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Toward a Psychobiology of Transcendence: God in the Brain
Abstract
Since the time of atomists like Democritus, forerunner of Plato and Aristotle, two modes of scientific explanation have been used to fill the conceptual space between mind and brain, a dualism more grudgingly resistant to resolution than that of energy and matter. One method assumes a world of hidden realities, impenetrable, to be understood by conjecture and test, observations evaluated for their consistency with hypothetical constructs. The other requires an intuitive grasp of the essence, insightful awareness of the thing itself. The first approach defines a unification of mind and brain out of the possible; the second assumes it. Feelings about these orientations still run strong. In a recent book, the philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper expressed irritation with Plato for intermixing these two thought styles without acknowledging the intermixture, concluding that only the conjectural-test approach is valid; the other kind of knowing Popper dismissed as a “will-o-the-wisp” (Popper & Eccles, 1977).
... Eliade (1964) noted that what he called 'ecstasy', an ASC, was a central feature of shamanic practices. The near-universality of institutionalized ASC (Winkelman 1992) reflects their inherent basis in human biology and the fundamental similarity of the brain responses produced by a variety of conditions, activities, and agents (Mandell 1980;Winkelman 1997Winkelman ,2000. ASC are induced by a wide variety of agents and procedures, including stress, starvation, hyperventilation, shock, drugs, and ritual procedures, and reflect a general biological response. ...
... trauma, long-distance running, near starvation, drumming, chanting, music, dancing, sensory deprivation, nutritional imbalances, extreme fatigue, and natural plants substances such as hallucinogens) that elicit a common pattern of brain response. ASC involve systematic brain discharge patterns that propagate across the neuraxis of the brain, producing brain-wave synchronization in the alpha and theta wave range (Mandell 1980; also see Vollenweider 1998). The underlying basis of these responses to many different stimuli is created by the serotonergic connections between the limbic system and brain-stem regions that produce synchronous discharges that propagate across the neuraxis into the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980). ...
... ASC involve systematic brain discharge patterns that propagate across the neuraxis of the brain, producing brain-wave synchronization in the alpha and theta wave range (Mandell 1980; also see Vollenweider 1998). The underlying basis of these responses to many different stimuli is created by the serotonergic connections between the limbic system and brain-stem regions that produce synchronous discharges that propagate across the neuraxis into the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980). The synchronous patterns originating in the hippocampal-septal-reticular raphe circuits are manifested in high-voltage, slow-wave EEG activity (especially theta, 3-6 cycles per second waves). ...
Although the term "shamanic" is used to refer to a diverse range of phenomena, it nonetheless reflects something empirical. Cross-cultural research illustrates that the concept of the shaman reflects the existence of similar spiritual healing practices found in pre-modern foraging and simple horticultural and pastoral societies around the world (Winkelman, 1992; 2000). This cross-cultural concept of the shaman was initially proposed by the renowned scholar of comparative religion, Mircea Eliade (1964). However, his various characterizations of shamans were in part responsible for subsequent confusion regarding their exact nature and function. While offering very general characterizations of the shaman as someone who entered a state of "ecstasy" to interact with "spirits" on behalf of the community, Eliade also cited many additional specific concepts of the shaman which some subsequent researchers neglected in their applications of this term. This paper presents the findings of cross-cultural and crossspecies research that provides a basis for describing shamanism, its relationships to human nature, and its deep evolutionary origins. Shamanism has its bases in innate aspects of human cognition, engaging the use of altered states of consciousness to integrate information across several levels of the brain to produce visual symbolism exemplified in visionary experiences. The deeper evolutionary roots of shamanism are found in the capacities for ritual, which provide the most important communication and integrative processes in lower animal species. The evolution of shamanism can be deduced from these bases and the similarities of shamanic practices to the rituals of chimpanzees. Drumming, group vocalization, and other displays were the foundations from which the uniquely human mimetic capacity evolved and provided a basis for shamanism.
... A wide variety of natural and ritual procedures (e.g., drumming, chanting, music, dancing, fasting, sensory deprivation, nutritional imbalances, injury and extreme fatigue, near starvation, and plant substances such as hallucinogens) elicit a common pattern that reflects a basic mode of brain operation. ASC involve systematic brain discharge patterns that propagate across the neuraxis of the brain, producing brain wave synchronization in the alpha and theta wave range (Mandell 1980). The natural response to these many different stimuli is the elicitation of these slow wave brain discharges created by the serotonergic connections between the limbic system and brain stem regions that produce synchronous discharges that propagate across the neuraxis into the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980). ...
... ASC involve systematic brain discharge patterns that propagate across the neuraxis of the brain, producing brain wave synchronization in the alpha and theta wave range (Mandell 1980). The natural response to these many different stimuli is the elicitation of these slow wave brain discharges created by the serotonergic connections between the limbic system and brain stem regions that produce synchronous discharges that propagate across the neuraxis into the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980). The synchronous patterns originating in the hippocampal-septal-reticular raphe circuits are manifested in high voltage slow wave EEG activity (especially theta, 3-6 cycles per second waves). ...
... The serotonin enhancing effects of TM affect the activity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and chronic stress, reversing the serotonin depletion effects that result from the release of cortisol. TM-induced increases in serotonin availability mirror Mandell's (1980) model of serotonergic mechanisms of "transcendent states," suggesting a generic role of enhanced serotonin availability in ASC. Shamanic ritual exploits the ancient role of ritual to enhance serotonergic production and produce special forms of awareness that integrate waking and dreaming modes of awareness. ...
... One element common to all ASCDRs is that they involve a disinhibition of dopaminergic extrapersonal brain systems located in the ventral cortex (Previc, 2009), particularly a "limbic" circuit coursing from the medial temporal lobe to the ventral striatum (Mandell, 1980;Vollenweider & Geyer, 2001). The extrapersonal predominance is reflected in the dearth of tactile and proprioceptive (bodily) sensations, a bias toward the upper visual field, and an emphasis on extrapersonal themes (e.g., out-of-of-body experiences) in ASCDRs. ...
... Despite the plethora of transmitter involvements in ASCDRs, a unifying concept is that all of the drugs that create altered states of reality may ultimately lead to elevated levels of dopamine in the brain. Serotonergic systems interact with dopaminergic ones in many parts of the brain in a mostly inhibitory manner (see Kapur & Remington, 1996;Mandell, 1980;Previc, 2006), with reduced serotonin levels leading to elevated dopamine levels, thereby explaining why drugs such as LSD can model dopaminergically mediated psychosis. GABA-agonistic drugs such as Zolpidem increase dopamine levels in the brainstem (Heikkinen, Mö ykkynen, & Korpi, 2009) while anticholinergic drugs such as atropine elevate dopamine levels in the basal ganglia and septo-hippocampal area (see Mandell, 1980;Perry & Perry, 1995;Previc, 2006). ...
... Serotonergic systems interact with dopaminergic ones in many parts of the brain in a mostly inhibitory manner (see Kapur & Remington, 1996;Mandell, 1980;Previc, 2006), with reduced serotonin levels leading to elevated dopamine levels, thereby explaining why drugs such as LSD can model dopaminergically mediated psychosis. GABA-agonistic drugs such as Zolpidem increase dopamine levels in the brainstem (Heikkinen, Mö ykkynen, & Korpi, 2009) while anticholinergic drugs such as atropine elevate dopamine levels in the basal ganglia and septo-hippocampal area (see Mandell, 1980;Perry & Perry, 1995;Previc, 2006). Various antiglutamate drugs also are known to elevate brain dopamine levels in the basal ganglia and to mimic schizophrenic psychosis (Corlett, Frith, & Fletcher, 2009;Vollenweider et al., 2000), although the ketamine-enhanced release of dopamine in the striatum has not always been found, perhaps because the dosages were too low (Rabiner, 2007). ...
... Several models propose that similar mechanisms are shared by many different alterations of consciousness (Mandell, 1980;Dietrich, 2003;Vaitl et al., 2005;Winkelman, 2011). Common mechanisms that psychedelics share with other alterations of consciousness involving effects that disable the prefrontal cortex and default mode networks (DMNs). ...
... The idea that diverse methods of altering consciousness produce similar experiences through eliciting similar brain responses has a long history. Mandell (1980) proposed a general physiological mechanism underlying transcendent states that is evoked by many different drugs, physiological conditions and procedures (i.e., hypnosis, meditation) which result in the loss of serotonin inhibition of the hippocampal cells. This loss of inhibition leads to an increase in cell activity and manifestation of hippocampal-septal slow-wave EEG activity that projects a synchronous slow-wave pattern across the lobes of the brain. ...
... Activities such as long-distance running, food and water deprivation, sleep loss and auditory stimuli such as drumming and chanting elicit a similar driving response in the brain (see Winkelman, 2013a for review). Mandell (1980) also proposed that the hippocampus is the focal point of the mechanisms that reduce the inhibitory serotonin regulation of temporal lobe limbic function, resulting in a reduction of the gating of emotional responses and an enhancement of activity in the dopaminergic circuitry. The loss of serotonin inhibition over various brain regions results in hypersynchronous discharges across the hippocampal-septal-reticular-raphe circuit. ...
Neuropharmacological effects of psychedelics have profound cognitive, emotional, and social effects that inspired the development of cultures and religions worldwide. Findings that psychedelics objectively and reliably produce mystical experiences press the question of the neuropharmacological mechanisms by which these highly significant experiences are produced by exogenous neurotransmitter analogs. Humans have a long evolutionary relationship with psychedelics, a consequence of psychedelics' selective effects for human cognitive abilities, exemplified in the information rich visionary experiences. Objective evidence that psychedelics produce classic mystical experiences, coupled with the finding that hallucinatory experiences can be induced by many non-drug mechanisms, illustrates the need for a common model of visionary effects. Several models implicate disturbances of normal regulatory processes in the brain as the underlying mechanisms responsible for the similarities of visionary experiences produced by psychedelic and other methods for altering consciousness. Similarities in psychedelic-induced visionary experiences and those produced by practices such as meditation and hypnosis and pathological conditions such as epilepsy indicate the need for a general model explaining visionary experiences. Common mechanisms underlying diverse alterations of consciousness involve the disruption of normal functions of the prefrontal cortex and default mode network (DMN). This interruption of ordinary control mechanisms allows for the release of thalamic and other lower brain discharges that stimulate a visual information representation system and release the effects of innate cognitive functions and operators. Converging forms of evidence support the hypothesis that the source of psychedelic experiences involves the emergence of these innate cognitive processes of lower brain systems, with visionary experiences resulting from the activation of innate processes based in the mirror neuron system (MNS).
