Content uploaded by Daliborka Luketić
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Daliborka Luketić on Oct 02, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
57
SELF-ASSESSMENT OF CROATIAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PUPILS ON THE ENTREPRENEURIAL INITIATIVE
Dijana Vican
*
Daliborka Luketić
**
Received: 4. 7. 2013 Preliminary communication
Accepted: 2. 12.2013 UDC 65.012.4:373.3>(497.5)
Defining entrepreneurship as an educational value, the educational systems and
society demonstrate commitment to recognize a socio-cultural value – the
entrepreneurship, and accordingly, to realize entrepreneurial competencies among
pupils. The request to encourage the early development of initiative and
entrepreneurial competencies is articulated at structural and procedural levels of
curricular approaches and changes in educational systems. This study examines
self-assessment of entrepreneurial initiative among elementary school pupils in
Croatia in order to detect pupils’ entrepreneurial characteristics and preferences.
Since self-assessment and pupils' attitudes indicate a potentially entrepreneurial
activity, the aim of the research is to identify the components of entrepreneurial
competencies that need to be optimized within the formal education system.
Therefore, the research was conducted at the national level on a sample of 1,962
elementary school pupils. Research results show that pupils positively evaluated
entrepreneurial initiative, seeing it as an implicit characteristic of their own
activities and involvement, and not as an explicit and anticipated one. Therefore,
the multidimensionality of entrepreneurial initiative self-assessment by primary
school pupils was not confirmed. Nevertheless, the positive preferences of pupils
were expressed, although insufficiently brought to consciousness. The survey
confirmed gender and age differences that were reflected in the differences in the
evaluation and entrepreneurial experience. The results indicate the need to affirm
teaching entrepreneurship in their daily activities, a clearer articulation of its
educational components and fostering synergy between education levels and
among teaching subjects.
*
Dijana Vican, PhD, Associate professor, University of Zadar, Department of Pedagogy, Obala
kralja P. Krešimira IV/2, 23000 Zadar (Croatia). Phone: +385 23 200 557. E-mail:
dvican@unizd.hr
**
Daliborka Luketić, PhD, (Corresponding author), Assistant, University of Zadar, Department
of Pedagogy, Obala kralja P. Krešimira IV/2, 23000 Zadar (Croatia). Phone: +385 23 200 513.
E-mail: dluketic@unizd.hr
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
58
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of entrepreneurial initiative and entrepreneurial
competencies of pupils represent an objective and expected educational
outcome of modern education system of the European Union (Recommendation
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key
competences for lifelong learning, 2006). Whilst most Western European
societies have been recognizing entrepreneurship for many decades as a socio-
cultural and educational dimension, the situation in our regional and national
context is quite different. Socio-cultural affirmation of entrepreneurship is
reflected in different dynamics and is directly determined by the socio-
economic transition and modernization of Croatian society. The period since the
establishment of principles and practices of the free market that marked the last
decade of the 20th century, up to the building of the economy and the
knowledge-based society, represents not only the time framework but also the
contextual framework within which entrepreneurship has had different
meanings to the level of value orientation, and the level of articulation of the
social and political attitudes and public opinion. Today, entrepreneurship
represents one of the cornerstones of social development which is best
described by the concept of an entrepreneurial culture and an entrepreneurial
society.
The results of numerous analyses have shown that the achievement of
competitiveness and growth is directly related to the development of human
capital and entrepreneurial activity in the broadest sense of the term (Keeley,
2007). When it comes to relation between entrepreneurship and education in our
educational system, such a tradition exists only at the level of vocational and
higher education. It is also generally accepted that entrepreneurship belongs
exclusively to the field of economic theory and practice. This indicates that the
scientific discourse of entrepreneurship is disciplinary focused. However, for
the purpose of a systematic and comprehensive understanding of the
entrepreneurial initiative, and in particular its application in terms of reinforcing
it as a social value and developing entrepreneurial competence among children
and youth, an interdisciplinary approach becomes necessary. A group of
Croatian authors concluded that ˝the education to acquire entrepreneurial
competencies in Croatia mainly belongs to the field of economics, economic
science and economic institutes and institutions of higher education at which
economy is studied˝ (Domović et al., 2013:145). Pre-tertiary levels, particularly
the level of the general compulsory education, were not considered an
appropriate level for educating and training on the entrepreneurial values,
knowledge and skills acquisition as well as the development of skills and
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
59
attitudes towards entrepreneurship. The exception to this rule is the tradition of
education in Croatian schools of fostering educational value of creativity.
The work of renowned American economist T. W. Schultz represents the
turning point in the view of entrepreneurship. He defines entrepreneurship
(1975; 1980) as a process of an individual adjusting to society. He argues that
entrepreneurial ability is not an exclusive privilege of a business person, but is
seen in a large number of people throughout their lives when confronted with a
variety of changes in life circumstances that influences their entrepreneurial
behavior. Kurtako (2005) argues that entrepreneurship can only be understood
as a process of vision, change and creation, all requiring an investment of effort
and dedication in creating and implementing new ideas and solutions.
In societies that associate entrepreneurship exclusively with industry,
where it is not placed high in the value system of the society, it acquires
connotations that anesthetize the entrepreneurial spirit of a nation.
Entrepreneurship is associated with innovation and creativity by creating of the
new in all areas of human activity. Starting a business, making something new,
and adding value to something, provoking a_ proactive response in one's own
environment and the process of creative destruction are only a few attributes
associated with the idea of entrepreneurship. There are, however, elements of
sub-competencies that are believed to be able to develop through education.
If expectations focus on the results, without being processed through the
areas of personality during the education, the correlation of economics and
economic disciplines as well as education and economic development is weak.
