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Energy, climate, and our historic opportunity: an editorial essay
Abstract
This article is categorized under: Energy and Climate > Economics and Policy
... W iley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment begins its fifth year at a seminal moment for the field, defined by the pledge of the world community to decarbonize the economy and the energy system that powers it. The Paris Agreement signals a fundamental shift in direction for technology development, market investment, and policy design with the aim of 'holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 C above preindustrial levels.' 1 Meeting this objective will not be easy. Researchers in the field of energy and environment are challenged to identify new approaches and new ways of thinking if we are to meet what the UN Secretary General has called our historic opportunity 'to secure the well-being of this and succeeding generations.' 2 With four published volumes, the journal has established itself as a well-regarded forum for multidisciplinary research in energy and environment. ...
Carbon pricing, technological supports, and energy subsidies comprise the most‐often implemented energy and climate policies. The cost of these policies has grown in recent years, resulting in equity impacts receiving greater attention by academics, policymakers, and the general public. While precise impacts are specific to particular circumstances, there are a number of primary channels through which energy and climate policies affect welfare. This paper gives an overview of how these channels operate. Where applicable, drivers of policy cost are outlined to show how these policies may grow to represent a meaningful welfare impact. Through case study analyses, we explain the most common mechanisms through which these policy costs drive equity outcomes. We review their implementation to date to give insight into the prevalence of these equity outcomes in an international context. Finally, we analyze the ability of remedial measures to counteract inequitable impacts. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:492–509. doi: 10.1002/wene.201
This article is categorized under: Energy Efficiency > Economics and Policy
Energy Infrastructure > Economics and Policy
Energy and Climate > Economics and Policy
As a critical infrastructure, the electric power grid is vulnerable with respect to malicious physical and cyber attacks. Indeed, the importance of physical and cyber security for smart grids has been highlighted by recent intrusion incidents worldwide. Various types of sensors, instrumentation, information and communications technology ( ICT ), computational methodologies, and security controls have been developed to enhance the physical and cyber security of the smart grid. In this paper, critical vulnerabilities of a smart grid that can be exploited for physical and cyber intrusions are discussed. A comprehensive survey is conducted on the state‐of‐the‐art research to enhance the physical and cyber security in a smart grid environment. Furthermore, the interdependency of physical and cyber security is illustrated with an intrusion scenario. The emphasis is on the physical and cyber security of power substations. Computer simulation results for a case study are presented. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:519–542. doi: 10.1002/wene.202
This article is categorized under: Energy Infrastructure > Systems and Infrastructure
Thermodynamics has played a singular role in the development of virtually all energy technologies to‐date. This review argues that it also has a role to play in the understanding and design of solar cell operation, particularly looking toward the future, high‐efficiency solar cells. After a historical overview of the key developments in the ‘thermodynamics of light,’ the conversion of a monochromatic light beam is used as a starting point to analyze the conversion process, examine the fundamental losses in terms of irreversible entropy generation, and consider in detail one of the key applications: the Shockley–Queisser detailed balance. We review and compare the principal suggestions for the highest theoretical efficiency of solar energy conversion, and analyze one possible embodiment of such a third‐generation structure: the hot‐carrier solar cell. A somewhat different application of the statistical approach—light trapping—is reviewed at a fundamental level, and the future potential is considered for devices which combine such a ‘thermodynamic squeezing’ of light with latest developments in photonics, leading to a photonic bandgap solar cell. We argue that the widespread use of thermodynamic tools in the current photovoltaics research, especially when combined with the potential benefits to future devices, already indicates that our thinking should not be about if but how thermodynamics can guide us to make better solar cells. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:543–569. doi: 10.1002/wene.204
This article is categorized under: Photovoltaics > Science and Materials
Solar Heating and Cooling > Science and Materials