... Alterations of consciousness induced through such diverse means as fasting and pain induction, sleep deprivation and ritualized sleep, drumming, chanting, singing, dancing, sensory stimulation and deprivation, heat and cold extremes, exhausting exercise and psychedelic and other drugs all produce similar effects in the brain: synchronized slow brain wave patterns (Mandell 1980; also see Winkelman 2010 for updates and review). These are typified in responses to drumming, psychedelics and meditation which produce coordinated theta wave (3-6 cycles per second) discharges that originate in the serotonergic circuitry linking the paleomammalian and the reptilian brains (Mandel 1980; also see Winkelman 2000Winkelman , 2010. ...
... This area is also key to the elicitation of the serotonergic nervous system and its integrating properties which are experienced in ASC. Mandell (1980) suggested that the specific physiological mechanisms underlying the regularities in ASC or "transcendent states" involve the tempo-ral lobe limbic circuitry based in serotonergic pathways that extend from the basal areas of the brain (raphe nucleus and reticular formation that regulates the ascending flow of information and arousal) upwards to the septum and hippocampus area of the paleomammalian brain. When activated, this circuitry produces slow wave hypersynchronous discharges across the hippocampal-septal-reticular-raphe circuit, which is manifested in powerful coherent theta production that then ascends the neuraxis to synchronize the hemispheres of the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980; also see Winkelman 2010). ...
... Mandell (1980) suggested that the specific physiological mechanisms underlying the regularities in ASC or "transcendent states" involve the tempo-ral lobe limbic circuitry based in serotonergic pathways that extend from the basal areas of the brain (raphe nucleus and reticular formation that regulates the ascending flow of information and arousal) upwards to the septum and hippocampus area of the paleomammalian brain. When activated, this circuitry produces slow wave hypersynchronous discharges across the hippocampal-septal-reticular-raphe circuit, which is manifested in powerful coherent theta production that then ascends the neuraxis to synchronize the hemispheres of the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980; also see Winkelman 2010). ...
Würzburg, den 18.09.2012 Korrekturfahnen Ihres Beitrages aus der Publikation Ekstasen: Kontexte – Formen – Wirkungen Sehr geehrter Herr Winkelmann, hiermit übersende ich Ihnen die Korrekturfahnen Ihres Beitrages aus der o.g. Publikation. Bitte bringen Sie evtl. notwendige Korrekturen unter Verwendung der gängigen Korrekturzeichen (DIN 16 511) gut les-und eindeutig zuordenbar am Rand der Fahnen an (möglichst mit rotem Fine-liner, Bleistiftkorrekturen können nicht berücksichtigt werden!) und senden Sie uns dann bitte den kompletten Ausdruck so rasch wie möglich wieder zurück. Bitte beachten Sie, dass sich Korrekturen beim gegenwärtigen Stand der Verarbeitung nicht mehr auf den Seitenumbruch auswirken dürfen, sich also auf kleinere Verbesserungen (Orthogra-phie, Interpunktion usw.) beschränken müssen. Änderungen bzw. Überarbeitungen in Form größe-rer Streichungen oder Ergänzungen sind nicht mehr möglich. Die Seitenzahlen im Inhaltsverzeichnis sollten wegen des neuen Umbruchs auf Stimmigkeit über-prüft werden. Wenn während der Durchsicht Fragen auftauchen, wenden Sie sich bitte jederzeit an mich. Könnten Sie mir bitte den Erhalt der Fahnen per Email (matthias.wies@ergon-verlag.de) kurz bes-tätigen und mir evtl. schon sagen, bis wann etwa wir mit dem Rücklauf der Korrekturen rechnen kön-nen? Mit herzlichen Grüßen aus dem Ergon Verlag, Matthias Wies Herstellung
... There is a near universality of institutionalized alterations of consciousness (Winkelman, 1992). This reflects a basis in human biology and the fundamental similarity of brain responses to a variety of activities and agents (Mandell, 1980;see Winkelman, 2010asee Winkelman, , 2013 for review). Fasting and starvation, physical and emotional shock, austerities and trauma, ingestion of a variety of natural substances and ritual procedures such as drumming, chanting, and dancing all produce alterations of consciousness through eliciting a common biological response. ...
... I have called this the integrative mode of consciousness based on the effects of the associated of theta brain wave coherence (Winkelman, 2010a(Winkelman, , 2013. This model of the integrative mode of consciousness originated in the work of Mandell (1980) and has received support from research on the properties of hypnosis, dissociation, psychedelics and meditation (see Winkelman, 2010aWinkelman, , 2011. ...
... Psychointegrators' primary effects are reflected in synchronized hyperactivity in serotonin circuitry across the neuraxis, the main nerve bundle linking the structural levels of the brain from the brain stem to the frontal cortex. This hyperactivity manifested in theta (3-6 cycles per second) brain waves produces synchronization across the levels of the brain and between the frontal hemispheres (Mandell, 1980). The theta effects begin in the midbrain hippocampal region which activate serotonin circuitry in the lower levels of the brain (locus corelus and thalamus), which in turn stimulate the limbic structures and frontal cortex, especially the right hemisphere. ...
The publisher of this article does not allow for authors to publicly share their material on sites such as researchgate. You may find this article at www.michaelwinkelman.com
The worldwide development of raves and similar collective rituals characterized by all night communal rituals involving dance, drumming, music, and often the use of psychedelic substances can be understood as a modern manifestation of the same biological principles underlying shamanism. The shamanic ritual was a nighttime ceremony which engaged all of the community in a powerful interaction with the spirit world as the shaman beat drums or rattled while singing, chanting and dancing. The common underlying biogenetic structures of shamanism and raves involve: the social functions of ritual; the effects of dance and music as systems for social bonding and emotional communication; and the effects on consciousness that produce alterations of emotions, identity and consciousness and personal healing.
... Eliade's characterization of shamans as engaged in "techniques of ecstasy" reflects the central role of ASC in shamanism. ASCs are a natural response of the body in response to diverse conditions and procedures (stress, starvation, sleeplessness, excessive exercise, drug intoxication, metabolic C37P87 C37P88 C37P89 imbalances, etc. (Dietrich, 2003;Mandell, 1980;Vaitl et al., 2005;Winkelman, 2010aWinkelman, , 2011aWinkelman, , 2013bWinkelman, , 2017a. Shamanic ASCs are produced by austerities such as fasting, sleep deprivation, and exhausting exercise in ritual activities such as dancing, chanting and drumming, dream incorporation, and in many cases psychoactive substances. ...
... This produces righthemisphere dominance and inhibition of prefrontal regions; increases overall theta wave band power; increases power in gamma waves and integrative information processing; induces frontal lobe synchronization accompanying a generalized shift toward parasympathetic dominance; and enhances endogenous opioid release (Flor-Henry et al., 2017). C37P90 C37P91 C37S28 C37P92 C37S29 Mandell (1980) first proposed that this general brain dynamic of ASC results from hypersynchronous discharges in the temporal-lobe limbic and mesolimbic serotonergic pathways. ASCs can result from neurochemical and metabolic imbalances and diseases (Vaitl et al., 2005) that disrupt the normal regulatory processes associated with thalamic gating and the CSTC loops. ...
Shamanism is a transcultural concept for understanding roles of ritual and psychedelics in the prehistoric origins of religiosity. The origins of religiosity are revealed by parallels of shamanic and chimpanzee collective ritualizations involving group chorusing and drumming with dramatic bipedal displays. This hominid baseline was expanded with mimetic evolution of song, dance and enactment. Psychedelic substances stimulate innate cognitive dispositions manifested in shamanism such as the human-like qualities of spirits, animal identities and other spiritual and mystical experiences. These structural features of consciousness are stimulated by mimetic performances with song, dancing, and drumming; painful and exhausting austerities; and psychedelic substances. These produce altered experiences of the self which are conceptualized within indigenous psychologies as spirits and one’s soul, spiritual allies, and animal powers that can be incorporated into personal powers (i.e., animal transformation). Cross-cultural manifestation of shamanic features reveal that they are based in biology rather than merely cultural traditions.
... Drumming enhances hypnotic susceptibility, increase relaxation, and induces shamanic experiences [108]. Drumming and other rhythmic auditory stimulation impose a driving pattern on the brain, particularly in theta and alpha rages. ...
... Drumming and other rhythmic auditory stimulation impose a driving pattern on the brain, particularly in theta and alpha rages. Physiological changes associated with ASC facilitate healing and psychological relaxation: facilitating self-regulation of physiological processes: reducing tension, anxiety, and phobic reactions: manipulating psychosomatic eff ects; accessing unconscious information in visual symbolism and analogical representations; including interhemispheric fusion, synchronization and facilitating cognitive-emotional integration and social bonding affi liation [108]. ...
The screen whether it is mobile, computer and tablet is a symbol of our modern age. For our children the” digital natives” who have grown up surrounded by digital information and entertainment on screens. Screen Time has become major part of contemporary life. There has been growing concern about the impact of screens on children and young people’s health. So, we plan to study the pattern of mobile phone use and reason behind the mobile use along with the various effects of mobile phones amongst the urban children and follow up after 3 months. Physical inactivity and sedentary behavior have been independently associated with wide range of negative health indicator including obesity, poor cardio metabolic and psycho social health. Total sedentary time can be classified by variety of specific sedentary behavior such as reading, playing quietly, watching television. Mobile phones use which comes under screen time takes almost 1/3rd of total sedentary time. Mobile phone use has become the major part of screen time use. Pediatric organizations recommend no more than 1-2 hour of daily screen time for age 2-5 years and discourage screen time below 2 years of age. Our aim is to systematically examine the pattern of mobile phone use and reason behind the use along with the effect on children in urban population and follow up after 3 months either in person or telephonically.