An entrepreneurial culture is still created more often on the level of
vocational education (Towards Entrepreneurial Culture for the Twenty-first
Century, 2006) so the expected learning outcomes have been more elaborated in
the VET curricula. The last change in Croatian educational system aimed at
changing the hierarchy of values and goals, opening space to entrepreneurship,
education about and for entrepreneurship, the education through
entrepreneurship and learning about the entrepreneurship in a contemporary
educational change. Entrepreneurial competence is one of the eight most
relevant competences that have become a requirement to be fulfilled in pre-
tertiary education as opted by Croatian policy makers (National Curriculum
Framework for Preschool Education, General Compulsory and Secondary
Education, 2011).
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
60
2. DEVELOPMENT OF ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCE
Based on changes in the definition, and the evaluation of positive effects
for the development of a society, entrepreneurship has been the subject of
interest for experts in the field of educational sciences since the end of the
1990s. Entrepreneurial competencies in synergy with other competencies allow
quality preparation of young people for lifelong learning (European
Commission, 2007). Entrepreneurship -level core competency means getting
qualification for implementing ideas and thoughts into action, thus becoming
the everyday professional social functioning of individuals. According to the
expert analysis the offered framework of core competencies is quite
heterogeneous (Halász and Michel, 2011), leaving the freedom of interpretation,
as well as ways of implementing it in national and regional frameworks of
European countries. Deakin Crick (2008) interprets core competencies and
possible polarization between economic neoliberalism and global views on
social justice and concludes that a business person requires the same set of
meta-competencies, as a successful parent or a responsible citizen, although
they may differ in what they do and the knowledge and skills they possess
(Deakin Crick, 2008: 317).
The development of the competence approach and its implementation in
curriculum programming requires change of content from secondary (for
example, an economic and financial education and training) into priority
curriculum elements in traditional systems of education. The range of expected
student achievements and learning outcomes with the common denominator for
developing entrepreneurial competencies and entrepreneurship as features of
student's personality traits becomes primary. Entrepreneurship with the meaning
of innovation and creativity presupposes a powerful emancipatory potential in
the process of humanization, and hence the education, which is complementary
to the development of society and mankind.
Scientific researches and numerous empirical studies have shown that
education is positively correlated with economic growth and development
(Pastuović, 2012). Hence the other key bounding entrepreneurship and reform
changes. All Western European countries have confirmed the importance of
entrepreneurial education and the acquisition of entrepreneurial competencies,
anticipating education as a fundamental determinant of entrepreneurial activities
in their countries. Therefore, entrepreneurial competencies with all its
characteristics, such as the ability to produce ideas, innovation and creativity
perseverance at work, self-reliance, risk-taking, decision-making and others,
become an integral part of modern education. Namely, according to
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
61
OECD/CERI (1989:36), ˝an entrepreneurial individual has a positive, flexible
and adaptive disposition to change, seeing it as normal and as an opportunity
rather than a problem. To see change in this way, an entrepreneurial individual
has a security born of self-confidence, and is at ease when dealing with
insecurity, risks and the unknown. An entrepreneurial individual has the
capacity to initiate creative ideas and develop them into action in a determined
manner. An entrepreneurial individual is able, even anxious to take
responsibility, is an effective communicator, negotiator, influencer, planner and
organizer".
3. EDUCATION FOR THE ACQUISITION OF
ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCES AND
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
One of the pioneers of the entrepreneurial theory and education for
enterprise, a British scientist A. Gibb (1993, 2002) leads an entire group of
authors who support the thesis that entrepreneurial skills are not strongly
determined by personality traits, but a quality that can be learned and
developed. Accordingly, Gibb (1984) concludes that effective acquisition of
entrepreneurial qualities is primarily the issue of teaching methods and
strategies and acquiring knowledge, and not merely the learning content.
In reality, a person is expected to cope with changed and variable
conditions of life and work. Entrepreneurship indicates creating opportunities in
an unsafe living environment - locally, regionally, nationally, internationally,
and globally. After long discussions on the issue whether a person is born an
entrepreneur or becomes one, studies have shown that the development in the
early years can affect the development of entrepreneurial skills, and that
entrepreneurship can be learned and developed. Dealing with complex
requirements of changes implies young people are prepared- cognitively,
emotionally and willingly - to recognize and realize their full potential in
adulthood. Accordingly, competencies are an interwoven set of cognitive and
practical skills and abilities, knowledge, motivational forces, value
determinations, attitudes, emotions, and other components that mobilize a
person to an effective activity (Jokić, 2007).
The education systems of the European Union countries have, therefore,
introduced entrepreneurial competence as a basic competence. Basic means that
the entrepreneurial competencies are as relevant as the communication in the
mother tongue and a foreign language, mathematical literacy and competence in
science and technology, digital competence, ability to learn (learning to learn),
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
62
social competence and cultural awareness. ˝The main objective of
entrepreneurial competencies development of pupils is the development of
personality traits and knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes necessary for the
operation of the individual as a successful entrepreneurial person˝ (National
Curriculum Framework for Preschool, General Compulsory and Secondary
Education, 2011:45). In this context, the structural and procedural
entrepreneurship has the status of interdisciplinary subject, which means that it
can be developed through all subjects at all levels of pre-tertiary education.
All educators at schools and beyond are responsible for the effective
realization of entrepreneurial learning and the development of entrepreneurial
competences among children and youth. Although entrepreneurial learning is
framed by curriculum, schools are allowed to be unique in their approach in
encouraging the development of specific competencies. An example of learning
outcomes implementation related to entrepreneurial competence development at
the ISCED 2 level of national educational systems was identified in the regional
project for Entrepreneurial Learning of Southeast Europe
1
.
Bringing together the national and international experts and teachers as
direct holders led to developing learning outcomes for the entrepreneurship,
which were then applied in the daily teaching activities at 31 schools from eight
countries. According to the evaluation of the pilot project (Batarelo Kokić et al.,
2013) positive attitudes were expressed by pupils and changes in the school
curriculum of teaching and learning, the teaching materials development, etc.
were recorded, which requires a new culture of school - an innovative, creative
and entrepreneurial one to be created.