Due to the complex nature of climate change, interdisciplinary research approaches involving knowledge and skills from a broad range of disciplines have been adopted for studying changes in the climate system as well as strategies for mitigating climate change (i.e., greenhouse gas emissions reductions) and adapting to its impacts on society and natural systems. Harnessing of renewable energy sources to replace fossil fuels is widely regarded as a long‐term mitigation strategy that requires the synthesis of knowledge from engineering, technology, and natural and social sciences. In this study, we examine how the adoption of interdisciplinary approaches has evolved over time and in different geographic regions. We conducted a comprehensive literature survey using an evaluation matrix of keywords, in combination with a word cloud analysis, to evaluate the spatiotemporal dynamics of scholarly discourse about interdisciplinary approaches to climate change and renewable energy research and development (R&D). Publications that discuss interdisciplinary approaches to climate change and renewable energy have substantially increased over the last 60 years; it appears, however, that the nature, timing, and focus of these publications vary across countries and through time. Over the most recent three decades, the country‐level contribution to interdisciplinary research for climate change has become more evenly distributed, but this was not true for renewable energy research, which remained dominated by the United Sates and a few other major economies. The research topics have also evolved: Water resource management was emphasized from 1990s to 2000s, policy and adaptation were emphasized from the 2000s to 2010–2013, while vulnerability became prominent during the most recent years (2010–2013). Our analysis indicates that the rate of growth of interdisciplinary research for renewable energy lags behind that for climate change, possibly because knowledge emanating from climate change science has motivated the subsequent upswing in renewable energy R&D. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:49–56. doi: 10.1002/wene.180
This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Climate and Environment
Energy and Climate > Climate and Environment
Governance responses from the international climate regime have been widely critiqued. But fresh research is revealing that ‘new’ and more dynamic forms of governing are appearing in alternative domains, producing a more polycentric pattern. Some analysts believe that these ‘new’ forms will fill gaps in the regime, but this optimism is based on untested assumptions about their diffusion and performance. We conclude that the advent of more polycentric governance does offer new opportunities to govern climate change, but based on existing empirical research it is far too early to judge whether hopes about the performance of the ‘new’ forms are well founded. More time and vastly more coordinated research efforts are needed to comprehend their full potential; time that is in very short supply in governing climate change.
The article argues that a more rounded understanding of the factors affecting the promotion and uptake of renewable energy technologies may be obtained by bringing together neoinstitutional theory—informed by insights from institutional economics and organizational sociology—and discourse analysis. Such a discourse‐institutional view has a number of benefits: (1) institutionally, it moves analysis beyond the usual if understandable focus on the activities and policies of government; (2) institutions as norms, professional standards, culture, and ingrained habit are given due attention; (3) the language basis of institutions is duly recognized; and (4) connections among language in text, and in discursive and social practice are acknowledged, as are their role in processes of (non) institutionalization. The article summarizes the suggested approach, in doing so highlighting its relevance to the diffusion of renewable energy technologies. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:119–124. doi: 10.1002/wene.169
This article is categorized under: Energy Policy and Planning > Economics and Policy
Energy Policy and Planning > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Research & Innovation > Economics and Policy
The 21st century will see monumental change. Either the human race will use its knowledge and skills and change the way it interacts with the environment, or the environment will change the way it interacts with its inhabitants.
In the first case, the focus of this book, we would see our sophisticated understanding in areas such as physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, planning, commerce, business and governance accumulated over the last 1,000 years brought to bear on the challenge of dramatically reducing our pressure on the environment. The second case however is the opposite scenario, involving the decline of the planet’s ecosystems until they reach thresholds where recovery is not possible, and following which we have no idea what happens. For instance, if we fail to respond to Sir Nicolas Stern’s call to meet appropriate stabilisation trajectories for greenhouse gas emissions, and we allow the average temperature of our planets surface to increase by 4-6 degrees Celsius, we will see staggering changes to our environment, including rapidly rising sea level, withering crops, diminishing water reserves, drought, cyclones, floods… allowing this to happen will be the failure of our species, and those that survive will have a deadly legacy.
In this update to the 1997 International Best Seller, Factor Four, Ernst von Weizsäcker again leads a team to present a compelling case for sector wide advances that can deliver significant resource productivity improvements over the coming century. The purpose of this book is to inspire hope and to then inform meaningful action in the coming decades to respond to the greatest challenge our species has ever faced – that of living in harmony with our planet and its other inhabitants.