... Drumming enhances hypnotic susceptibility, increase relaxation, and induces shamanic experiences [108]. Drumming and other rhythmic auditory stimulation impose a driving pattern on the brain, particularly in theta and alpha rages. ...
... Drumming and other rhythmic auditory stimulation impose a driving pattern on the brain, particularly in theta and alpha rages. Physiological changes associated with ASC facilitate healing and psychological relaxation: facilitating self-regulation of physiological processes: reducing tension, anxiety, and phobic reactions: manipulating psychosomatic eff ects; accessing unconscious information in visual symbolism and analogical representations; including interhemispheric fusion, synchronization and facilitating cognitive-emotional integration and social bonding affi liation [108]. ...
... John Dewey'in bilimsel yöntem sürecinden yararlanılarak, problem çözme bilimsel olarak açıklamada kullanılmaktadır. Problemin açıklanması, hipotezlerin düzenlenmesi, hipotezlerin test edilmesi ve sonuçların belirlenmesi, aşamaları ile bilimsel yöntem süreci oluşmaktadır (Mandell, 1980). Diğer bir araştırmada Wicklegren, problem çözme sürecini 4 aşamada toplamıştır. ...
... Diğer bir araştırmada Wicklegren, problem çözme sürecini 4 aşamada toplamıştır. Verilerin tanımlanması, yapılması gereken işlemlerin tanımlanması, sonuçların çıkarılması, amaçların açıklanması olarak sıralanmıştır (Mandell, 1980). Bilimsel yöntemler ile sıralı adımlar izlenerek problem çözme gerçekleştirilmektedir. ...
21. Yüzyılda Eğitimde Dönüşüm ve Okullar
... The integrative mode of consciousness is characterized by ascending brain discharge patterns producing integration across levels of the brain, an entrainment of the frontal cortex by highly coherent and synchronized slow-frequency brain wave waves emanating from lower-brain structures. Many practices that typify shamanism produce this overall brain dynamic (Mandell, 1980;Winkelman, 2010a), including: natural drug sources (hallucinogens, amphetamines, stimulants, marijuana, opiates), long-distance running, hunger, thirst, sleep loss, auditory stimuli such as drumming and chanting, sensory deprivation, dream states, meditation, and a variety of psychophysiological imbalances or sensitivities resulting from injury, trauma, disease, or hereditarily transmitted nervous system conditions. Mandel proposed these diverse activities result in loss of serotonin inhibition of hippocampal cells, resulting in increased hippocampal-septal slow-wave EEG activity (alpha, delta and especially theta) that produces hypersynchronous discharges across the hippocampal-septalreticular-raphe serotonergic circuit. ...
... Psychointegration Winkelman (2010aWinkelman ( , 2011 proposed diverse ASC exhibit a common brainwave dynamic of "psychointegration" involving synchronized slow wave brain discharges ascending from lower brain structures and projecting into frontal regions of the brain. Mandell (1980) proposed this neurobiological basis for ASC and their experiential properties as a consequence of effects of diverse agents and activities that activate hypersynchronous discharges in the temporal-lobe limbic and mesolimbic serotonergic pathways and impose brain wave synchronization on the frontal cortex (see Winkelman, 2011aWinkelman, , 2013b for discussion). Shamanic practices produce this dynamic of ASC through fasting, exhausting exercise (i.e., dancing and drumming), dream incorporation, the influences of drumming and chanting, and in many cases psychoactive substances. ...
This review illustrates the relevance of shamanism and its evolution under effects of psilocybin as a framework for identifying evolved aspects of psychedelic set and setting. Effects of 5HT2 psychedelics on serotonin, stress adaptation, visual systems and personality illustrate adaptive mechanisms through which psychedelics could have enhanced hominin evolution as an environmental factor influencing selection for features of our evolved psychology. Evolutionary psychology perspectives on ritual, shamanism and psychedelics provides bases for inferences regarding psychedelics’ likely roles in hominin evolution as exogenous neurotransmitter sources through their effects in selection for innate dispositions for psychedelic set and setting. Psychedelics stimulate ancient brain structures and innate modular thought modules, especially self-awareness, other awareness, “mind reading,” spatial and visual intelligences. The integration of these innate modules are also core features of shamanism. Cross-cultural research illustrates shamanism is an empirical phenomenon of foraging societies, with its ancient basis in collective hominid displays, ritual alterations of consciousness, and endogenous healing responses. Shamanic practices employed psychedelics and manipulated extrapharmacological effects through stimulation of serotonin and dopamine systems and augmenting processes of the reptilian and paleomammalian brains. Differences between chimpanzee maximal displays and shamanic rituals reveal a zone of proximal development in hominin evolution. The evolution of the mimetic capacity for enactment, dance, music, and imitation provided central capacities underlying shamanic performances. Other chimp-human differences in ritualized behaviors are directly related to psychedelic effects and their integration of innate modular thought processes. Psychedelics and other ritual alterations of consciousness stimulate these and other innate responses such as soul flight and death-and-rebirth experiences. These findings provided bases for making inferences regarding foundations of our evolved set, setting and psychology. Shamanic setting is eminently communal with singing, drumming, dancing and dramatic displays. Innate modular thought structures are prominent features of the set of shamanism, exemplified in animism, animal identities, perceptions of spirits, and psychological incorporation of spirit others. A shamanic-informed psychedelic therapy includes: a preparatory set with practices such as sexual abstinence, fasting and dream incubation; a set derived from innate modular cognitive capacities and their integration expressed in a relational animistic worldview; a focus on internal imagery manifesting a presentational intelligence; and spirit relations involving incorporation of animals as personal powers. Psychedelic research and treatment can adopt this shamanic biogenetic paradigm to optimize set, setting and ritual frameworks to enhance psychedelic effects.
... John Dewey'in bilimsel yöntem sürecinden yararlanılarak, problem çözme bilimsel olarak açıklamada kullanılmaktadır. Problemin açıklanması, hipotezlerin düzenlenmesi, hipotezlerin test edilmesi ve sonuçların belirlenmesi, aşamaları ile bilimsel yöntem süreci oluşmaktadır (Mandell, 1980). Diğer bir araştırmada Wicklegren, problem çözme sürecini 4 aşamada toplamıştır. ...
... Diğer bir araştırmada Wicklegren, problem çözme sürecini 4 aşamada toplamıştır. Verilerin tanımlanması, yapılması gereken işlemlerin tanımlanması, sonuçların çıkarılması, amaçların açıklanması olarak sıralanmıştır (Mandell, 1980). Bilimsel yöntemler ile sıralı adımlar izlenerek problem çözme gerçekleştirilmektedir. ...
Eğitimde kapsayıcılık ya da dar anlamıyla içerme, yeni bir kavram olarak eğitim sistemimize bütünleştirilmeye çalışılsa da aslında dünyada bu yaklaşımın geçmişi, 1960’lı yıllara kadar uzanır. Kapsayıcı eğitim ilk olarak engelli öğrencilere yönelik uygulamalarla gündeme gelmiştir. Daha sonra tüm dezavantajlı bireyleri (dini, etnik, kültürel azınlıklar, sosyo-ekonomik düzeyi düşük ailelerden gelen öğrenciler, göçmen, mülteci ve sığınmacılar, LGBTİ’li öğrenciler vb.) içine alacak şekilde genişletilmiştir. Bugün dünyada ve ülkemizde kapsayıcı eğitimin sadece özel eğitime ihtiyaç duyan veya göçmen/mülteci öğrenciler için geliştirilmiş bir yaklaşım olduğu şeklinde yanlış bir algı vardır. Bu yanlış algı varlığını halen daha devam ettirse de bu paradigma değişiminin bir müddet daha devam edeceği düşünülmektedir.
Kapsayıcı eğitimin UNESCO tarafından yapılan tanımına bakıldığında “öğrenenlerin farklı ihtiyaçlarına, onların eğitime, kültüre ve toplumsal hayata katılımlarını arttırarak, eğitim sisteminin içinde var olan ayrımcılığı en aza indirerek cevap verme süreci” olarak ifade edilmektedir. Kapsayıcı eğitimin temelinde, farklılıkları bir potada eriterek aynılaştırma değil farklılıkları olduğu gibi kabul edip saygı duyma, bunu bir kazanım olarak değerlendirme yatar. Bunun yanında insan onurunu yükseltme, nitelikli eğitime erişimi sağlama, eşitlik temelinde tüm öğrencilere aynı eğitim fırsatlarını sunma ve hak temelli bir bakış açısı yaratarak eğitim süreçlerindeki dışlayıcı faktörleri asgari düzeye çekme düşüncesi yer almaktadır. Sınıf ortamında tüm çocukları ayrıştırmadan eşit olarak gören, onların iyilik hallerine önem veren kapsayıcı eğitim, dezavantajlı çocukların topluma katılmasına hizmet eden ve destekleyen bir yaklaşımdır.
Eğitim her çocuğun temel hakkıdır, devletlerin en önemli vazifesi ise çocukların eğitim hakkını garanti altına alarak eğitim ortamlarında fırsat ve imkân eşitliğini sağlamaktır. Toplumla bütünleşmiş, toplumu kucaklayan bireyler yetiştirmek tüm eğitim sistemlerinin temel dinamiğini oluşturmaktadır. Son yıllarda kapsayıcı eğitim, çocuğun topluma uyum sağlamasında ve içinde yer aldığı topluma aidiyet hissetmesinde önemli bir yaklaşım olarak göze çarpmaktadır. Bu bağlamda kapsayıcı eğitimin temel felsefesini başta ailelere ve öğrencilerimize doğru şekilde anlatır, kendi davranışlarımıza da yansıtabilirsek zihinlerdeki “ötekiler” algısını ortadan kaldırabiliriz. Eğitimin dışında tek bir fert dahi bırakmadan toplumun tüm kesimleri ile ahenk içinde yaşayan bireyler yetiştirmek ancak kapsayıcı eğitimle mümkündür. Bununla birlikte toplumda kapsayıcılık anlayışını yaygınlaştırıp geliştirerek bireysel ve toplumsal refaha da katkı sağlamış olacağız.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kapsayıcı eğitim, dışlanma, dezavantajlı gruplar, kapsayıcı okullar
Although inclusiveness or inclusion in education is tried to be integrated into our education system as a new concept, the history of this approach in the world goes back to the 1960s. Inclusive education first came to the fore with practices for disabled students. Later, it was expanded to include all disadvantaged individuals (religious, ethnic, cultural minorities, students from low socio-economic families, immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers, LGBTI students, etc.). Today, in the world and in our country, there is a misperception that inclusive education is an approach developed only for migrant/refugee students who need special education. Although this false perception still continues, it is thought that this paradigm change will continue for a while.