4. THE OBJECTIVE, PROBLEM AND RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Assessing the quality changes and reforms in the education system should
be based on clear empirical indicators in their own context; research is focused
on the theoretical and practical implications concerning initiated curriculum
changes and modernization of education in Croatia. The objective of this paper
is to examine how elementary school pupils evaluate their own initiative and
how they understand it in the context of everyday school and teaching activities.
The research is based on following hypotheses:
1
Project holder is the Regional Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning SEE (South East European
Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning - SEECEL), a project funded by the European Union. The
presented research results are part of a more comprehensive research, conducted in the framework
of scientific research project ˝ Education for entrepreneurship ˝.
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
63
Hypothesis H1. Given that entrepreneurial learning is not an explicit goal of
the educational activities of teachers; pupils will evaluate
their entrepreneurship differently as part of school work and
teaching process.
Hypothesis H2. Given that the entrepreneurship is theoretically a
multidimensional construct, we expect the level of pupils’'
self-estimation of entrepreneurship to confirm its
multidimensionality, or the grouping of attitudes about
substantially different personality traits associated with
entrepreneurship.
Hypothesis H3. Given that there are differences in the activity and affinity
for educational and extracurricular activities among girls
and boys, we expect the existence of gender differences in
the self-estimation of the entrepreneurship.
Hypothesis H4. The curriculum shows that higher grades compared to lower
grades bring increasingly complex educational requirements
that directly lead to increased school workload for pupils.
Therefore, we expect that there will be differences in the
self-estimation of entrepreneurial skills according to their
age, or their grade.
4.1. The sample and research procedure
The survey was conducted in 2011 on a sample of 1,962 pupils from 23 primary
schools in the Republic of Croatia. The process of selecting the research sample
is based on the principles of stratified and random selection. The three stratums
were used in sample formation on the basis of a stratified selection: a) regional
origin, b) schools, and c) class. Selection within the second and third stratum
relies on a combination of stratified-random sampling. The research was
conducted on a nationally representative sample of schools within 6 regions
(Zagreb and surroundings, Northern Croatia, Slavonia, Lika and Banovina,
Istria and Primorje and Dalmatia).
Specifically, a number of schools were selected within each region on the
principle of representation of the number of primary school pupils each region
has in the total number of primary school pupils in the Republic of Croatia.
When selecting schools, schools in large urban regional centers and those in the
less urban areas of each region were equally represented. The testing was
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
64
conducted in two randomly selected 6th and 8th grades in each of the selected
schools.
Table 1. Number of respondents by sex and age
6th grade 8th grade Total
N % N % N %
Boys 488 24.87 471 24.87 959 48.88
Girls 478 24.36 525 26.76 1003 51.12
Total 966 49.23 996 50.77 1962 100
Table 1 shows the sample structure based on pupils' sex and age.
According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2011), at the beginning of the
school year 2010/2011 in the Republic of Croatia there were 349,423 pupils in
primary schools. A total of 46,087 of these pupils were enrolled in the 6
th
grade,
and 49,437 pupils in the 8
th
grade. The sample used in this research consisted of
966 pupils in the 6
th
grade (2. 01% of the 6
th
grade population) and 996 pupils in
the 8
th
grade (2.01% of the 8
th
grade population). The target group of
respondents were pupils of the 6
th
(N = 966, 49.24%) and 8
th
grade (N = 996,
50.76 %).
The “grade” category is also an age category of pupils, which distinguishes
between younger (the 6
th
grade) and older pupils (the 8
th
grade). In the total
number of pupils from the research sample (N = 1,962), there were 959 boys
(48.88%) and 1,003 girls (51.12%). The structure of the sample by gender and
age of the pupils revealed there was approximately the same number of pupils
in each of the possible categories covered.
4.2. Research instrument
A short questionnaire survey was used as main instrument in collecting
empirical data on pupils’ social and demographic features. The Attitudes to
Enterprise Test (Athadye, 2009, 2012) was used for the self-assessment of
entrepreneurial initiative. It determines personal perception of entrepreneurship
within the everyday curriculum and pupils’ school activities. Self-assessment
indicates school context in which pupils realize their entrepreneurial potential
and abilities and a place where they see opportunity to practice
entrepreneurship.
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
65
The original questionnaire consists of 30 statements with a 7-point Likert-
type scale assessing the level of agreement with a particular statement.
However, it was estimated that the 5-speed range estimates sufficient intensity
range of (dis)agreements for the proposed claim for elementary school pupils.
So, for the purpose of this study the 7- point scale assessment was replaced with
a 5-point one (consisting of the following levels of agreement: 1 - strongly
disagree, 2 - mostly do not agree, 3 - neither agree nor disagree, 4 - mostly
agree 5 - strongly agree).
Pupils who had previously obtained the parent’s consent to participate in
the research took part in the study voluntarily. The questionnaire was based on
the paper-pencil principle, and the questionnaire was distributed in each
classroom during the regular class and at times that were made available to
researchers. The pupils had 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Dimensionality of self-assessment on entrepreneurship of pupils
Determining the persistence of multidimensional self-assessment of
entrepreneurial skills is one of the tasks in this study. According to the
Entrepreneurship theory (Gibb, 1993, 2002) the entrepreneurial initiative can
be described substantially in manifold concepts, such as creativity, belief in the
control of our own destiny, dedication, imagination and personal autonomy,
initiative, the ability to lead others, the ability to take reasonable risks, the need
for achievement and strong persuasion skills. According to this theory and its
empirical verification in the school environment (Athayde, 2009, 2012)
entrepreneurship is conceptually an attitude with five independent dimensions:
creativity, achievement of project activities, the ability to control our own
destiny, belief in the ability to lead others, and using intuition to solve
problems. Thus, it was expected that the pupils’ self-assessment would reveal
several separate components.