The 21st century will see monumental change. Either the human race will use its knowledge and skills and change the way it interacts with the environment, or the environment will change the way it interacts with its inhabitants. In the first case, the focus of this book, we would see our sophisticated understanding in areas such as physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, planning, commerce, business and governance accumulated over the last 1,000 years brought to bear on the challenge of dramatically reducing our pressure on the environment. The second case however is the opposite scenario, involving the decline of the planet's ecosystems until they reach thresholds where recovery is not possible, and following which we have no idea what happens. For instance, if we fail to respond to Sir Nicolas Stern's call to meet appropriate stabilisation trajectories for greenhouse gas emissions, and we allow the average temperature of our planets surface to increase by 4-6 degrees Celsius, we will see staggering changes to our environment, including rapidly rising sea level, withering crops, diminishing water reserves, drought, cyclones, floods… allowing this to happen will be the failure of our species, and those that survive will have a deadly legacy. In this update to the 1997 International Best Seller, Factor Four, Ernst von Weizsäcker again leads a team to present a compelling case for sector wide advances that can deliver significant resource productivity improvements over the coming century. The purpose of this book is to inspire hope and to then inform meaningful action in the coming decades to respond to the greatest challenge our species has ever faced – that of living in harmony with our planet and its other inhabitants. Yes Yes
This article describes some of the recent research into the capacity value of wind power. With the worldwide increase in wind power during the past several years, there is increasing interest and significance regarding its capacity value because this has a direct influence on the amount of other (nonwind) capacity that is needed. We build on previous reviews from IEEE and IEA W ind T ask 25 a and examine recent work that evaluates the impact of multiple‐year data sets and the impact of interconnected systems on resource adequacy. We also provide examples that explore the use of alternative reliability metrics for wind capacity value calculations. We show how multiple‐year data sets significantly increase the robustness of results compared to single‐year assessments. Assumptions regarding the transmission interconnections play a significant role. To date, results regarding which reliability metric to use for probabilistic capacity valuation show little sensitivity to the metric. WIREs Energy Environ 2017, 6:e226. doi: 10.1002/wene.226
This article is categorized under: Wind Power > Economics and Policy
Wind Power > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Infrastructure > Economics and Policy
The goal of providing universal energy access to all by 2030 under the UN ‐led SE4ALL initiative calls for new and innovative solutions to rural electrification and is fuelling the recent interest in mini‐grids. Mini‐grid solutions are emerging as a third alternative to rural electrification, coming between the option of large‐scale grid extension and pico‐scale stand‐alone solutions like solar home systems or solar lanterns. International expectations of mini‐grids are high, with the International Energy Agency suggesting that they will play a significant role in reaching the goal of universal access. Based on a detailed review of past, ongoing, and planned mini‐grids in East Africa, this study seeks to deconstructs the popular notion of mini‐grids for rural electrification in East Africa. The study reveals that so far activities carried out under the heading of mini‐grids to a large extent consist of the hybridization of existing utility‐owned electricity systems for medium‐size towns located far from the grid, which does not necessarily contribute to rural electrification. However, limited but increasing activity is identified regarding the use of mini‐grids to bring electricity to rural villages and smaller rural towns. This is of specific interest because it is for this type of mini‐grid that the main challenges are to be found with respect to identifying and testing adequate financing, ownership, and business models. Based on the trajectories identified for mini‐grids for rural electrification and the challenges identified in the literature, the study concludes by proposing three avenues for further research. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:570–587. doi: 10.1002/wene.205
This article is categorized under: Energy and Development > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy and Development > Climate and Environment
The Paris climate agreement aims at holding global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius and to “pursue efforts” to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To accomplish this, countries have submitted Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) outlining their post-2020 climate action. Here we assess the effect of current INDCs on reducing aggregate greenhouse gas emissions, its implications for achieving the temperature objective of the Paris climate agreement, and potential options for overachievement. The INDCs collectively lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to where current policies stand, but still imply a median warming of 2.6–3.1 degrees Celsius by 2100. More can be achieved, because the agreement stipulates that targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions are strengthened over time, both in ambition and scope. Substantial enhancement or over-delivery on current INDCs by additional national, sub-national and non-state actions is required to maintain a reasonable chance of meetin
