difficulty level of the material./// [French] On a étudié le taux de lecture sous une variété de conditions. On a fait lire des passages variant en niveau de difficulté du cours primaire aux cours universitaires à 435 étudiants allant de la huitième à l'université. Pour chaque niveau de capacité de lecture, le taux de lecture était environ constant lorsque les estimations de taux étaient corrigées pour les différences en longueur de mot. Par exemple, les étudiants de niveau universitaire de manière typique ont lu les passages à chacun des niveaux d'un large éventail de difficultés à un taux moyen d'environ 300 mots de longueur standard par minute, et ils ont changé de façon typique leur taux d'environ 14% d'un niveau de difficulté à l'autre. Sous une condition, un espace en plus était ajouté entre les mots. Les passages avec ces espaces additionnels étaient lus par la plupart des niveaux de capacité au même taux comme passages normalement espacés. La plupart des lecteurs, en situations de lecture normale ou typique semblent pouvoir bouger leurs yeux de façon à s'ajuster aux différences dans l'espacement entre les mots mais pas aux différences dans l'information donnée par les mots. Ces données soutiennent la théorie que les individus lisent typiquement à un taux constant plutôt que d'ajuster leur taux du niveau de difficulté du matériel./// [Spanish] Se investigo la velocidad de lectura bajo una variedad de condiciones. Pasajes de graduada dificultad, de grados 1 a 16, fueron leídos por alumnos de cuarto grado hasta universitario. Para cada nivel de habilidad de lectura, se encontró una velocidad de lectura casi constante, cuando los cálculos de velocidad fueron ajustados por diferencias en la longitud de palabras. Por ejemplo, los estudiantes universitarios típicamente leen pasajes de cada uno de un amplio margen de dificultad a una velocidad promedio de 300 palabras de longitud estándar por minuto, y típicamente cambiaron su velocidad un 14% de un nivel de dificultad a otro. En uno de los tratamientos, se añadió un espacio adicional entre palabras. Los pasajes con estos espacios adicionales fueron leídos por la mayoría de los diferentes niveles de habilidad a la misma velocidad que los pasajes con espacios normales. La mayoría de lectores, en situaciones de lectura típica o normal, tienden a mover los ojos de manera que se adaptan a la variación de espacios entre palabras, pero no se adaptan a diferencias de contenido en las palabras. Estos datos apoyan la tesis que individuos típicamente leen a una velocidad constante, en vez de ajustar la velocidad al nivel de dificultad del material.
Article
The independence of text structure, background knowledge, and purpose was investigated with respect to text processing and memory. A selective attention hypothesis relying on extra processing to account for differential memory was also tested. Undergraduates demonstrating knowledge of physics or music principles read three texts about laser annealing, musical notation, and parakeets. Sentences were identified as high, intermediate, or low in each text structure hierarchy. Subjects received one of three sets of instructions targeting specific information to be learned. Texts were presented sentence-by-sentence under subject control on a video terminal. Reading rates and subsequent recognition of sentences were recorded. Conclusions were (a) the rate at which information is read depends upon its position in a text structure and the reader's knowledge of the text topic, (b) recognition of text elements is a function of the location in the text structure, (c) the relationship of reading rate and memory does not appear to be a simple linear function, and (d) individuals can alter their reading rates depending upon their purpose independent of their background knowledge. /// [French] On a étudié l'indépendance de la structure de texte, des connaissances de fond et de l'objectif en rapport avec le développement du texte et la mémoire. On a également testé une hypothèse d'attention sélective reposant sur un développement extra pour rendre compte de la mémoire différentielle. Des étudiants non diplomés avec des connaissances de principes de physique ou de musique ont lu trois textes sur le recuit laser, la notation musicale et les perruches. Les phrases étaient identifiées ainsi: hautes, intermédiaires ou basses dans chaque hiérarchie de structure de texte. Les sujets ont reçu un des trois ensembles d'instructions visant des informations spécifiques à apprendre. Les textes étaient présentés phrase par phrase sous contrôle de sujets sur un terminal vidéo. On a enregistré les taux de lecture et la reconnaissance subséquente de phrases. Les conclusions étaient les suivantes: a) le taux auquel