The factor analysis was performed for all survey items, with Varimax
normalized rotation and Kaiser's method. The results of the factor analysis
(Table 2), and the application of statistical and theoretical substantive principles
of the particle show that multifactorial structure of entrepreneurial skills,
according to pupils’ self-assessment, is not confirmed. From a total of 30 items,
in the final process, 20 showed satisfactory factor saturation. A total of 10 items
were omitted, due to a relatively low level of statistical significance.
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
66
Table 2. Self-assessment factor structure
Items Factor
loadings h²
Item
correlation
with total
score
1. I believe a good imagination helps you do well at
school. -0.436 0.190 0.382
2. I work hard to make my projects successful. -0.576 0.331 0.508
3. I think my future career success is largely up to me. -0.442 0.196 0.384
5. I like lessons that really stretch my imagination. -0.436 0.190 0.400
7. I’m good at motivating my classmates. -0.501 0.251 0.447
8. I have a lot of faith in my own ability to succeed in
my future career. -0.429 0.184 0.374
9. It is important to finish off a project as well as you
can. -0.562 0.316 0.491
10. I am good at getting people to work well together. -0.535 0.286 0.480
11. I trust my own instinct when solving problems in
class. -0.295 0.087 0.273
12. I think I show a lot of imagination in my
schoolwork. -0.520 0.271 0.486
13. It is important to plan my future career. -0.441 0.194 0.398
15. I believe I can persuade my classmates to agree on a
plan. -0.418 0.175 0.394
16. Making mistakes is a good way of finding out how
to solve a problem. -0.335 0.112 0.307
19. I take responsibility for organising people in group
work. -0.342 0.117 0.317
21. I’ll keep trying out different solutions to a problem
rather than give up. -0.500 0.250 0.462
22. Working hard on projects is well worth the effort. -0.510 0.260 0.467
27. It feels good when a school project works out well. -0.505 0.255 0.461
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
67
28. I have as much chance as anyone else of getting a
good job in the future. -0.459 0.211 0.415
29. I enjoy lessons where the teacher tries out different
ways of teaching. -0.431 0.186 0.395
30. Instinct helps me work out solutions to problems we
are set. -0.421 0.177 0.395
Eigenvalue 4.239
Proportion of explained variance 0.212 h² - communalities
Note: M = 77.60, SD = 9.94
Cronbach alpha: .84; Average correaltion between items: .21
Factorization procedure indicates the one-dimensionality of self-
assessment, which can be explained as a general attitude that pupils have about
themselves and their entrepreneurial initiative. The reliability of the scale was
determined by internal consistency, and its coefficient of 0.84 indicates a
satisfactory level of reliability. The extracted factor explains 21% of the total
variance in the results.
Although the initial assumption on substantially different aspects of
attitudes towards entrepreneurship has not been confirmed, we can see that the
pupils’ self-assessment of their entrepreneurial skills is based on a general
attitude and their own experience. Although it is impossible to detect more
latent dimensions of their entrepreneurship, with the aim of bringing together a
broader set of proposed variables it is not a problem from the perspective of
statistical and substantive criteria, but it is at the same time relevant and
indicative for explaining possible factors that lead to such a structure of pupils’
self-assessment of their entrepreneurship and their own experience. Self-
assessment of a higher level of entrepreneurship achievement, which did not
confirm development of more complex entrepreneurial forms, depends
primarily on the social and cultural characteristics of the environment.
Namely, Croatian schools are still considered to be traditional, i.e. focusing
on content and subject-oriented teaching, which cannot meet the demands of
entrepreneurial learning. The focus on content is based on memorizing and
reproducing knowledge in certain subjects, thus hindering the development of
entrepreneurial characteristics. An education focused on memorizing general
and professional knowledge items required to complete formal education and
acquire qualifications, prepares a person for a foreseen and predictable future
with secure employment. The pedagogical and educational terminology in
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
68
school practice uses very few terms designating entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurial education.
Pupils recognize their own initiative through characteristics, such as
perseverance, diligence, activity, rather than through enterprise. On the other
hand, the operationalization of entrepreneurship at school is based on examining
its diverse aspects through project work, group work, emphasizing a positive
impact of the pupils-to-pupils relationship and approaches to resolving problem
situations. It is possible that the pupils are not aware of themselves and others in
such teaching situations. There are two possible factors that contribute to this
image that pupils have of themselves. Firstly, due to the characteristics of a
traditional school, pupils focus their success on getting excellent grades in
teaching subjects, and not on the educational dimension of developing and
strengthening their personality and acquiring competencies that will be useful to
them in life. Secondly, their entrepreneurial experience, gained by identifying
opportunities for their own actions through project work and in problem-solving
situations, is only one aspect in a wide range of possible teaching methods and
strategies. Jokić (2007) concludes that although our pupils prefer problem
situations, they can access them in a safe, predictable manner and they are
mainly focused on meeting teacher’s expectations. The usual and expected
approach represents a ˝safe˝ way to success, which is getting good grades.
Creativity and innovation in solving problems exposes pupils to a risk they are
not willing to take yet as they are risking the possibility of (not) satisfying their
teacher’s expectations and getting a good grade as an indicator of success.
Foreign studies have shown that effective acquiring entrepreneurial skills
among pupils can be exercised only by those methods that require a higher level
of pupils activity and involvement , an interaction between them and a new role
of the teacher in teaching (Gorman and Hanlon, 199; Hytte and Kuopusjärvi,
2004; Ruskovvara and Pihkala, 2011). The traditional orientation of Croatian
schools is reflected in the fact classes are still dominant and teacher-directed.
The national study of teachers' attitudes towards entrepreneurship and
incentives at school (Baranović et al., 2007), concluded that more than half of
the teachers sometimes participate in organizing and implementing activities
that stimulate entrepreneurial skills among pupils.