Forests are an increasingly important source of feedstock for bioenergy as global efforts to mitigate atmospheric CO 2 concentrations increase. In keeping with the principles of sustainable forest management, it is important that feedstock procurement not have negative impacts on the environment, including biodiversity. Impacts of land use, including forest management, can be evaluated along all stages in the production of these goods and services, using life cycle assessment ( LCA ), which is a potentially powerful tool for organizing and evaluating the impacts of production. There is growing recognition of the need to integrate land‐use impacts into LCA for forest products such as bioenergy, especially on biodiversity. Integrating quantitative indicators of biodiversity into LCAs of biomass production systems is particularly challenging because biodiversity is a multidimensional concept that can never be fully represented by a single number, and yet many proposed approaches rely on this. Reliance on a single metric oversimplifies ‘biodiversity’ and might lead to inappropriate conclusions on local land management practices. LCA is not suited to providing reliable site‐specific assessment of forest product systems in regard to the complexities of biodiversity. Nevertheless, the global and comprehensive nature of LCA makes it a useful tool for preventing a shift in environmental problems or burdens across the value chain because of local land management decisions. In this context, complementary site‐specific and/or regional studies or analyses may help mitigate against inaccurate conclusions being drawn from LCA . WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:670–683. doi: 10.1002/wene.211
This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Climate and Environment
Energy and Development > Climate and Environment
The aim of this study is to examine public expenditures for energy R&D in Europe and the resulting energy knowledge stock. After the first oil shock energy R&D became more and more important in Europe. The energy R&D distribution among technologies of the EU member states and the European Commission was similar in the 1980s with a strong focus on nuclear energy. Nowadays,
energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies are of growing importance. The new program Horizon 2020 is expected to have an equal distribution between nonnuclear and nuclear energ y R&D expenditures. The cumulative energy knowledge stock induced by public R&D expenditures amounts to approximately 36 billion EUR in 2013, where upon the EU member states’ share
is more than three times larger than the European Commission’s share. The study provides knowledge stock scenarios for the next years under business as usual and changing conditions. According to the scenarios, the knowledge stock will increase to 48.5–55 billion EUR by 2023. For the first time, such comparison between the EU member states’ and the European Commission’s R&D expenditures has been performed for a period of more than 30 years, obtaining a clear picture of the induced energy knowledge stock.
Two emissions trading systems ( ETS ) are linked if a participant in one system can use an allowance or a credit issued by either system for compliance. Linking ETS offers a number of potential benefits including, lower overall compliance cost, price protection, greater liquidity in the allowance market, and reduced emissions leakage. It is useful to distinguish: (a) A unilateral link—one ETS accepts the allowances of another ETS for compliance purposes, but not vice versa. Any link to an offset system, such as the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ), is a unilateral link for the ETS that accepts those credits. (b) A bilateral link—each ETS accepts the allowances of the other ETS for compliance purposes. Another way to implement a bilateral link is to adopt a common compliance instrument. The European Union ETS ( EU ETS ) has a single compliance instrument—the EU allowance—that is used in all 31 participating countries. Several national and subnational jurisdictions have established an ETS for one or more greenhouse gases ( GHGs ). Some of these ETS also issue offset credits for GHG emission reductions achieved by specified sources. In addition, the international CDM and Joint Implementation ( JI ) mechanisms issue offset credits for GHG emission reductions. Most ETS have established unilateral links, mainly to the CDM and JI , but also to other ETS . Apart from the systems that are part of the EU ETS and Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) only one bilateral link, between the California and Quebec ETS , has been established. This study summarizes the experience with linking GHG ETS . WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:246–260. doi: 10.1002/wene.191
This article is categorized under: Energy and Climate > Economics and Policy
Energy and Climate > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Policy and Planning > Climate and Environment
Policy support platforms like the Feed-in Tariff and the Renewable Portfolio Standard
have been very successful in accelerating renewable energy development
around the world. Nonetheless, the sustained and consistent transition to a renewable
energy future required, e.g., to avoid further climate change, continues to
elude societies. To achieve substantial energy transformation, reconsideration of
the finance–policy–market interaction is required and is contemplated here by positioning
the build-out of a particular renewable energy technology, photovoltaic (PV)
energy, as a commitment to infrastructure-scale development. A so-called
‘solar city’ strategy is analyzed in which large-scale deployment of PV throughout
the urban fabric essentially constructs an urban renewable energy power plant
by utilizing the vast rooftop real estate available in all cities. The article explores
a capital market strategy for practical implementation of urban PV in six case
study cities—Amsterdam, London, Munich, New York City, Seoul, and Tokyo.
This study demonstrates the substantial potential of the solar city concept in each
location and outlines a financing strategy to realize the potential.