When we look at the definition of inclusive education made by UNESCO, it is expressed as "the process of responding to the different needs of learners by increasing their participation in education, culture and social life and by minimizing the discrimination existing in the education system". The basis of inclusive education is not to simulate the differences by melting them in a pot, but to accept and respect the differences as they are, and to evaluate this as an achievement. In addition, there is the idea of increasing human dignity, providing access to qualified education, providing the same educational opportunities to all students on the basis of equality, and minimizing the exclusionary factors in educational processes by creating a rights-based perspective. Inclusive education, which considers all children as equal without discrimination in the classroom environment and attaches importance to their well-being, is a supportive approach serving the integration of disadvantaged children into the society.
Education is the fundamental right of every child, and the most important duty of states is to ensure the equality of opportunity and opportunity in educational environments by guaranteeing the right of children to education. Raising individuals who are integrated with the society who embrace it, constitutes the basic dynamics of all education systems. In recent years, inclusive education stands out as an important approach for the child to adapt to society and experience a sense of belonging to the society in which he or she is involved. In this context, if we explain the basic philosophy of inclusive education to our families and students correctly and reflect it on our own behaviors, we can eliminate the perception of "others" in the minds. It is possible to raise individuals who live in harmony with all segments of the society without leaving a single individual outside of education only through inclusive education. Over and above, we will contribute to individual and social welfare by expanding and enhancing the understanding of inclusion in the society.
Keywords: Inclusive education, exclusion, disadvantaged groups, inclusive schools
... This overall brain dynamic is produced by many activities, agents and conditions (see Winkelman, 2010 , 2011 for a review). Factors producing this dynamic include hallucinogens, amphetamines, cocaine, marijuana, polypeptide opiates, long-distance running, hunger, thirst, sleep loss, auditory stimuli such as drumming and chanting, sensory deprivation, dream states, meditation, and a variety of psychophysiological imbalances or sensitivities resulting from injury, trauma, disease, or hereditarily transmitted nervous system conditions (Mandell, 1980 ). The common eff ects are based in a common neurochemical pathway that produces a loss of serotonin inhibition to the hippocampal cells, resulting in increased hippocampalseptal slow-wave EEG activity (alpha, delta and especially theta) that induces a synchronous slow-wave pattern across the lobes. ...
... This common "psychobiology of transcendence" noted by Mandell ( 1980 ) is a natural response of our neurobiology involving synchronous discharges that propagate from the basal areas of the brain into the frontal cortex. This limbic circuitry produces hypersynchronous discharges across the hippocampal-septalreticular-raphe serotonergic circuit, integrating ancient brain processes into the frontal lobe. ...
Chapter 7 examines the cross-cultural manifestations of the various specific kinds of supernatural experiences as reflecting intrinsic features of human nature. The phenomenological dynamics of shamanic alterations of consciousness are linked to the physiological effects of ritual practices on the autonomic nervous system. These stimulate the modulatory neurotransmitter systems of serotonin, dopamine and the endocannabinoids, as well as the endogenous opioid system. These provide the biological bases for these experiences, involving the ability of diverse procedures and agents to provoke similar brain responses that enhance access to evolutionarily early strata of the brain. These brain areas provide the special cognitive qualities of consciousness that underlie perceptions of the supernatural. Ritual practices induce supernatural experiences through disrupting higher order information integration and top-down cognitive control, permitting emergence of cognitive processes related to ancient brain structures and primary process levels of cognition, identity and awareness. These biological bases for supernatural experiences are illustrated in an assessment of soul flight as involving a disassembling of the integration of innate capacities involved in the experience of body, self, and cognition. This and other shamanic alterations of consciousness are examined as adaptations that enhanced cognition through expanded access to unconscious mental processes.
... Many different activities and agents can produce similar brain responses, such as those typically manifested in altered states of consciousness-synchronized slow wave brain discharges (Mandell 1980;Winkelman 2010). Arnold Mandell documented how diverse activities and agents can produce similar effects on serotonergic transmission, which are manifested in coherent slow wave brain discharges in the theta (3-6 cycles per second) and alpha (6-8 cycles per second) range that synchronize the frontal cortex with these discharges originating in the serotonergic circuitry of the lower levels of the brain. ...
... This is a consequence of many factors, including different doses; different set and setting influences; and different effects in initial, full, and late phases of the drug action. Nonetheless, there appears to be a general profile of psychedelic effects on the brain that involve the general pattern of the integrative mode of consciousness, including the slowing of brain waves and induction of a parasympathetic dominant phase (Mandell 1980;Winkelman 2007;Hintzen and Passie 2010;Nichols and Chemel 2011). ...
... ME is regarded as pathological because of its schizophreniform nature. This view historically has been expressed mainly by representatives of the psychoanalytic approach (Allman et al., 1992;Bloomfield, 1980;Freud, 1959;Friedman & Hartelius, 2013;Horton, 1974;Leuba, 1925;Mandell, 1980;Martin, 1993), but it has also been recognized by other authors, such as David Ellisa representative of cognitive behavioral psychology (1989), and a representative of existential psychology (Allman et al., 1992). ...
There are two conflicting notions about mystical experience (ME) in scientific literature. Some researchers view ME as a sign of mental illness, whereas others view it as a part of one’s psychospiritual growth and maturity, as well as an important turning point in life that can positively affect one’s value system and influence changes in personality, behavior, emotions, and outlook on life. Conflicting notions about the nature of ME create confusion not only in society but also among professionals who encounter patients who reflect on ME. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between ME and spiritual intelligence as a concept related to mental health, as well as to examine the relationship between ME and schizotypal personality traits and between ME and psychotic symptoms as pathological concepts in psychology. This study explores several hypotheses about the ME relationship with spiritual intelligence, schizotypal personality traits, and psychotic symptoms in one sample of 299 nonclinical Latvian women. The data were collected using four self-report questionnaires—the Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Intelligence Survey, the Latvian Clinical Personality Inventory, and a sociodemographic data survey. The results suggest that ME has a stronger relationship with spiritual intelligence than schizotypal personality traits and psychotic symptoms. The results also indicate a relationship between spiritual intelligence and individual schizotypal personality traits, largely explained by the moderation of ME. The results of the study help remove some ambiguity and gain a clearer picture of the nature of ME.
... It synchronizes 'internal biophysiological oscillators to external auditory rhythms' (Scherer & Zentner 2001) which can help in stress reduction as well as promote empathy. The coupling of respiration and other body rhythms to the outside rhythmic drivers affects a wide array of physiological processes; brain wave patterns, pulse rate, and diastolic blood pressure (Gellhorn & Kiely 1972, Lex 1979, Mandel 1980). This effect has been shown to be present in humans at a very early age (Scherer & Zentner 2001). ...
Why do we react emotionally to music? Does music appreciation have an adaptive value? What is the role of music in spiritual and healing practices? Music is a fascinating area of research for evolutionary theory, psychological development, and emotional perception and elicitation. It is a highly valued feature of all known living cultures and societies, pervading many aspects of daily and devotional life and playing many roles. The question that still lingers among music researchers however is why is this so. This paper will discuss the influence of music on our emotional life, psychological wellbeing, spiritual practices and finally on physiological processes present in our body. The aim is to examine the origin of our relationship to music through the mentioned perspectives and to attempt to link the various theoretical perspectives on this subject across two major domains; health and spirituality.
... The model of integrative consciousness has evolved from the theory that physiological mechanisms of "transcendent states" are based on a common neurochemical pathway involving the temporal lobe (Mandell, 1980). From this theoretical perspective, meditation practice is thought to produce serotonin inhibition to the hippocampal cells, which in turn increases cell activity and the manifestation of hippocampal septal slow-wave EEG activity (i.e., alpha, delta, and theta) that imposes a synchronous slow-wave pattern across the lobes (Winkelman, 2010(Winkelman, , 2011. ...
This study investigated the impact of a brief meditation workshop on a sample of 223 novice meditators. Participants attended a three-day workshop comprising daily guided seated meditation sessions using music without vocals that focused on various emotional states and intentions (open focus). Based on the theory of integrative consciousness, it was hypothesized that altered states of consciousness would be experienced by participants during the meditation intervention as assessed using electroencephalogram (EEG). Brainwave power bands patterns were measured throughout the meditation training workshop, producing a total of 5616 EEG scans. Changes in conscious states were analysed using pre-meditation and post-meditation session measures of delta through to gamma oscillations. Results suggested the meditation intervention had large varying effects on EEG spectra (up to 50 % increase and 24 % decrease), and the speed of change from pre-meditation to post-meditation state of the EEG co-spectra was significant (with 0.76 probability of entering end-meditation state within the first minute). There was a main 5 % decrease in delta power (95 % HDI = [−0.07, −0.03]); a global increase in theta power of 29 % (95 % HDI = [0.27, 0.33]); a global increase of 16 % (95 % HDI = [0.13, 0.19]) in alpha power; a main effect of condition, with global beta power increasing by 17 % (95 % HDI = [0.15, 0.19]); and an 11 % increase (95 % HDI = [0.08, 0.14]) in gamma power from pre-meditation to end-meditation. Findings provided preliminary support for brief meditation in altering states of consciousness in novice meditators. Future clinical examination of meditation was recommended as an intervention for mental health conditions particularly associated with hippocampal impairments.