Sometimes as a measure of the frequency confirms how often the methods
of active learning and the acquisition of knowledge, skills, developing skills and
attitudes related to entrepreneurship are used. According to this study, an
important fact is that teachers prefer those methods which encourage pupils’
independence, and then the strategies for and methods of developing teamwork
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
69
(Baranović et al., 2007). These data are indicative of the explanation how pupils
understand their entrepreneurship at school. Therefore, strengthening the pupils’
positive attitude, not only to entrepreneurship, but also to other characteristics
of competence, to a large extent depends on the changes in curriculum
paradigms and placing pupils into the center of the educational process.
5.2. How pupils perceive their entrepreneurial initiative?
The operationalization of personal entrepreneurial potential is based, on
one hand, on the tripartite theory of attitudes and assessing five central
components of the entrepreneurial initiative within the school and teaching
situations. Thus, the items in equal numbers refer to cognitive, affective and
volitional (active) attitude towards the statement. On the other hand, they are at
the same time covering the attitude towards one's own creativity, the
possibilities of personal control over future interests and completing a project
work, relying on oneself to solve problem situation, and pupils’ ability to
influence and control others . Although these aspects are not separate at the
level of individual components, we consider the intensity of every allegation
worth a closer analysis. Table 3 shows descriptive indicators and frequency of
responses to items of attitude scale for entrepreneurial initiative. Those claims
that had a positive indicator on the previous level of analysis were selected in
line with the results factor analysis.
Table 3. Descriptive indicators and frequency of responses of pupils to Attitudes to
Enterprise Test
Amount of repondents choosing the answer
on the assessment scale (in%)
Items M SD 1 2 3 4 5 *
1. I believe a good
imagination helps you do
well at school. 4.25 0.831 2.29 2.09 12.13 34.96 48.22 0.31
2. I work hard to make my
projects successful. 4.11 0.815 1.83 3.21 15.29 41.03 37.97 0.66
3. I think my future career
success is largely up to
me. 4.28 0.799 1.89 2.14 12.23 32.98 49.85 0.92
5. I like lessons that really
stretch my imagination. 3.89 1.389 5.5 5.96 20.08 30.43 37.41 0.61
7. I’m good at motivating
my classmates. 3.49 1.270 8.05 9.12 26.96 35.22 19.22 1.43
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
70
8. I have a lot of faith in
my own ability to succeed
in my future career. 4.16 0.973 2.19 3.92 15.65 31.19 45.92 1.12
9. It is important to finish
off a project as well as you
can. 4.34 0.863 1.63 2.29 9.48 33.18 52.45 0.97
10. I am good at getting
people to work well
together. 3.74 1.042 3.24 6.17 26.35 38.22 24.57 0.76
11. I trust my own instinct
when solving problems in
class. 3.55 1.155 5.15 8.72 33.44 30.53 21.25 0.92
12. I think I show a lot of
imagination in my
schoolwork. 3.52 1.013 5.15 6.63 35.22 33.74 16.97 2.29
13. It is important to plan
my future career. 4.18 0.847 1.68 3.31 14.88 33.79 44.7 1.63
15. I believe I can
persuade my classmates to
agree on a plan. 3.50 1.010 4.33 9.02 34.81 33.79 16.67 1.38
16. Making mistakes is a
good way of finding out
how to solve a problem. 3.81 1.017 3.82 5.3 23.8 38.33 27.37 1.38
19. I take responsibility
for organising people in
group work. 3.09 1.105 9.38 17.18 37.82 21.92 11.57 2.14
21. I’ll keep trying out
different solutions to a
problem rather than give
up.
3.92 1.061 4.08 5.68 19.32 34.71 34.51 1.73
22. Working hard on
projects is well worth the
effort. 3.87 1.099 4.49 5.15 19.98 37.26 30.63 2.5
27. It feels good when a
school project works out
well. 4.23 0.920 2.14 2.8 12.28 34.3 46.99 1.48
28. I have as much chance
as anyone else of getting a
good job in the future. 4.19 0.987 2.75 3.29 12.79 32.01 47.66 0.87
29. I enjoy lessons where
the teacher tries out
different ways of teaching. 3.77 1.136 6.22 6.11 22.83 32.98 30.99 0.87
30. Instinct helps me work
out solutions to problems
we are set. 3.72 1.017 3.62 5.96 30.02 34.1 24.82 1.48
Note: The column labeled * represents the percentage of respondents who did not respond to
appointing statement.
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
71
The highest average scores were recorded in the group of claims describing
attitude towards future careers and profession. A total of 83% of pupils believe
that future business success depends on them. Likewise, 77% of pupils find that
success in their future careers depends on their abilities. In assessing their own
chances of getting a job in the future, 80% assessed having the same
opportunities as everyone else. A high degree of agreement was expressed
regarding the importance of planning their future careers.
These results led us to the conclusion that, when it came to their future
jobs, pupils based their attitudes on more intrinsic factors of success, personal
motives and interests, rather than on extrinsic ones. With respect to their age,
pupils were still in the stage of idealizing and expressing career desires. The
primary system had not sufficiently developed vocational information and
guidance, including knowledge of the professions. It should be borne in mind
that the professional information had an instrumental significance in the final
grades for pupils trying to enroll into a high school.
Furthermore, pupils liked the variety of methods used by their teachers
(64%), and teaching that stimulated their imagination (68%). From their
estimates, it can be seen that resourcefulness was important in doing well
academically. On the active level, a slightly lower proportion of them
considered themselves as being ingenious. According to these results we can
see that pupils' views reflect the existence of deeply rooted traditional patterns
and expectations of the school to which it is better to be guided, than
ingeniously offer new solutions and challenges.