In the 21st century, much of the world will experience untold wealth and prosperity that could not be conceived only some three centuries before. However as with most, if not all, of the human civilizations, increases in prosperity have accumulated significant environmental impacts that threaten to result in environmentally induced economic decline. A key part of the world's response to this challenge is to rapidly decarbonise economies, with options to achieve 60–80% improvements (i.e., in the order of Factor 5) in energy and water productivity now available and proven in every sector. Drawing upon the 2009 publication ‘ Factor 5 ’, in this article we discuss how to realize such large‐scale improvements, involving complexity beyond technical and process innovation. We begin by considering the concept of greenhouse gas stabilization trajectories that include reducing current greenhouse gas emissions to achieve a ‘peaking’ of global emissions, and subsequent ‘tailing’ of emissions to the desired endpoint in ‘decarbonising’ the economy. Temporal priorities given to peaking and tailing have significant implications for the mix of decarbonising solutions and the need for government and market assistance in causing them to be implemented, requiring careful consideration upfront. Within this context, we refer to a number of examples of Factor 5 style opportunities for energy productivity and decarbonization, and then discuss the need for critical economic contributions to take such success from examples to central mechanisms in decarbonizing the global economy. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:57–67. doi: 10.1002/wene.181
This article is categorized under: Energy and Climate > Economics and Policy
Energy and Climate > Systems and Infrastructure
Policy support platforms like the Feed‐in Tariff and the Renewable Portfolio Standard have been very successful in accelerating renewable energy development around the world. Nonetheless, the sustained and consistent transition to a renewable energy future required, e.g., to avoid further climate change, continues to elude societies. To achieve substantial energy transformation, reconsideration of the finance–policy–market interaction is required and is contemplated here by positioning the build‐out of a particular renewable energy technology, photovoltaic ( PV ) energy, as a commitment to infrastructure‐scale development. A so‐called ‘solar city’ strategy is analyzed in which large‐scale deployment of PV throughout the urban fabric essentially constructs an urban renewable energy power plant by utilizing the vast rooftop real estate available in all cities. The article explores a capital market strategy for practical implementation of urban PV in six case study cities—Amsterdam, London, Munich, New York City, Seoul, and Tokyo. This study demonstrates the substantial potential of the solar city concept in each location and outlines a financing strategy to realize the potential. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:68–88. doi: 10.1002/wene.182
This article is categorized under: Photovoltaics > Economics and Policy
Solar Heating and Cooling > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy and Development > Economics and Policy
Against the background of IIASA ’s massive (their word) ‘global energy assessment’ (GEA), this paper takes a closer look at the challenges posed by population growth, energy poverty, the fossil fuels and carbon storage, renewable energy, energy efficiency, natural catastrophes, and potential climatic change to offer a somber, although arguably more realistic, overview of what the future may hold than the GEA achieved. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:7–15. doi: 10.1002/wene.179
This article is categorized under: Energy Systems Economics > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Policy and Planning > Economics and Policy
Energy and Development > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy and Development > Climate and Environment
A massive transformation of the global energy supply system is required if deep reductions in atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions are to be achieved. A top–down review of historical data and energy forecasts provides a perspective on the magnitude of the challenge. Global engineering capability has expanded significantly over the last two decades, accommodating more than 100 GW /year increase in electricity generation infrastructure. However, business‐as‐usual demand forecasts to 2050 will require more than double the global rates of energy project execution. Transforming to a low‐carbon energy supply mix requires 30–70 GW /year of additional infrastructure, due to the increased reliance on intermittent renewables, and the earlier‐than‐expected replacement of existing coal power plants. Although all power systems share many similar subsystems that will need to be delivered regardless of the technology type, meeting the extra demands for engineering design, construction and/or supply chains may not be possible. The discussion focuses only on physical limitations of electricity generation, specifically around the timing and scale of retiring and/or replacing coal‐fired power generation capacity to meet the International Energy Agency 's two‐degree scenario. We ignore the economics and politics of the transition scenarios and the transformation of the transportation and industrial sectors. What is clear is that the longer the delay in starting a significant transformation, the greater the challenge will become. Decision makers must understand the constraints to technology transitions to deliver effective policy. A broad international consensus is not required, instead reaching agreements and developing economically sustainable pathways to technology transitions in the United States, China, and India is more likely to be successful and the only means for significantly curbing global emissions. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:33–48. doi: 10.1002/wene.177
This article is categorized under: Energy Systems Economics > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy and Climate > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Policy and Planning > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Research & Innovation > Economics and Policy