les informations sont lues dépend de leur position dans une structure de texte et des connaissances du lecteur concernant le sujet du texte, b) la reconnaissance des éléments de texte est une fonction de la position dans la structure du texte, c) le rapport entre le taux de lecture et la mémoire n'apparait pas comme étant une fonction linéaire simple, et d) les individus peuvent altérer leurs taux de lecture selon leur objectif indépendamment de leurs connaissances de fond. /// [Spanish] Se investigaron la independencia de la estructura del texto, el conocimiento previo y la intención del objetivo deseado con respecto al tratamiento del texto y el recuerdo y recordar. También se evaluó una hipótesis de concentración selecta basada en el proceso adicional, para explicar las diferencias de recuerdo y recordar. Estudiantes universitarios con conocimientos demostrados de principios fundamentales de física y de música, leyeron 3 textos sobre recocimiento por medio de rayos laser, sobre notación musical y sobre periquitos. Se categorizaron las oraciones en jerarquía alta, intermedia y baja en cada estructura de texto. Los estudiantes recibieron uno de tres juegos de instrucciones enfocando información concreta a aprender. Se introdujeron los textos oración por oración en un terminal video y bajo control del estudiante. Se tomó nota de la velocidad de lectura y del subsecuente reconocimiento de oraciones. Se concluyó que (a) la velocidad a que se lee información depende de la posición de ésta en la estructura del texto y del conocimiento del lector del tópico del texto; (b) el reconocer elementos del texto es una función de la posición en la estructura del texto; (c) la relación de la velocidad de lectura y el recuerdo y recordar no parece ser una función simple lineal; y (d) los alumnos pueden alterar su velocidad de lectura dependiendo de la intención del objetivo deseado, independiente de su conocimiento previo.
Article
One hundred and seventeen fourth-grade, sixth-grade, and college-age students studied stories with two different sets of instructions. One set of instructions asked the students to read carefully (control condition); the other set of instructions directed the students to prepare to answer previously-memorized assigned questions (question-cued treatment condition). Viewing times were recorded for story segments both relevant and irrelevant to the assigned questions. Students were then asked to respond to the assigned (relevant) and unassigned (irrelevant) questions. All age groups in the question-cued treatment condition were similar in spending more time on the segments containing answers to assigned questions; however, only sixth-grade and college-age readers in the question-cued treatment condition recalled significantly more relevant than irrelevant information. The results suggest that an age change in the differential retention of relevant and irrelevant information, when questions are known beforehand, is not necessarily contingent upon a similar age change in attention allocation, as measured by the recorded viewing time. These results are interpreted as supporting developmental differences in the ability to effectively engage in purposive processing, a metacognitive skill.
Article
The aim of this paper is to review some of the findings in the field of readability research. First, the differences in meaning between the terms ‘readability’ and ‘legibility’ are discussed. Next, the origins and developments of readability formulas are examined in detail. Then, the best-known formulas for English language material are described so as to give the reader a brief overview of what has been achieved in this field of research. Finally, the principal applications of these formulas are described.
Article
Survey and anecdotal evidence indicates that universities do not prepare students well for writing in the workplace. One important reason for this failure is that rhetorical theory dominates the teaching of technical communication in the academy. Though extremely influential in the academy, rhetorical theory is inappropriate for teaching some kinds of important workplace communication (instructions, online documentation, computer-human interfaces, indexes), and it does not address important skills that practicing technical communicators need. Instrumental discourse differs from rhetoric in its purpose, in its absence of reasons and argumentation, in its task-oriented approach, in its emphasis on accessibility, and in its emphasis on economics. As a result, instrumental discourse is much more appropriate for the genres and skills that practicing technical communicators use, and it offers significant advantages to students, and in the long run, to the academy itself.