Given the fact that problem facing and solving situations are also an
opportunity for proactive and entrepreneurial thinking and action, a part of the
related claims related to verifying how much pupils relied on their own
intuition. In all, 70% of the pupils tried out various solutions to the problem
which reflects a relatively high degree of commitment and effort. Errors were
considered to be an integral part of problem solving by 65% of them. It is
interesting that when solving problems 52% of the pupils relied on their own
judgment, and 59% of them claimed to follow their feelings.
Attitudes towards assignments and project work reflect a high degree of
commitment of pupils who expressed satisfaction for the effort if the project
activity ended well.
In parallel with the previous enterprise self-assessments, the pupils’
affirmative relationship was maintained in the image they had of themselves in
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
72
team work, but the average values are slightly lower. In all, 63% of pupils
assessed their ability to encourage other pupils to work while the other 26%
could not assess their ability to encourage others. On the other hand, half of the
pupils think that they were ready and willing to encourage other pupils to do the
work and they could influence other pupils to agree to a plan. 33% of pupils
believe that they accepted responsibility for the work in group /team work, and
38% were unable to assess their responsibility for the work.
As much as the value of teamwork is emphasized in the new teaching
curricula, pupils still believe that learning and knowledge acquisition depend on
them and their own efforts. Even if teachers use teamwork as an effective
method in the educational activity, the pupils sees their success in the final
report that is not received in the team, but as part of individual work.
It is important to emphasize that pupils assessed their own initiative on
cognitive and emotional levels very positively. However, there were cautious in
assessing situations related to the activity and effect of willingness. This
indicator should not be ignored as it is indicative of the educational practice. It
again refers to a standard practice not only in traditional but also in old schools
in which cognitive development outweighs the student's personality. Moreover,
the valuation is often considered synonymous with assessment and school
evaluation is focused on the cognitive side of pupil's personality, so this
dimension is the focus of learning and teaching.
In our educational system, neither pupils, nor teachers are trained in self-
assessment. Self-assessment is a logical counterbalance to evaluation. Valuing
yourself and others is a relevant entrepreneurial component, and it assumes the
articulation of thoughts, judgment and ability to argue. Self-assessment can be
developed by applying student portfolio, which is regularly reviewed by
lecturer, teacher and pupil. Pupils express their opinions, make judgments about
someone or something, are trained to detect the value of others and themselves,
and to perceive the best qualities of each person. In this sense, they are able to
clearly articulate the active dimension of their personality or their working
effect. This research evidently shows that pupils refrain from assessing their
work and success.
5.3. Differences in self-assessment of entrepreneurial initiative
In order to understand the entrepreneurial initiative, possible differences in
self-assessment regarding the individual characteristics of pupils need to be
researched. In order to determine the possibility of differences in the self-
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
73
assessment of entrepreneurial initiative, the statistical significance of
differences in average estimates of pupils according to their gender and age was
tested. The results of the bidirectional testing on significance of differences by
gender and age (Table 4) show statistically significant differences between boys
and girls, younger and older pupils, as well as in the interaction effects of
gender and age.
Table 4. The results of the bidirectional testing of difference in estimates of personal
entrepreneurial potential
Source of variability F df p
Main effect
Gender 29.68 1 0.00
Age 65.54 1 0.00
Interaction effect
Gender X Age 4.20 1 0.04
When it comes to self-assessment of personal enterprise initiative, the post
hoc analysis shows that girls achieved a higher score evaluation (M = 3.935, SD
= 0.440) than boys (M = 3.822, SD = 0.534). It was also found that younger
pupils had significantly higher score (M = 3.968, SD = 0.466) than older pupils
(M = 3.795, SD = 0.511).
Table 5 Arithmetic mean estimates of personal entrepreneurial potential by the main
effects of pupils’ sex and age
M SD N Post Hoc analysis
1. Boys 3.822 0.534 959
Gender 2. Girls 3.935 0.44 1003 1. ≠ 2. (p=0,00)
1. Younger 3.968 0.466 966
Age 2. Older 3.795 0.511 996 1. ≠ 2. (p=0,00)
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
74
These results may show that girls evaluate their entrepreneurial potential
higher and more positively. The results of this study partially agree with
previous studies that used the personal entrepreneurial potential scale (Athayde,
2009; Steenekamp et al., 2011).
Table 6. Arithmetic mean estimates of personal entrepreneurial potential with respect to
the interactive effect of pupils’ sex and age
M SD N Post hoc analysis
1. Younger 3.932 0.506 488 4. ≠ 3. (p=0.00)
Boys 2. Older 3.709 0.559 471 4. ≠ 2. (p=0.00)
3. Younger 4.005 0.419 478 3. ≠ 2. (p=0.00)
Girls 4. Older 3.873 0.45 525 2. ≠ 1. (p=0.00)
The results of a British research on the overall differences by gender
showed that boys achieved significantly higher results than girls (Athayde,
2009) in terms of personal entrepreneurial potential. The results of another
study (Steenekamp et al., 2011) showed that women scored higher on the
overall results of personal entrepreneurial potential as well as on its particular
dimensions. The interactive effect of gender and age proved to be statistically
significant. The significance of this interaction suggests that the boys in the 8
th
grade had significantly lower score on the scale of personal experience of
entrepreneurial potential in relation to the girls in the 8
th
grade and boys and
girls in the 6
th
grade.
Austrian educator F. Edler's research results on how pupils feel in Austrian
schools showed that ˝after the first four grades of elementary school it is
possible establish that the concept of pupils' own abilities in the upper primary
and lower secondary schools declines, in order to raise again during the ninth or
tenth year of schooling ˝ (Hoffmann, 2008:14). Such a decrease in the
assessment of their own abilities is probably due to a decrease of grade point
average and increase of the time it takes to invest in work and learning in
relation to the lower classes (Hoffmann, 2008). According to a study of
entrepreneurial competencies of German adolescents, the effect of age plays a
significant role: the older the respondents were, the lower was the level of their
self-assessment of their own entrepreneurial competence (Schmitt-Rodermund,
2004). The studies on pupils' self-perception led to a conclusion that in the
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
75
context of academic achievement, it declines with the increase of years spent in
school system (Miller, 1987, in Lackovic-Grgin, 1994).
