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Perceived Goal Setting Practices of Olympic Athletes: An Exploratory Investigation
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to explore Olympic athletes' perceptions concerning the frequency and effectiveness of goal setting strategies as well as goal preferences and barriers to achieving these goals. Participants were 185 male and 143 female Olympic athletes from a variety sports. Each athlete completed a questionnaire detailing their perceptions, use, and effectiveness of a number of different goal-setting strategies. Factor analysis revealed four similar factors for goal effectiveness and goal frequency and two distinct factors for goal barriers. Descriptive results revealed that all of the Olympic athletes practiced some type of goal setting to help enhance performance, and they found their goals to be highly effective. Athletes also reported that improving overall performance, winning, and having fun were the three most important goals. In addition, setting difficult goals that were somewhat above the level at which they perform was the most preferred level of goal difficulty. Future directions for research are offered including exploration of developmental differences and variations in coach versus athlete perceptions.
... Many studies have also supported that goal setting conditions are preferable to "do your best" instructions to achieve higher performance (Filby et al., 1999). Within general goal effectiveness, 16 out of 25 studies (e.g., Evans & Hardy, 2002;Weinberg et al., , 2000Boyce & Wayda, 1994) strongly supported that goal setting conditions lead to a higher level of performance than "no goal" conditions. However, Weinberg and colleagues (1987;1990; found non-significant differences between the goal difficulty conditions (i.e., easy, do your best, no goal). ...
... The study of Weinberg et al. (2000) on male and female Olympic athletes supports that performance-oriented athletes were more associated with performance and process goals, however win-oriented athletes were more associated with outcome goals. The results of Filby's et al's (1999) study clearly supports that groups that combined different types of goals (outcome, performance, process) had superior performance, both in training and competition, compared to groups that did not combine those goals. ...
... However, we cannot conclude that process goals were superior to performance goals and outcome goals. This is because other researchers (e.g., Weinberg et al., 2000) have found strong evidence of all three types of goals having a great influence on performance. Moreover, the study of Kingston and Hardy (1997) found that both performance goals and process goals were significant for developing golf handicaps, also finding that process goals conditions reveal a quicker improvement than performance goals. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of goals on performance via the satisfaction of basic needs; in other words, to investigate if basic psychological needs mediate the relationship between types of goals and their influence on performance. In order to measure this influence, athletes (N=373), both male (n=225) and female (n=148), were asked to participate in the study and complete both the Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS) and Goal Focus Inventory (GFSI) questionnaires. Simple linear regression was conducted to examine the direct effect of goals on performance. In addition, multiple linear regression was performed to measure the influence of goals on basic needs and the influence of basic needs on performance. Finally, the bootstrapping method was performed to examine the indirect effect of goals on performance through basic psychological needs.
Results from simple linear regression indicated that types of goals (outcome, performance, and process goals) directly influence performance (p<.001). In addition, multiple linear regression and bootstrapping methods were investigated and it was found that basic needs have a mediating effect in the relationship between performance, process goal use and their influence on performance. In contrast, results in the present study showed that basic needs have no mediating effect in the relationship between outcome goals use and performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses using the bootstrapping method suggested partial mediation between the use of performance, process goals and their influence on performance. These findings suggest that the use of performance and process goals might be more associated with basic needs than the use of outcome goals. Further research of a qualitative nature could help to explain these differences in terms of mediation model.
... Goal setting research in sport has consistently demonstrated the value to skill development and self-efficacy (Schunk, 1983), improved performance (Filby et al., 1999;Mellalieu et al., 2013), greater effort, and commitment (see Kingston & Wilson, 2008, for a review). A study of 328 Olympic athletes found that all used goal setting and that they reported this to be a highly effective way to enhance performance (Weinberg et al., 2000). For these athletes, setting goals that challenged them to go above their level of performance ability were preferred (Weinberg et al., 2000). ...
... A study of 328 Olympic athletes found that all used goal setting and that they reported this to be a highly effective way to enhance performance (Weinberg et al., 2000). For these athletes, setting goals that challenged them to go above their level of performance ability were preferred (Weinberg et al., 2000). Studies have also shown that athletes who have not previously set goals will see an improvement in performance when they set specific goals (O'Brien et al., 2009;Swain & Jones, 1995). ...