Wind energy in cold climates offers vast wind energy potential. Cold climate, in this context, means icing conditions and/or low temperatures outside the normal operational limits of the wind turbines. Cold climate areas are often located in low population density surroundings. The combination of good wind resources and low population density makes such areas attractive for wind energy generation, but weather conditions hinder the exploitation of these resources. Many technical issues as well as health and safety related ones need to be addressed before wind energy projects can be economically feasible in cold climates. Icing of wind turbines reduces energy yield, reduces the mechanical life time of turbines, and poses safety risks in the form of ice throw, among other challenges. Progress to solve these challenges has been made in recent years, for example, anti‐ and de‐icing systems have been developed, but still more is to be done to reduce further the cost of wind energy in cold climates. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:128–135. doi: 10.1002/wene.170
This article is categorized under: Wind Power > Climate and Environment
Different governance mechanisms have emerged to ensure biomass and bioenergy sustainability amidst a myriad of related public and private regulations that have existed for decades. We conducted a global survey with 59 questions which examined 192 stakeholders' views and experiences related to (1) the multi‐leveled governance to which they are subjected, (2) the impacts of that governance on bioenergy production and trade, and (3) the most urgent areas for improvement of certification schemes. The survey revealed significant support along the whole supply chain for new legislation which uses market‐based certification schemes to demonstrate compliance (co‐regulation). Some respondents did not see a need for new regulation, and meta‐standards is a promising approach for bridging divergent views, especially if other proof than certification will be an option. Most respondents had so far experienced positive or neutral changes to their bioenergy production or trade after the introduction of new sustainability governance. Legislative requirements and a green business profile were important motivations for getting certified, while lack of market advantages, administrative complexity and costs all were barriers of varying importance. A need to include, e.g., regular standard revision and dealing with conflicting criteria was identified by respondents associated with bioenergy schemes. Respondents associated with forestry schemes saw less need for revisions, but some were interested in supply chain sustainability criteria. Significant differences among schemes suggest it is crucial in the future to examine the tradeoffs between certification costs, schemes' inclusiveness, the quality of their substantive and procedural rules, and the subsequent effectiveness on‐the‐ground. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:89–118. doi: 10.1002/wene.166
This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Climate and Environment
Strategies that guided development throughout the 20th century relied heavily on economic optimality as a chief guiding principle in the design of energy, technology, markets, and policy. A review of the record of performance of this decision‐making process is followed by a review of proposals to redefine energy progress on sustainability principles. An emerging 21st sustainability paradigm is described which relies on commons‐based economics and long‐term ecological viability. An existing operational expression of the new paradigm—the Sustainable Energy Utility ( SEU )—is analyzed as a practical means to arrive at the New Economics and New Policy which might guide the sector. It is compared to the Energy Service Utility and its applications in order to gauge the transformative potential of the SEU . WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:136–154. doi: 10.1002/wene.171
This article is categorized under: Energy Efficiency > Economics and Policy
Energy and Development > Economics and Policy
Energy and Development > Systems and Infrastructure
This article is categorized under: Energy Research & Innovation > Science and Materials
Energy Research & Innovation > Economics and Policy
Energy Research & Innovation > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy Research & Innovation > Climate and Environment
A global energy assessment. WIREs Energy Environ 2015
- M Jefferson
Jefferson M. A global energy assessment. WIREs
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): a two-decade history of policy performance. No-policy baseline 2030: 65 GtCO 2 -eq/yr Current Policy
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- S Smart
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- O Hoegh-Guldberg
- A Garnett
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Lane JL, Smart S, Schmeda-Lopez D, Hoegh-Guldberg
O, Garnett A, Greig C, McFarland E. Understanding
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): a two-decade history of policy performance.
No-policy baseline
2030: 65 GtCO 2 -eq/yr
Current Policy
2030: 59 GtCO 2 -eq/yr
Unconditional INDCs
2030: 55 GtCO 2 -eq/yr
Conditional INDCs
2030: 53 GtCO 2 -eq/yr
Well Below 2 Degree Celsius Scenarios 2030: 42 GtCO 2 -eq/yr "Thus, the INDCs clearly do not put the world on a least-cost path towards limiting warming to well below 2 C
- Rogelj
Well Below 2 Degree
Celsius Scenarios
2030: 42 GtCO 2 -eq/yr
"Thus, the INDCs clearly do not put the
world on a least-cost path towards
limiting warming to well below 2 C."
(Rogelj et al. (2016)
Sources for above quotes:
Rogelj et al. (2016). Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep
warming well below 2 o C. Nature, 534, 631-639, doi: 10.1038/nature18307
Fair shares: a civil society equity review of INDCs
Civil Society Review (2016). Fair shares: a civil society equity review of
INDCs. Document available at: http://civilsocietyreview.org/wp-content/
Agreement FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev. 1 Art. 2 p
- Unfccc
- Paris