6. CONCLUSION
Given the intention of educational policy to consistently the curriculum
paradigm and competence approach at all levels of education, entrepreneurship
as an educational area and the acquisition and development of entrepreneurial
competencies as one of the eight key competences, presupposes its application
on the pre-tertiary education. In order to determine components of
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competencies, the aim of this paper is to
explore one segment of entrepreneurial competence as a prerequisite for
efficient curriculum planning and programming, and refers to the elementary
school pupils’ self-perception of entrepreneurial qualities.
Self-assessment is related to pupils' personal attitudes about themselves
thus it becomes a factor in their potential actions. Therefore, the results of this
study are of extreme practical use for curriculum changes. Namely, if the pupils
show a high degree of self-assessment of their entrepreneurial characteristics for
all elements, they could highly evaluate the level of achievement of curriculum
changes. However, the results are the opposite, and thus they are binding and
guide us towards making changes in the curriculum.
The initial assumptions showed that the pupils evaluated differently their
entrepreneurial skills in school work and in teaching because entrepreneurial
learning was not an explicit goal of teacher’s educational activities. The results
showed that the self-perception of personal entrepreneurial skills could have the
highest average scores related to future job and career success in business and
future careers that would depend on pupils and their abilities. Pupils also
believed that they would have an equal chance of getting a job in the future.
They also expressed an affirmative attitude about themselves in joint work.
Regardless of whether the pupils’ affirmative attitude observed was higher
or lower, there is room for pedagogical action. Encouraging creativity and
innovation is a permanent pedagogical aspiration as only these can lead out of
the frame of traditionalism and modernize the educational work in schools.
In this research, our expectations, based on the theory of entrepreneurship
and previous research insights, were to possibly discover latent, independent
and the substantially different dimensions of self-assessment on
entrepreneurship. This assumption was not confirmed, because the research
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
76
results of self-assessment on pupils’ entrepreneurship showed a single-factor
dimension of attitudes towards their own entrepreneurial initiative. It can be
explained as a general attitude that the pupils have about themselves and their
entrepreneurship.
The last two conditions were related to the gender and age differences
when assessing their entrepreneurial skills. The research analyzed the
differences in pupils’ self-assessment according to gender and age, where girls
achieved better results in terms of gender. In terms of age younger students
evaluated their entrepreneurial potential more positively.
The results provide guidance for an efficient realization of entrepreneurial
learning, assuming that the education system needs to get out of the chains of
objectivity, because the competencies are developed as generic or transversal,
and they relate to curricular goals. The creative spirit is recognized and can be
effectively developed at all levels of pre-tertiary education. Creating conditions
for the realization of social entrepreneurship as a vocation and a profession is in
the hands of the education system, but still connected to the economy and
entrepreneurship.
REFERENCES
1. Athayde, R. (2012): The impact of enterprise education on attitudes to
enterprise in young people: an evaluation study. Education + Training, 54
(8/9): pp 709 - 726.
2. Athayde, R. (2009): Measuring Enterprise Potential in Young People.
Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial Theory and Practice, 33(2): pp 481–500.
3. Baranović, B., Štibrić, M. and Domović, V. (2007): Obrazovanje za
poduzetnost – perspektiva osnovnoškolskih učitelja i nastavnika.
Sociologija i prostor, 45 (3/4): pp 339 – 360.
4. Batarelo Kokić, I., Heder, E. and Ljubić, M. (2013): Entrepreneurial
Learning: School Professional Toolkit. Zagreb: South East European Centre
for Entrepreneurial Learning.
5. Breen, J. P. (2004): Enterprise, entrepreneurship and small business: where
are the boundaries? International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small
Business, 1 (1/2), pp 21-34.
6. Caird, S. (1990): What does it mean to be enterprising? British Journal of
Management, 1 (3): pp 137 - 145.
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
77
7. Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2011): First release ˝Basic Schools: End of
2009/2010school year and beginning of 2010/2011 school year. No. 8.1.2.
Zagreb
8. Deakin Crick, R. (2008): Key Competencies for Education in a European
Context: narratives of accountability or care. European Educational
Research Journal, 7 (3), 311 - 318.
9. Domović, V. and sur. (2013): Perspektive razvoja obrazovanja učitelja i
nastavnika u Republici Hrvatskoj. In: V. Domović, S. Gehrman, J.
Helmchen, M. Krüger-Potraz & A. Petravić (Ed.): Europsko obrazovanje
učitelja i nastavnika - na putu prema novom obrazovnom cilju (pp. 128-
159): Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
10. Eickhoff, M. T. (2008): Entrepreneurial thinking and action - an educational
responsibility for Europe. European Journal of Vocational Training, 45 (3),
pp.5-31.
11. European Communities (2007): Key competencies for lifelong learning. A
reference framework. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/publ/
pdf/ll-learning/ keycomp_en.pdf
12. Gibb, A. (2002): In pursuit of a new ˝enterprise˝ and ˝entrepreneurship˝
paradigm for learning: creative destruction, new values, new ways of doing
things and new combinations of knowledge. International Journal of
Management Reviews, 4 (3), pp. 233 -269.
13. Gibb, A. (1993): The Enterprise Culture and Education: Understanding
Enterprise Education and Its Link with Small Business, Entrepreneurship
and Wider Educational Goals. International Small Business Journal, 11 (3):
pp.11 - 34.
14. Gibb, A. (1984): Factors Fostering Entrepreneurship - The Role of
Education' in 'Education for Enterprise. In: A.G. Watts and P. Moran (Ed.),
Education for Enterprise. Cambridge: CRAC Publication.