... With regard to sport, research has shown goal setting to be an important part of sport performance and competitive outcomes. Goal setting is said to direct behaviour, focus effort, and increase motivation (Burton & Weiss, 2008) while improving performance (e.g., Swain & Hones, 1995;Weinberg et al., 2000). These are all very important to achieving success in athletic endeavors. ...
This thesis examined experiential factors in in the sport setting and outcomes associated with the theory of positive youth development.
... Goal setting is one of the psychological factors that are the most researched and used as an effective performance enhancement technique in sport psychology (Kyllo & Landers, 1995;Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). Burton (1989 cited by Evans & Hardy 2002) maintains that it is still widely regarded as an important fundamental skill and technique that sportspersons, coaches, and applied sport psychology practitioners should regularly employ. ...
... Goal setting creates a focus of attention and action by simply identifying what is attempting to accomplish (Harris& Harish, 1984). Goal setting has been identified as an important source of motivation that can enhance performance (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Weinberg, 2004;Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). Effect of goalsetting interventions in sport settings has been same of the effect have been as increased efforts made by an athlete, higher perceptions of success and self-efficacy (Burton, 1989 cited by Evans & Hardy 2002;Filby, Maynard, & Graydon, 1999;Boyce & Mitchell, 2001). ...
... The goal setting process is widely recognised as the crucial tool for enhancing performance and motivation in sports and athlete development. Its wide acceptance ranges from students (Chinoso et al., 2024) to Olympic-level athletes from a variety of sports (Weinberg et al., 2000) and is effective in improving and motivating performance and structure training. ...
... En uno y otro caso, especifica, se excluye casi por completo la posibilidad de crear en el deportista una firme seguridad en sus fuerzas y la aspiración de esforzarse hasta el último momento. Weinberg et al. (2000) en un estudio con deportistas olímpicos acerca de los hábitos de establecimiento de metas encontraron que establecerlas a un nivel algo superior a sus mejores rendimientos fue preferido por 185 hombres y 143 mujeres que compitieron a ese nivel deportivo. ...
Psychological preparation for competitions is a process that enhances the capacities and qualities of the athlete during the preparation to reach the optimal state of mental predisposition. There are few researches that offer empirical evidence of the relationship between the state of mental predisposition and the competitive performance of athletes in combined events. The objective of this work was to determine how the state of psychological predisposition and the competitive performance of Cuban athletes in combined events are related. The research was non-experimental and cross-sectional. The sample was made up of eight athletes from the combined events of the Cuban national athletics team. The Questionnaire of Psychological Predisposition for Competition and the Performance Scale in the competition of combined tests were used. Goal clarity was positively and directly correlated with competitive performance in hurdles (.793 sig. = .019). The significance of the athletes' perceived competition was positively and directly correlated with hurdles and high jump (.826 sig. = .012 and .717 sig. = .045). As the clarity of objectives increased in the athletes studied, so did the performance perceived by their coaches in the hurdles races they carried out in the 2020 Cuba Cup. As the significance of the competition was greater, so was the performance in hurdle races and high jump.
... Research on how successful goal training is and which goals are most suitable for achieving excellence is not entirely consistent (Burton et al., 1998). However, this may be a result of contextual differences, such as training and competition situations, which have been previously neglected (Weinberg et al., 2000). Additionally, the effect of goal training is likely to vary as a function of several factors such as goal proximity, commitment, specificity, difficulty, and feedback (Kingston & Wilson, 2008). ...
If you enter the terms “motivation” and “sport” into an online search engine, you will be overwhelmed by the sheer number of entries. The popularity of the concept of motivation and the breadth of its use reflect its importance for issues relating to health, athletic performance, and general life contexts on an individual and a societal level. Light needs to be shed on the question “What motivates people to engage in sport?” and the question needs to be considered from many different perspectives. In lay language, many different synonyms are used for motivation like incentive, initiative, interest, passion, ambition, and driving force. How much of this layman’s understanding is reflected in the scientific operationalizations of “motivation?” The synonyms presented above share one important aspect in common with the scientific concept of motivation: the activating or energizing component. Motivation is the driving force behind an action.