... Despite the problems associated with Persinger's studies, many researchers would agree that the temporal lobes do play a role in certain religious experiences (Mandell 1980;Sackeim et al. 1982;Smokier and Shevrin 1979). Henry (1986,64) associates the left temporal lobe with paranoia, humorlessness, conscientiousness, religiosity with intense self-scrutiny, and a sense of powerful forces influencing one's personal destiny, traits that sometimes may explode into amygdala-driven rage and aggressive behavior. ...
... Despite the problems associated with Persinger's studies, many researchers would agree that the temporal lobes do play a role in certain religious experiences (Mandell 1980;Sackeim et al. 1982;Smokier and Shevrin 1979). Henry (1986,64) associates the left temporal lobe with paranoia, humorlessness, conscientiousness, religiosity with intense self-scrutiny, and a sense of powerful forces influencing one's personal destiny, traits that sometimes may explode into amygdala-driven rage and aggressive behavior. ...
... All of these states are related to increased theta bursts and slow wave activity (2-8Hz): "An argument is made that bursts of electrical activity spreading from the medial temporal lobes to the association cortices are the primary functional correlate of discharging psychical energies, experienced on a subjective level as the emergence of unconscious material into consciousness". Increased hippocampal theta bursts are related to experience of transcendence (Mandell, 1980), and some psychedelic studies showed increased theta power in humans with EEG (Acosta-Urquidi, 2015; Timmermann, et al., 2018), and with depth recording in temporal lobe (Monroe, et al., 1957b;Schwarz, et al., 1956). Increased theta power was observed with LSD (Winters and Wallach, 1970) and was associated with the intensity of subjective experience (Monroe, et al., 1957b). ...
Psychedelics can induce eyes-closed imagery in which various visions can be experienced. These visions vary from simple geometrical patterns, to more complex imagery, to full immersion within “other realms”. Past studies suggest that the visual cortex is involved in processing these visions, yet these studies were limited into investigation of activity. In this thesis, the aim was to expand on the involvement of the visual cortex by investigating processes that are beyond simple activation maps, such as functional connectivity and dynamics. In study 1, it was hypothesized that the visual cortex will show increased functional connectivity with many cortical and subcortical regions. This was investigated with 15 subjects that were scanned using fMRI under the influence of 75 µg of LSD or placebo. The results of this study showed increased resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) between the primary visual cortex and many cortical and subcortical regions. This result correlated with subjective ratings of psychedelic imagery and with occipital alpha power suppression measured with MEG, which is a reliable neural correlate of the intensity of the psychedelic state. It study 2, it was hypothesized that connectivity within the visual cortex would match its retinotopic architecture. Retinotopic mapping is the representation of the visual field (the world we observe) in the visual cortex – e.g. areas which are near to each other in the visual field will be near each other in the visual cortex. In this study, it was found that under LSD (same procedure as study 1), with eyes closed, connectivity patterns between different subregions of the visual cortex matched the retinotopic mapping of these regions, suggesting that the visual system behaves as if it is seeing spatially localized input, with eyes-closed under LSD. In study 3, it was hypothesized that during the onset phase of psychedelic imagery, the activation of subregions of the visual cortex will be from low level to high level areas, which is according to the subjective dynamics of the experience – i.e. from simple to complex. This was tested in 9 subjects that were scanned in the fMRI during the onset or “come-up” phase - i.e. 3 minutes post (1 min) infusion of 2mg psilocybin IV - which has a particularly fast onset. Results in this study revealed that during the onset phase the BOLD dynamics of regions within the ventral stream are organized by the hierarchy of regions. Overall, study 1 and 2 revealed that, with eyes closed, under LSD, communication patterns between visual cortex and the rest of the brain and within the visual cortex match the kind of processing known to occur during regular vision. This adds to a body of knowledge supporting the view that the visual cortex is particularly engaged under the influence of psychedelics, and by measuring patterns of connectivity, we were able to provide strong support for the view that abnormal activity in the visual cortex underlies psychedelic imagery.
... This paradigm of integrative consciousness originates in the work of Mandell (1980), who suggested that physiological mechanisms underlying "transcendent states" are based in a common neurochemical pathway-involving the temporal lobe. Many agents and procedures result in a loss of serotonin inhibition to the hippocampal cells, producing an increase in cell activity and the manifestation of hippocampal-septal slow-wave EEG activity (alpha, delta, and especially theta) that imposes a synchronous slow-wave pattern across the lobes. ...
Preface: Extending Our Knowledge of Consciousness ix
Charles T. Tart
Chapter 1 Altering Consciousness: Setting Up the Stage 1
Etzel Cardeña
Chapter 2 A Paradigm for Understanding Altered Consciousness:
The Integrative Mode of Consciousness 23
Michael Winkelman
Part I: Historical Perspectives
Chapter 3 Consciousness Alteration Practices in the West from
Prehistory to Late Antiquity 45
Yulia Ustinova
Chapter 4 Spirit Possession and Other Alterations of Consciousness
in the Christian Western Tradition 73
Moshe Sluhovsky
Chapter 5 Altered Consciousness from the Age of Enlightenment
Through Mid–20th Century 89
Etzel Carden˜ a and Carlos S. Alvarado
Chapter 6 Reconceptualizing the Field of Altered Consciousness:
A 50-Year Retrospective 113
Julie Beischel, Adam J. Rock, and Stanley Krippner
Part II: Cultural Perspectives
Chapter 7 Eastern Approaches to Altered States of Consciousness 139
Jonathan Shear
Chapter 8 Shamanism and the Alteration of Consciousness 159
Michael Winkelman
Chapter 9 Altered Consciousness in Society 181
Charles Whitehead
Chapter 10 Spiritual Technologies and Altering Consciousness in
Contemporary Counterculture 203
Graham St John
Part III: The Humanities
Chapter 11 Altered Consciousness in Philosophy 229
Jennifer M. Windt
Chapter 12 Altered Consciousness in Religion 255
Antoon Geels
Chapter 13 Colored Inklings: Altered States of Consciousness
and Literature 277
Wendy E. Cousins
Chapter 14 Altered Consciousness in Performance: West and East 301
Phillip B. Zarrilli
Chapter 15 Altered Consciousness and Modern Art 327
Mark Levy
Chapter 16 Time Is the Key: Music and Altered States
of Consciousness 355
Jo¨rg C. Fachner
... A principal effect of psychedelics involves production of hypersynchronous ascending slow-wave brain discharges in the hippocampal-septal-reticular-raphe circuit that impose impulses from the ancient lower stratum of the brain on the frontal areas (Mandell, 1980). This pattern of psychedelic action on the brain is shared by many other agents and conditions that alter consciousness (Winkelman, 2011). ...
Background and aims
Psychedelic entity experiences are examined from perspectives of evolutionary psychology and neurophenomenology. Their similarities with other entity experiences illustrate the need for a general biological explanation of entity experiences. Mechanisms are proposed to involve innate modules, operators, and intelligences that underlie ordinary cognitive inferences and provide the basis for supernatural thought.
Methods
Comparisons of ayahuasca and dimethyltryptamine (DMT) entity experiences with other types of entity experiences show their fundamental similarities to conceptions of spirit guides, mythological beings, divinities, extraterrestrials, angels, celestial beings, demons, gnomes, dwarfs, elves, and others. Entities exemplify the properties of anthropomorphism, exhibiting qualities of humans. Comparative methods are proposed to identify common features and differences in psychedelic and other entity experiences.
Results
Features of psychedelic entities reflect the functions of principal innate operators and modules (i.e., animacy detection, social role inferences, and mind reading) that have central roles in the explanation of the genesis of spirit experiences and beliefs. Humans’ innate psychology includes diverse forms of self and alien self-phenomena, providing mechanisms for explaining psychedelic entity experiences. Neurophenomenological approaches illustrate that the physiological effects of psychedelics can account for release of innate modules and mental organs. The concept of the phantasy mode of consciousness provides a mechanism through which our unconscious causal and explanatory mechanisms produce accounts of encounters with non-human beings. The extensive interaction of DMT with the receptorome explains why these experiences give such a powerful sense of ontological certainty.
Conclusion
Psychedelic entity experiences share central features with a robust innate human tendency to attribute agency, intentionality, causality, and personhood and to create accounts involving human-like qualities and entities.
... These data indicate the possibility that both experiences may have a common psychophysiologial basis, such as a common path of final expression. As Mandell (1982) admitted, this common path may "reflect the neurobiological mechanisms underlying transcendence, God in the brain," or, metaphorically, the brain as a hologram of the all-one. ...
... But there is a convenience in recognizing that some parameter-variables are of significance as control parameters to some system or subsystem, that is, are responsible for bifurcations. The applications to concepts of consciousness are numerous (R. Abraham, 1990;Bütz, 1992, Combs, 1995Conforti, 1994;Goerner, 1993;Macy, 1991;Mandell, 1980;Paar, 1992;Rossi, 1989;Sabelli, 1990). The interaction of the domains of consciousness present too vast an arena to explore adequately here. ...
Neurological positivism regards phenomenology, brain, behavior, and environment as a holistic unity. Their complex interaction over time can be regarded as a complex dynamical system, which we might call mind. Attractors and other features of dynamical systems can represent processes of the mind. `Insensitivity to initial conditions' suggests that the similar patterns made by different trajectories obeying the same invariant properties of a chaotic attractor and can be considered equivalent to represent such a given process of the mind. Degree of awareness is related to the magnitude of attractors. Jumps in magnitude (plosive bifurcations) result in saltatory jumps in awareness. The attractors of the mind may also undergo subtle bifurcations among various stable fixed, periodic, and chaotic possibilities. Ontogeny and phylogeny emphasize irreversibility of sequences of such bifurcations. Conscious control and effort can be invested in self-organizational control of such bifurcations which empowers the growth potential of individuals and societies. The power of the dynamical systems approach to provide both an easily communicable visual geometric language and a metamodeling strategy for the science and practice of psychology is providing support for the metaparidigm shift currently under way in psychology. The dynamical approach has implications for the evolution toward a better balance between unification and diversity in psychology, for gaining additional perspective on the free will issue, and for an increasing sensitivity to the humanist mission of psychology.