15. Gorman, G., Hanlon, D. and King W. (1997): Some Research Perspectives
on Entrepreneurship Education, Enterprise Education and Education for
Small Business Management: A Ten-Year Literature Review. International
Small Business Journal, 15 (3), pp.56 – 78.
16. Halász, G., Michel, A. (2011): Key Competences in Europe: Interpretation,
policy formulation and implementation. European Journal of Education, 46
(3), pp.289 - 306.
17. Hoffmann, F. (2008): Jačanje osobnosti i socijalno učenje u nastavi.
Poticaji za nastavnike i suradnike. Beč: Austrijski centar za razvoj
osobnosti i socijalno učenje.
18. Jokić, B. (2007) (Ed.): Ključne kompetencije ˝učiti kako učiti˝ i
˝poduzetništvo˝ u osnovnom školstvu Republike Hrvatske. Istraživački
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the ...
78
izvještaj. Zagreb: The Institute for Social Research in Zagreb, The Center
for Educational Research and Development (CERD), Zagreb.
http://www.etf.europa.eu/pubmgmt.nsf/%28getAttachment%29/2815170B6
80F82FEC125741A004F96F0/$File/NOTE7D6JZ6.pdf
19. Keeley, B. (2007): Ljudski kapital. Od predškolskog odgoja do
cjeloživotnog učenja. Zagreb: Educa.
20. Kuratko, D. F. (2005): The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Education:
Development, Trends and Challenges. Entrepreneurship, Theory and
practice, 29 (5): pp. 577 - 598.
21. Lackovic Grgin, K. (1994): Samopoimanje mladih. Jastrebarsko: Naklada
Slap.
22. National curriculum for pre-school education, General Compulsory and
Secondary School Education (2011): Zagreb: Ministry of Science,
Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia
23. OECD/CERI (1989): Towards an “enterprising” culture: A challenge for
education and training. OECD/CERI Educational Monograph No. 4. Paris:
OECD.
24. Pastuović, N. (2012): Obrazovanje za razvoj: Kako obrazovanje razvija
ljude i mijenja društvo, a kako društvo djeluje na obrazovanje. (Education
and development: How education develops person and changes society, and
how does society influence on education): Zagreb: Institut za društvena
istraživanja u Zagrebu : Učiteljski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
25. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18
December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning (2006):
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:394:
0010:0018:en:PDF
26. Ruskovaara, E. and Pihkala, T. (2011): Entrepreneurship in
Entrepreneurship Education: Practices in Finnish Basic and Secondary
Education Level, 56
th
ICSB World Conference, Stockholm,
http://sbaer.uca.edu/research/icsb/2011/194.pdf
27. Schmitt - Rodermund, E. (2004): Pathways to successful entrepreneurship:
Parenting, personality, early entrepreneurial competence and
interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65 (3), pp. 498 - 518.
28. Schultz, T. W. (1980): Investment in Entrepreneurial Ability. Scandinavian
Journal of Economics, 82(4): pp. 437 - 448.
29. Schultz, T. W. (1975): The Value of Ability to Deal with Disequilibria.
Journal of Economic Literature, 13 (3): pp. 827 - 846.
30. Steenekamp, A., G., van der Merwe, S., Athayde, R. (2011): Application of
the Attitude Toward Enterprise (ATE) test on secondary school learners in
South Africa. South African Journal of Economic and Management
Science, 14(3): pp. 314-332. http://www.sajems.org/index.php/sajems
Management, Vol. 18, 2013, 2, pp. 57-79
D. Vican, D. Luketić: Self-assessment of Croatian elementary school pupils on the …
79
31. ILO and UNESCO (2006): Towards Entrepreneurial Culture for the
Twenty-first Century.
SAMOSTALNA PROCJENA PODUZETNIČKE INICIJATIVE OD STRANE
UČENIKA HRVATSKIH OSNOVNIH ŠKOLA
Sažetak
Definiranjem poduzetništva kao obrazovne vrijednosti, obrazovni sustavi i društvo
pokazuju svoju predanost socio-kulturnoj vrijednosti poduzetništva, ali istovremeno i
grade poduzetničke kompetencije učenika. Zahtjev za ohrabrivanjem ranog razvoja
inicijative i poduzetničkih kompetencija se artikulira u strukturalnim i proceduralnim
razinama razvoja kurikuluma i promjenama obrazovnog sustava. Ovaj rad analizira
samostalnu procjenu poduzetničke inicijative među učenicima osnovnih škola u
Hrvatskoj, kako bi se utvrdile poduzetničke karakteristike i preferencije učenika. S
obzirom da samostalna procjena i stavovi učenika ukazuju na potencijalnu poduzetničku
aktivnost, cilj ovog istraživanja je identificirati komponente poduzetničkih
kompetencija, koje je potrebno optimizirati unutar formalnog obrazovnog sustava.
Stoga je ono provedeno na nacionalnoj razini, na uzorku od 1.962 učenika osnovnih
škola. Rezultati istraživanja govore da su učenici pozitivno evaluirali poduzetničku
inicijativu i percipirali je kao implicitnu karakteristiku vlastitih aktivnosti i uključenosti,
a ne kao eksplicitnu i nametnutu. Stoga se multi-dimenzionalnost samostalne procjene
poduzetničke inicijative od strane učenika nije mogla potvrditi. No, bez obzira na to,
utvrđene su pozitivne preferencije učenika, iako one nisu dovoljno izražene. Anketa je
potvrdila razlike u spolu i dobi, koje su se reflektirale u razlikama u evaluaciji i
poduzetničkom iskustvu. Rezultati također govore da je potrebno afirmirati
podučavanje poduzetništva kroz svakodnevne aktivnosti, jasnije artikulirati obrazovnu
komponentu poduzetništva te djelovati na sinergiju između razina obrazovanja i
nastavnih predmeta.