... Other research has shown positive effects of goal setting on sport performance such as in basketball (Swain & Jones, 1995), ice hockey (Anderson, Crowell, Doman, & Howard, 1988) lacrosse (Weinberg, Stitcher, Richardson, & Jackson, 1994), golf (Kingston & Hardy, 1997), soccer (Brobst & Ward, 2002), and swimming (Burton, 1989b). Collegiate, Olympic, and youth athletes have reported their preference on goal settings; the top three preferences for goal difficulty were moderately difficult, difficult, and very difficult goals (Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson, 1997;Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). The research also revealed barriers to achieving goals and type of athletes. ...
This study examined the perception of Malaysian sport coaches on the sport coaching standards (SCS). A total of 384 coaches (age = 28.84+4.02 years; male = 67.7%, female = 32.3%) responded to the survey via an online google document. Almost 59% of the respondents were club level coaches with 42% having 1-3 years coaching experience. Majority (56.2%) of the coaches was involved in soccer, frisbee, dodgeball, and futsal. The adopted research instrument consisted of 40 coaching standards and were categorized into eight domains. The items were measured through an 11-point (0-10) Likert scale. The results suggested that Malaysian coaches perceived the 40 standards (minimum = 6.94 and maximum = 9.00) as knowledge and abilities that effective coaches must possess. As for the domains, Malaysian coaches ranked the top three domains to be ‘Growth and Development’, ‘Teaching and Communication’, and ‘Skills and Tactics’ respectively. Similar ranking of the domain was also reported according to gender. Even though coaching education in terms of sport specific and sport science programs is in place in Malaysia, it is imperative for Malaysian Sport Coaching Academy and National Sport Associations to incorporate some coaching standards in their relevant coaching education curriculum.
... Simões, Vasconcelos-Raposo, Silva, and Fernandes (2012) concurs that the objectives set by athletes should be specific, realistic, and short-term, thus enhancing the process of achieving proficiency. Despite research supporting the common wisdom that one should set realistic and attainable goals, Olympians typically set difficult goals that are above the level at which they currently compete (Weinberg, Yukelson, Burton, & Weigand, 2000) challenging themselves to new levels of achievement. ...
Olympic athletes possess unique physical, mental, and leadership characteristics. Identifying and quantifying their leadership skills can enhance their employability, leading to a successful career transition. The researcher assessed 119 Olympic athletes, medalists (n =72), and non-medalists (n = 45) who competed in 11 different sports, representing both genders, various age groups, and from 20 countries, and competed in at least one Olympic game. Using the Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) survey, out of the possible 70 points, the entire population surveyed had the mean LTQ score of 62.48, medalists scored 61.49 and non-medalists scored 62.70. With no significant differences in LTQ scores, the conclusion can be drawn that all Olympians possess unique leadership characteristics. To explore how to enhance the employability of elite athletes, the researcher investigated if a correlation exists between their total LTQ scores and their chosen careers. Out of 119 participants, most remained in the sporting world as coaches (n=46), with others mostly remaining in sports related fields. The correlation between the LTQ scores and their age, gender, sports, highest placement was also analyzed. In conclusion, the employability of elite athletes can be improved by empowering them to have a better understanding of their unique leadership characteristics alongside other exceptional skills they already possess and apply them as they transition to life after sports.
Handlungen im Sport sind intentional, also auf bestimmte Ziele ausgerichtet. Vor einem handlungstheoretischen Hintergrund sind die hierarchisch-sequenzielle Struktur sowie die verschiedenen Funktionen wichtig, die Handlungen haben können. Intentionen werden innerhalb dieser Auffassung mit Zielen und Plänen in Verbindung gebracht, die sich auf Tätigkeiten, Handlungen und Bewegungen beziehen können. Diese Auffassung wird anhand von verschiedenen Studien zu Intention überprüft. Intentionales Verhalten ist der Selbstregulation zugänglich, wozu insbesondere Zielsetzungstraining verwendet wird. Die Auswirkungen des handlungstheoretischen Zugangs auf das Setzen von Zielen werden abschließend diskutiert.