... This paradigm of integrative consciousness originates in the work of Mandell (1980), who suggested that physiological mechanisms underlying "transcendent states" are based in a common neurochemical pathway-involving the temporal lobe. Many agents and procedures result in a loss of serotonin inhibition to the hippocampal cells, producing an increase in cell activity and the manifestation of hippocampal-septal slow-wave EEG activity (alpha, delta, and especially theta) that imposes a synchronous slow-wave pattern across the lobes. ...
Ritual alterations of consciousness are a virtual universal of human cultures, reflecting a basic human drive generally considered of central importance to religion and spiritual practices. Cross-cultural perspectives show both similarities in the experiences of altered consciousness (AC) that implicate biological factors as the basis for similarities across cultures, time, and space, as well as cultural differences in the manifestations of these potentials that implicate social factors. Individual and group experiences of altered consciousness may vary in many ways, but it is commonal-ities and recurrent patterns, rather than unique differences, that are crucial to understanding AC. This introduction reviews evidence for the universal manifestation of altered consciousness. This universal manifestation is not well explained in the classic paradigms of altered states of consciousness that emphasize their individual nature. In contrast, a biological approach to consciousness helps to situate altered consciousness within human nature. This perspective provides a foundation for an approach that characterizes AC in terms of an integrative mode of consciousness that reflects systemic features of brain functioning. This integrative mode of consciousness is typified in theta wave patterns that synchronize the frontal cortex with discharges from lower brain structures. This integration of ancient brain functions into the frontal cortex explains many of the key features of AC.
... Although a rich literature is cited in relation to particular effects of shamanic rituals on the brain (the release of opiates, temporal lobe involvement, etc.), the general overview of the brain and how it works seems limited in scope. It depends heavily on MacLean's work -which is valuable but dated -and a single speculative article by Mandell (1980). Winkelman also draws heavily on Hunt (1995), a very creative psychologist but not a neuroscientist. ...
... But there is a convenience in recognizing that some parameter-variables are of significance as control parameters to some system or subsystem, that is, are responsible for bifurcations. The applications to concepts of consciousness are numerous (R. Abraham, 1990;Bütz, 1992, Combs, 1995Conforti, 1994;Goerner, 1993;Macy, 1991;Mandell, 1980;Paar, 1992;Rossi, 1989;Sabelli, 1990). The interaction of the domains of consciousness present too vast an arena to explore adequately here. ...
Neurological positivism regards phenomenology, brain, behavior, and environment as a holistic unity. Their complex interaction over time can be regarded as a complex dynamical system, which we might call mind. Attractors and other features of dynamical systems can represent processes of the mind. 'Insensitivity to initial conditions' suggests that the similar patterns made by different trajectories obeying the same invariant properties of a chaotic attractor and can be considered equivalent to represent such a given process of the mind. Degree of awareness is related to the magnitude of attractors. Jumps in magnitude (plosive bifurcations) result in saltatory jumps in awareness. The attractors of the mind may also undergo subtle bifurcations among various stable fixed, periodic, and chaotic possibilities. Ontogeny and phylogeny emphasize irreversibility of sequences of such bifurcations. Conscious control and effort can be invested in self-organizational control of such bifurcations which empowers the growth potential of individuals and societies. The power of the dynamical systems approach to provide both an easily communicable visual geometric language and a metamodeling strategy for the science and practice of psychology is providing support for the metaparidigm shift currently under way in psychology. The dynamical approach has implications for the evolution toward a better balance between unification and diversity in psychology, for gaining additional perspective on the free will issue, and for an increasing sensitivity to the humanist mission of psychology.
... The normal condition may allow a certain level of irrational and magic beliefs, but the pathologic condition, disinhibited, lowers the reception threshold so far that new beliefs can be readily adopted without critical assessment. Mandell (1980;see also Hooper and Teresi 1986) has linked the temporal lobe epilepsy with the reduction of serotonergic tone, particularly in the hippocampus. According to this author, reduction of serotonergic tone may be obtained also by hallucinogens (such as LSD) or by other activities such as repetitive prayer or religious chants, which accompany the sensorial deprivation associated with monastic life. ...
The author surveys the evolutionary structure of the human brain in relation to the phenomenon of human religiosity, with particular reference to the synthesis of serotonin and the human tendency to search for and recognize a "group leader.".
... Conditions such as long distance running, physical and emotional shock, extreme fasting, ingestion of a variety of natural substances and ritual procedures such as drumming, chanting, music, and dancing elicit an increased theta brain wave coherence. This natural response involves what I call the integrative mode of consciousness, a model that originated in the work of Mandell (1980). This theta wave model of altered consciousness is supported by research on the brain wave properties of hypnosis, dissociation, psychedelics, meditation, and dreams (see Winkelman, 2011Winkelman, , 2013 for a review of the literature). ...
The features of shamanism found cross-culturally identify the foundations for a biogenetic paradigm. Similarities of shamanic ritual with chimpanzee displays involving ritualized bipedal charges, communal vocalizations and drumming point to the hominid ritual foundations and community dynamics from which shamanism emerged. Hominid collective rituals expanded over human evolution in enhanced capacities for mimesis, music, and dance, factors selected for as part of an enhanced behavioral and symbolic capacity for ritual participation. Ritual practices produce changes in consciousness and experience of self that reflect access to basic structures of consciousness, exemplified in out-of-body experiences. Shamanism engages our innate psychology to produce symbols, reflected in concepts of animism, animal spirit identities and powers, and animal totemic groups. This innate psychology of shamanism is based in symbolic processes produced by the cross-modal integration of innate processing modules for the natural world (animal species) self-representation, inference of mental processes, and identification with social references.
This book is fundamentally about “religion” and the “religious” sensibility, but I use scare quotes as prelude to definitions. For a twenty-first century person, the word religion might casually be applicable to individuals within an organised system of: belief concerning, faith in, and worship given to a presumptive supernatural type of deity. However, my overriding concern in this book has been to enquire more specifically about how religious sensibilities could have initially arisen, far back in evolutionary time, referable to the emerging communities of early hominins. From that specific viewpoint, I am reluctant to use “religion” (or “religiosity” – pace Knight 2020) and its immediate cognates on the grounds that they conjure up varied types of well-organised ritualistic activities and belief systems. These in my view have scant relevance to the emergent glimmerings of divinity or supernatural agency, and even less regarding the recognition of ontologically defined deities by these ancient forebears.
This paper provides a method- and theory-focused assessment of religious behavior based on cross-cultural research that provides an empirically derived model as a basis for making inferences about ritual practices in the past through an ethnological analogy. A review of previous research provides an etic typology of religious practitioners and identifies their characteristics, selection-function features, the societal configurations of practitioners, and the social complexity features of the societies where they are found. New analyses reported here identify social predictors of the individual practitioner types in their relationships to subsistence and sociopolitical conditions (foraging, intensive agriculture, political integration, warfare, and community integration). These relations reveal the factors contributing to social evolution through roles of religious organization in the operation of cultural institutions. The discussion expands on the previous findings identifying fundamental forms of religious life in the relations of the selection processes for religious practitioner positions to their principal professional functions. These relationships reveal three biogenetic structures of religious life involving (1) alterations of consciousness used in healing rituals, manifested in a cultural universal of shamanistic healers; (2) kin inheritance of leadership roles providing a hierarchical political organization of agricultural societies, manifested in priests who carry out collective rituals for agricultural abundance and propitiation of common deities; and (3) attribution of evil activities, manifested in witches who are persecuted and killed in subordinated groups of societies with political hierarchies and warfare. These systematic cross-cultural patterns of types of ritualists and their activities provide a basis for inferring biogenetic bases of religion and models for interpreting the activities, organization, and beliefs regarding religious activities of past societies. Cases are analyzed to illustrate the utility of the models presented.
Alcohol and other drug (AOD) use among American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) is a significant health issue in the United States. However, few evidence-based substance use interventions that utilize AI/AN traditional practices, such as drumming, exist. The current study is a feasibility randomized controlled trial (RCT) analyzing the potential benefits of DARTNA (Drum-assisted recovery therapy for Native Americans) among 63 AI/AN adults seeking substance use treatment within an urban area in southern California. We compared DARTNA participants to usual care plus, which involved an integrated multimedia health educational program and usual care from providers for AOD use. At end of treatment, DARTNA participants reported significantly lower cognitive impairment and lower counts of physical ailments. Given that this was a feasibility trial, we also used Cohen’s d=.20 or odds ratio=2 or 0.5 to determine clinical significance. At end of treatment, we found promising benefits for DARTNA participants related to better physical health, fewer drinks per day, and lower odds of marijuana use in the past 30 days compared to the control group. Using these criteria, at 3-month follow-up, DARTNA participants reported less adoption of 12-step principles, less cognitive impairment, and lower anxiety with relationships. However, DARTNA participants reported more drinks per day and more cigarettes compared to the control group. Overall, this study demonstrates feasibility of conducting an RCT with AI/AN people in urban settings and highlights how a substance use treatment intervention utilizing drumming may help to meet the diverse needs of AI/AN people seeking substance use treatment.
En el presente artículo se procura definir el estatuto científica de la "neuroteología". Las razones más importantes por las que se plantea dicho problema :son a) las dificultades que entraña su objeto de estudio; b) su supuesta evocación de la frenología; c)los objetivos que persigue, y d) sus limitaciones metodológicas. No obstante, se sugiere que la neuroteología, a pesar de las lagunas e inconsistencias propias de una disciplina emergente, tiene bases epistémicas suficientemente definidas para ser tipificada como "ciencia".
Empirical cross-cultural research provides a typology of magico-religious practitioners and identifies their relations to social complexity, their selection-function relationships, and reveals their biosocial bases. Different practitioner types and configurations are associated with specific ecological and political dynamics that indicate a cultural evolutionary development. Relations between practitioners’ selection processes and professional activities reveal three fundamental structures of religions: (1) selection and training involving alterations of consciousness used for healing, manifested in Shamans and other shamanistic healers; (2) social inheritance of leadership roles providing a hierarchical political organization of agricultural societies, manifested in Priests; and (3) attribution of a role involving inherently evil activities, and manifested in the Sorcerer/Witch. Shamans were transformed with foraging loss, agricultural intensification, warfare, and political integration into Healers and Mediums. Priests are predicted by agriculture and political integration beyond the local community, representing the emergence of a new stratum of magico-religious practice. Priests are also responsible for political and social conditions that significantly predict the presence of the Sorcerer/Witch. These findings suggest three distinctive biosocial structures of magico-religious activity related to alterations of consciousness and endogenous healing processes; hierarchically integrated social organization; and social persecution and incorporation.
In this chapter, Mullis critically engages William James’ account of conversion experiences and mystical consciousness in light of Pentecostal theology and ethnographic fieldwork in charismatic Pentecostal churches. James’ emphasis on pathology in his account of ecstatic behavior is critically assessed as is his framing of religious encounters as passive and solitary. Mullis then considers how James’ analysis would differ if it were based not on religious autobiographical literature but on ethnographic research and embodied experiential inquiry. The chapter also discusses the confluence of ecstatic practices and fundamentalist ideology that can occur during charismatic Christian rituals, James’ dismissal of fundamentalism, and an ethics of witnessing practiced by the ethnographer-artist.
Gamification has created interesting dimensions in the workplace through the application of game elements. Game dynamics, triggered by game elements, have received attention because of their significant influence on employees’ engagement, performance, and knowledge contribution. While recent research has explored the significance of game elements, there has been insufficient focus on the relations among game dynamics, user experience, and creative ideation. Subsequently, this research aims to investigate the effect of game dynamics on creative ideation. Inspired by the broaden-and-build theory and other research on cognitive processes, this study introduced two parallel mediators: transcendent and intellectual experiences. To test the research model, 508 samples were administered to employees of an IT organisation that has incorporated gamification along with enterprise social network. The results demonstrated partial mediation between the game dynamics (collaboration and network exposure) and creative ideation, and full mediation between time pressure and creative ideation. A stronger mediating effect of transcendent experience was found between collaboration and creative ideation, and a stronger mediating effect of intellectual experience was found between time pressure and creative ideation. The results of the study pave the way for future research into game dynamics and their effect on creative ideation through specific user experiences.
A brief overview of research supporting Eliade's idea of a cross-cultural concept of the shaman based on systematic ethnological (holocultural) data analysis.
L’article montre que les expériences spirituelles, qu’elles soient de type sensoriel ou paranormal, ne sont pas simplement déclenchées ou apprises, mais qu’elles participent d’un « embrasement » : les événements font l’objet d’une habituation qui dépend à la fois de la réactivité de l’individu et de l’importance que leur accorde la société. Tout le monde ne fait pas d’expériences paranormales. Les événements en question ne sont pas des phénomènes discrets : ils ont tendance à survenir en lien les uns avec les autres. Certains d’entre eux font l’objet d’une habituation tant au niveau du groupe que de l’individu, tout en étant contraints. L’apprentissage social ne suffit pas à expliquer la configuration de ces expériences.
The article shows that spiritual experiences, whether sensory or supernatural, are not just triggered or learnt, they occur as part of a “kindling” pattern: events are habituated for individuals and depend on people’s reactivity as well as on social expectations. Supernatural experiences are events that not everyone has, they do not behave as discrete phenomena; instead they tend to occur more in relation to one another, like syndromes. Although constrained, some of these events are habituated for the group as well as for the individual. Cultural learning is not sufficient to explain the patterning of spiritual experience.
This chapter provides an overview of various religious, spiritual, and life views of healing and healing practices related to both physical and mental health. Where relevant, approaches are explored on the scriptural basis. The chapter augments the discussion of ritual in Chap. 4 and provides a foundation for later chapters that address reliance on spirituality and religion in the context of preventing and coping with illness and disease
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For several years, I have been interested in the Brazilian churches that use a particular mind-altering brew as a sacrament. This brew is referred to as “ayahuasca,”“yage,”“hoasca,” etc., depending on the part of the country in which one encounters it. I am often invited to participate in evening ceremonies by the church elders, and one visit was especially memorable.
This Doctoral Dissertation (in Italian) presents a new research hypothesis about the Psychic Phenomena in Art (so-called 'Mediumistic Art'), providing a different interpretation to creative dissociation and artistic automatisms that characterize these particular manifestations of Abnormal Psychology, and demonstrating the neuroscientific and psychobiological bases of such phenomena.
The meanings of many metaphors used to describe luminous visions in the Rig Veda (RV) remain elusive or ambiguous despite years of expert hermeneutical exegesis. In this series of papers, we classify the metaphors used to describe luminous visions into sets based on certain abstract characteristics (shapes, colors, movements, order of appearance), then show how these metaphor-sets can be matched with remarkable precision, image by image, to a sequence of internally-generated light sensations ('phosphenes') induced by meditation. These meditation-induced phosphenes can also evolve in longer and more elaborate sequences if the subjects practice meditation while in a sleep-deprived condition. A sleep deficit increases the risk of subclinical seizures emerging at sleep onset - and the paroxysmal activity generates further evolution of the phosphene imagery. In the first paper of this three-part series, we document the parallels between the meditation-induced phosphenes and two types of luminous visions described in the RV - the Asvins' radiant, three-wheeled chariot and the flame-arrows of Agni. In the second paper, we analyze metaphors used to describe the visions of Soma and Indra and show that there is a close match between these luminous visions and paroxysmal phosphenes. Based on the extensive parallels revealed by our comparison, we conclude that the metaphors for luminous visions in the RV were meant to refer to the same visual content as appears in the meditation-induced visions described by the author, and that, despite years of poetic embellishment, the eulogists' choice of metaphors suggests a much more empirically-oriented attempt to describe visionary experience than has hitherto been suspected. This hypothesis about the meaning of luminous visions in the RV has important implications for several issues debated by Vedic scholars, including: (1) the identity of the original soma plant; (2) the influence of shamanic practices in the creation of the Vedic myths, and (3) the extent of the continuities between the visionary experiences described in the RV and those described in the Upanishads and in the many yoga meditation texts in the Hindu, Tantric, and Tibetan-Buddhist traditions.
The purpose of this essay is, among other things, to correct the misunderstandings that some evolutionary psychologists have promoted about Clifford Geertz. It is indeed unfortunate that generations of cognitive scientists of religion have simply accepted unwarranted claims about Geertz's attitude towards cognition and psychology. Furthermore, this blind acceptance goes hand in hand with the equally faulty idea that cognition has nothing much to do with culture, except that cognition came first. In this chapter, I will briefly introduce Clifford Geertz. The bulk of the chapter will consist of a detailed analysis of Geertz's understanding of cognition and culture followed by a brief description of criticism from evolutionary psychologists Tooby and Cosmides. The final section will indicate how Geertz's ideas mesh well with contemporary cognitive, social and affective neuroscience. Introduction to Clifford Geertz Clifford Geertz was not only a significant figure in anthropology; he was one of the great intellectuals of the latter half of the twentieth century. He was born on 23 August 1926 and died on 30 October 2006. After the war, he studied literature at Antioch College in Ohio from 1946 to 1950, which left an indelible influence on his literary style. He also studied philosophy and was greatly inspired by John Austin, Gilbert Ryle and Kenneth Burke. He then moved on to graduate school at Harvard, studying under Clyde Kluckhohn at an interdisciplinary department called “Social Relations”. Here Geertz met anthropology, psychology and sociology. © Dimitris Xygalatas and William W. McCorkle Jr, 2013 and individual contributors, 2013.
With the use of a rapid, sensitive fluorometric assay, tryptophan hydroxylase from rabbit hindbrain has been partially purified. The enzyme resembles phenylalanine and tyrosine hydroxylases in many respects. For example, the hydroxylation reaction shows an absolute requirement for a tetrahydropterin and is stimulated by reduced pyridine nucleotide, dihydropteridine reductase, and catalase. Fe²⁺ also stimulates the reaction but only in the absence of catalase; this finding suggests that catalase or Fe²⁺ protects a sensitive component of the tryptophan hydroxylation system from inactivation by H2O2. Just as with the other pterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylases, the apparent Km of tryptophan hydroxylase for its amino acid substrate and for oxygen are markedly lower in the presence of tetrahydrobiopterin than they are in the presence of the cofactor analogue, dimethyltetrahydropterin. In addition, high concentrations of tryptophan inhibit the reaction in the presence of tetrahydrobiopterin, but not in the presence of the dimethylpterin. The stoichiometry of the reaction catalyzed by tryptophan hydroxylase in the presence of tetrahydrobiopterin has been determined.
The first step of synthesis of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in central serotoninergic neurons plays a major role In the regulation of the transmitter formation similar to that observed in catechol aminergic neurons. But, during the past few years it has been generally assumed that the regulation of 5-HT synthesis differed in at least two ways from that of catecholamines (CA) in noradrenergic or dopaminergic neurons. The concentrations of tryptophan normally present in the mammalian brain are below the Michaelis constant (Km) of tryptophan hydroxylase (Jéquier et al., 1967; Peters et al., 1968), while the concentrations of tyrosine are not below the Michaelis constant of tyrosine hydroxylase (McGeer et al., 1967).The intraneuronal concentrations of tryptophan may not be sufficient to saturate the enzyme and small variations in the availability of the amino acid may rapidly affect the rate of 5-HT synthesis. This does not seem to be the case for tyrosine in catecholaminergic neurons. Consequently, much effort has been made to study the role of tryptophan in the regulation of the transmitter synthesis. Central 5-HT levels increase much more markedly after MAO inhibition than those of CA, and as shown in in vitro studies, 5-HT did not apparently inhibit tryptophan hydroxylase activity (McGeer and Peters, 1969, Grahame-Smith, 1964; Jéquier et al., 1969) whereas tyrosine hydroxylase activity was inhibited by increased CA levels (Udenfriend et al., 1965).