The study examined how goals combine with other factors in determining performance in a sport setting. More specifically, the effects of goal setting, commitment, self-efficacy, trait-efficacy, ability, and self-satisfaction on tennis performance were examined. Subjects (N˭48) performed four trials of a specific service task. Before the third and fourth trials subjects set personal goals. The psychological variables, self-efficacy, self-satisfaction and commitment, were also assessed prior to each trial. Results showed that ability, self-efficacy, goal setting, and goal commitment were predictors of performance at the various stages of the experiment. Analysis of two LISREL VI models (one for each trial) indicated that personal goal setting was affected by level of ability, as well as by perceived self-efficacy and satisfaction. Self-efficacy and goal commitment were a direct as well as indirect determinants of performance. Based on the findings in the proposed model, self-efficacy, goal commitment and personal goal setting appear to be significant determinants of performance in sport setting.
: A review of both laboratory and field studies on the effect of setting goals when learning or performing a task found that specific, challenging goals led more often to higher performance than easy goals, 'do your best' goals or no goals. This is one of the most robust and replicable findings in the psychological literature, with 90% of the studies showing positive or partially positive results. The main mechanisms by which goals affect performance are by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and motivating strategy development. Goal setting is most likely to improve task performance when the goals are specific and sufficiently challenging, when the subjects have sufficient ability (and ability differences are controlled), when feedback is provided to show progress in relation to the goal, when rewards such as money are given for goal attainment, when the exerimenter manager is supportive, and when the assigned goals are actually accepted by the individual. No reliable individual differences have emerged in goal setting studies, probably because goals were typically assigned rather than self-set. Need for achievement and self esteem may be the most promising individual difference variables. (Author)
This study examined the various aspects of goal setting of youth tennis players and their coaches. To examine this multifaceted technique, an extensive goal-setting questionnaire was administered to 224 youth tennis players and 35 youth tennis coaches. Results indicated that improving overall performance, fun/enjoyment, and winning were the three most important goals for youth tennis players and that they most preferred setting moderately difficult goals. The most effective type of goals for players were physical conditioning, practice, and skill/technique, whereas the top reasons for setting goals were focusing attention, problem-solving, and increasing effort. Results also revealed numerous significant differences between coaches' and players' goal setting, with the coaches generally having a higher frequency of using different goal-setting strategies and finding them more effective. Results were discussed in terms of developmental differences between youth and college athletes, as well as individual difference variables such as gender and ability.
Previous reviews of literature of Locke's model of goal setting have noted the percentage of confirming studies but have ignored questions of effect size and practical significance. A meta-analysis of the literature was performed. The results support the two central themes of Locke's model: that hard goals lead to better performance than easy goals and that specific goals are superior to "do best" or no goals. However, several variables are found to moderate the strength of these relationships, for example, participative vs. assigned goal setting. The implications of the results for motivational theory and industrial applications are discussed.
Examined the relationship between goal specificity, goal proximity, and performance of high school students while attempting to control for the effects of social comparison. In Exp 1, 214 Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 goal-setting conditions (short-term goals, long-term, short- plus long-term goals, do-your-best, no goals). After a 3-wk baseline period, Ss were tested weekly on the 3-min sit-up over 10 wks. The short- plus long-term group increased the most in performance, although the short-term and long-term groups also displayed significant improvements. In Exp 2, 102 Ss were randomly assigned to either a short- plus long-term group or a do-your-best group. A significant improvement in performance was observed for the combination-goal group, whereas the do-your-best group did not improve. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined whether Ss who set specific difficult goals perform significantly better than those who set "do your best" goals, and investigated the importance of goal proximity on performance of the 3-min sit-up test. 96 undergraduates in 2 experiments were matched on ability and then randomly assigned to one of the following goal-setting conditions: short-term, long-term, short-term plus long-term, and do your best. They were tested once a week for either 5 wks (Exp I) or 3 wks (Exp II). Performance results from both experiments revealed no significant between-group difference. Questionnaire data indicated that all Ss tried hard, were committed to their goals, and were ego involved. Manipulation checks revealed, however, that all Ss were setting their own goals in addition to their experimenter-set goal. Other possible explanations given for the lack of differences are preexisting high motivation in the S population and the immediate physiological feedback provided by the experimental task. The findings are inconsistent with the overwhelming evidence cited in the industrial and organizational literature, suggesting that goal-setting theory requires some modification in sport settings. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)