This chapter discusses the amygdala unit activity as a reflection of functional changes in brain serotonergic neurons. Three issues are essential to the comprehension of the neurophysiological and behavioral role of brain serotonin (5-HT): (1) determination of the factors controlling the electrical activity of 5-HT containing-neurons, (2) the postsynaptic effect of 5-HT, and (3) an understanding of the functional significance of postsynaptic neurons. Among higher mammalian species, the amygdala is one of the richest central nervous system structures in terms of serotonin concentration. Serotonin is contained in axon terminals derived from neurons in the raphe nuclei of the brain stem. In the cat, lesions of the dorsal raphe nucleus result in heavy terminal degeneration in the basolateral division of the amygdale. Part of the role played by the raphe nuclei in the production and maintenance of slow-wave sleep and certain forms of behavioral inhibition is exerted via amygdaloid S cells. These serotonin-containing raphe cells may exert an influence on sensory processes by varying the amount of background activity in amygdala cells involved in complex stimulus recognition.
The problem of the relation between our bodies and our minds, and espe cially of the link between brain structures and processes on the one hand and mental dispositions and events on the other is an exceedingly difficult one. Without pretending to be able to foresee future developments, both authors of this book think it improbable that the problem will ever be solved, in the sense that we shall really understand this relation. We think that no more can be expected than to make a little progress here or there. We have written this book in the hope that we have been able to do so. We are conscious of the fact that what we have done is very conjectur al and very modest. We are aware of our fallibility; yet we believe in the intrinsic value of every human effort to deepen our understanding of our selves and of the world we live in. We believe in humanism: in human rationality, in human science, and in other human achievements, however fallible they are. We are unimpressed by the recurrent intellectual fashions that belittle science and the other great human achievements. An additional motive for writing this book is that we both feel that the debunking of man has gone far enough - even too far. It is said that we had to learn from Copernicus and Darwin that man's place in the universe is not so exalted or so exclusive as man once thought. That may well be.
In his famous work, Ramón y Cajal (1911) has a drawing of the main connections of the hippocampal formation (Fig. 1). This is indeed a remarkable figure. With few exceptions, further investigations with different techniques have shown Ramón y Cajal to be correct, despite the fact that he had to infer the direction of impulse traffic from histological data only. Physiological and biochemical techniques have, however, added details in the scheme devised by Ramón y Cajal, and changed it on some points. The purpose of this chapter is to give a review of what these studies have added to our knowledge about hippocampal neuronal organization.
Present conceptions (Kosterlitz and Hughes, 1975; Akil and Liebeskind, 1975; Snyder, 1975) of endorphins as natural analgesic substances for regulation of the response to pain are probably correct (Belluzzi et al. 1976), but these formulations are too narrow to accommodate the role postulated for these peptides in mental disease (Bloom et al. 1976; Terenius et al. 1976). We propose here a broadening of the functions attributed to endorphins—along lines previously suggested (Goldstein, 1976; Byck, 1976; Belluzzi and Stein, 1977a)—to include the regulation of affective states and appetitive drives. More precisely, we suggest that endorphins may serve as transmitters or modulators in neuronal systems for the mediation of pleasure and reward. The possibility that reward dysfunction is an etiological factor in affective disorders and schizophrenia has been considered elsewhere (Stein, 1962; Stein and Wise, 1971).
d-Amphetamine (d-AMP) decreases rat striatal reduced pterins (PH4), and the change exhibits complex dose-time-effect relationships. Of 27 other drugs, none affects striatal PH4 but some alter the d-AMP effect. Loss in PH4 is due to oxidation yielding non-quinoid dihydropterin (PH2), and we have identified in the striatum a non-quinoid dihydropterin reductase (DPR) that is implicated in PH4 restoration. Data are interpreted in terms of a model wherein two distinct PH4 regenerating systems serve two dopamine (DA) synthetic pathways, defining a discrete primary action of d-AMP.
Psychomotor epileptics with hippocampal cells missing demonstrate interictal hypomania with non-dominant, and obsessionally dysphoric feelings with dominant, lobe foci. Tryptophan (TP) and serotonin (5-HT), an inhibitor of these cells, are distributed asymmetrically in rat hippocampi and striatal systems, with asymmetries almost halved with lithium's augmentation of TP uptake and 5-HT synthesis and almost doubled with cocaine's reduction of both functions. Changing enzyme conformation and substrate kinetics serve as neurobiological mechanisms.
This book is devoted to detailed descriptions of the numerous attack patterns. Particular detail is given to precise symptomatic features by clinical observation, cinematography and videotape; the accompanying electro encephalographic seizure discharge; and the polygraphic recording of motor components (by electromyography, eye movement recordings) and of autonomic components (by ECG, respirography, and electrodermography). Also covered in detail are: definition and classification in epileptology; techniques of investigating; clinical description of epileptic seizures, their electrographic correlates and apparent pathophysiology; various combinations of epileptic suizures, the seizure types, age of the patient and etiology; diagnosis of the epileptic nature of the seizures; a review of the various non epileptic seizures which pose problems of differential diagnosis and the treatment and counseling of patients with epileptic seizures. Considerable information is provided, including descriptions of a large number of electrophysiological investigative techniques, several often unrecognized varieties of generalized epileptic seizures, mechanisms of ictal enuresis and the epileptic cry, principal types of unilateral epileptic seizures seen mainly in childhood and the related hemiconvulsion hemiparesis (HH) and the hemiconvulsion hemiparesis epilepsy (HHE) syndromes, the Lennox Gastaut syndrome, relations between different types of sleep and various seizure forms, and benzodiazepine drugs as major anti epileptic agents.
The central stimulant effect of cocaine is generally considered related to its potentiating effect on biogenic amines. However, the individual role and significance of the amines involved in various stimulant effects of cocaine are still a controversial topic. Cocaine is a potent inhibitor of noradrenaline uptake (Hertting, Axelrod, and Whitby, 1961; Ross and Renyi, 1967; Langer and Enero, 1974; Azzaro, Ziance, and Rutledge, 1974), dopamine uptake (Fuxe, Hamberger, and Malmfors, 1967; Ross and Renyi, 1967; Harris and Baldessarini, 1973; Heikkila, Orlansky, Mytilineou, and Cohen, 1975), and serotonin uptake (Ross and Renyi, 1969; Friedman, Gershon, and Rotrosen, 1975). High affinity uptake of tryptophan into synaptosomes is also inhibited (Knapp and Mandell, 1972). In vivo studies have shown that cocaine induces a short-lasting uptake inhibition into brain tissues of noradrenaline (Schanberg and Cook, 1972), dopamine (Fuxe, Ham-berger, and Malmfors, 1967), and serotonin (Ross and Renyi, 1969).
We have previously demonstrated that long-term administration of d-amphetamine in rats results in a progressive augmentation of stereotypy and/or locomotion, depending upon dose. Similar behavioral changes have been observed with repeated injection of 1-amphetamine and methylphenidate (Segal, unpublished data). Since amphetamine has been shown to exert effects on both catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems in the brain, it is conceivable that alterations in one or more of these neurochemical systems are responsible for the chronic amphetamine-induced behavioral augmentation. In fact, some evidence indicates that brain serotonin (5-HT) may be implicated since its depletion by either parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA) (Swonger and Rech, 1972; Mabry and Campbell, 1973; Breese, Cooper, and Mueller, 1974; Neuberg and Thut, 1974) or raphe lesion (Neill, Grant, and Grossman, 1972; Costall and Naylor, 1974; Jacobs, Wise, and Taylor, 1975; Geyer, Puerto, Menkes, Segal, and Mandell, 1976a) has been reported to enhance amphetamine-induced locomotion. Although the effects of 5-HT depletion on stereotypy are somewhat more equivocal (Rotrosen, Angrist, Wallach, and Gershon, 1972; Swonger and Rech, 1972; Weiner, Goetz, Westheimer, and Klawans, 1973; Breese et al., 1974; Costall and Naylor, 1974; Baldessarini, Amatruda, Griffin, and Gerson, 1975; Weiner, Goetz, and Klawans, 1975), it is possible that the behavioral augmentation observed with repeated administration of amphetamine is due, at least in part, to a progressive decrease in the functional activity of brain 5-HT systems.
Morphological data on structures of the principal limbic circuit show that they constitute a complex, hierarchically organized system, and that this is indeed a system with important intrinsic principles of organization. The morphofunctional interactions among the elements of this system are obvious from the successive transneuronal degeneration of the limbic structures after an interruption of their interconnections (Cowan and Powell, 1954; Bleier, 1969). The principal limbic circuit is supplemented by very significant interactions between the hippocampus and the brain stem reticular formation, with the septum as the intermediary link.
It has been known for some time from neuroendocrine and behavioral studies that the brain is both a master controller of endocrine function and a target for these endocrine secretions. There exist complex feedback interactions between endocrine secretions and the brain which not only control the secretion of hypothalamic and pituitary hormones but also influence neural activity underlying behavior. It is only quite recently that we have come to appreciate the role of the entire limbic brain, and not just the hypothalamus, in these endocrine-brain interactions.
The temporal-lobe-like seizures produced by local anesthetics (deJong and Walts, 1966) have at least two possibly important contributions to human pathological conditions: 1) they may help explain the mechanisms underlying temporal lobe epilepsy and/or psychosis occasionally associated with this condition; 2) they may help elucidate the intervening links between the association of the overactivity of the limbic spindle and limbic discharges, with hyperarousal and hyperactive behaviors noted in animal models of chronic stimulant psychosis (see Ellinwood, 1974a for review). Chronic high-dose amphetamine (25–35 mg/kg) administration, or self-administration, in the cat results in bizarre hyperreactive behavior and associated high voltage limbic spindles that may precede tonic-clonic seizures. Furthermore, in chronic high dose amphetamine-intoxicated animals, specific hyperreactive behaviors (at times the animal appears to be reacting to non-existent stimuli) are often immediately preceded by a high voltage spindle and/or discharge in the amygdala, accumbens, and olfactory tubercle (Ellinwood, 1974a; Ellinwood, Sudilovsky, and Nelson, 1974). Much lower doses of amphetamine (10 mg/kg) when administered concomitantly with disulfiram (a dopamine beta hydroxylase inhibitor blocking norepinephrine [NE] synthesis) for only two to three days produces bizarre hyperreactive behavior with hyperspindling leading to tonicclonic seizures (Ellinwood, Sudilovsky, and Grabowy, 1973).