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Conservation and sustainable use of wildlife - An evolving concept
Abstract
The proposition that wildlife conservation can sometimes be enhanced through allowing and even promoting the harvesting of wildlife is a sensitive issue. For the last 30 years, conservation has tended to focus on protecting rather than using wildlife. Yet conservation through sustainable use (CSU) is now a mainstream conservation strategy, and research on sustaining rather than stopping uses is commonplace. This paper discusses some of the fundamental and confusing elements of the CSU concept. Two case histories are discussed: Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus in the Northern Territory of Australia, and Hawksbill Turtles Eretmochelys imbricata in Cuba. That wildlife populations are themselves highly dynamic entities, capable of adapting to harvest reductions, is well established, but often not appreciated. To advance conservation, research at the dynamic population level of resolution needs to take precedence over research on individual population dynamics.
... The theory and management tools of traditional sustainable wildlife management (SWM) are under threat as new attitudes and values for wildlife emerge. SWM adheres to the conservation concept of effective combination of conservation and sustainable utilization [12,13], with an aim to establish a long-acting species conservation model that promotes all-round development of ecology, society, and economy [14]. SWM has traditionally formed the basis of conservation management and is promoted by major international conservation organizations, including Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC), and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [15]. ...
... In the second part, we designed a series of questions to analyze beliefs and attitudes towards the theory of SWM and wildlife conservation with topics covered ranging from animal welfare [9], captive breeding of wildlife [22], wildlife release [16], and vegetarianism [23]. We adapted Fulton's (1996) attitudes scales [24][25][26][27], using 20 questions from both forward (questions 4,5,6,8,9,12,13,16,19,20) and reverse (questions 1, 2, 3, 7, 10,11,14,15,17,18) angles. For analysis, we grouped the 20 questions into seven main categories of contemporary relevance to the SWM debate: Before the official survey, we conducted a preliminary survey in Harbin in October 2018 and analyzed the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. ...
Wildlife conservation and management has become a very complex public policy issue in China as concerns over on animal welfare and empathy for animals have grown. Science-based conservation strategies that are oriented toward sustainable wildlife management (SWM) are under threat as these new attitudes and values emerge and take hold. This study accesses the attitudes of college students towards SWM and wildlife conservation, and investigates demographic characteristics influencing their attitudes in China, a country that is traditionally associated with consumptive use of wildlife and SWM, but where new ideas about wildlife conservation are emerging. From October 2018 to April 2019, nine universities (including "Double First-Class" universities, first-tier universities, second-tier universities), and four three-year colleges in China were selected as survey locations, and face-to-face interviews were conducted with 1991 students. A total of 1977 questionnaires were recovered, of which 1739 were valid, with a completion rate of 88%. A Likert seven-point scale method was used to score students' attitudes, and a classification and regression tree (CART) was used to analyze whether their attitudes were affected by their demographic characteristics. The results show that although students are broadly supportive of the theory of SWM, some are deeply antagonistic about on SWM on issues that arouse strong emotions such as "Animal Welfare and Rights" and "Trophy Hunting". Demographic characteristics of students affect their degree of support for the SWM with support for SWM lower among vegetarians, freshmen, and students who have taken environmental protection electives. This research suggests that the theory of SWM requires to be refreshed and adapted to appeal to the younger generation of Chinese students, with SWM principles integrated into the environmental education programs of universities and three-year colleges. More attention should also be attached to media publicity by the government about wildlife conservation so as to enhance awareness of the need for SWM.
... En Australie, le tourisme a même participé à la création de zones où la collecte d'oeufs et les activités de pêche sont restreintes pour augmenter le nombre d'observation de crocodiliens . Ces revenus et les activités liées à l'écotourisme peuvent constituer une forte incitation à protéger les habitats des crocodiliens, soutenir une attitude positive à l'égard des crocodiles et d'atténuer les HCC (Daltry et al., 2005;Foucat, 2002;Manalo et al., 2016;Rosenblatt et al., 2021;Ryan & Harvey, 2000;Webb, 2002). Dans la région d'Oaxaca au Mexique, la moitié des revenus de la communauté de Ventanilla est générée par l'écotourisme, dont l'observation des crocodiles constitue l'attraction principale (Foucat, 2002). ...
Global biodiversity is under extreme pressure, marked by a significant increase in species extinctions over the last 300 years and a decline in most vertebrates over the last five decades, mainly due to human activities. Crocodilians are also concerned, with 50% of their species categorized as threatened. Consequently, it is essential to improve the effectiveness of conservation programs. This thesis contributes to broadening and deepening knowledge of conservation approaches and population inventory methods, with a particular focus on crocodilians. Through community-based conservation, I emphasize the importance of involving indigenous peoples and local communities in conservation projects and considering their social, economic and environmental viewpoints. Reconciling conservation and development objectives increases the chances of success and sustainability. My work has also led to the development of a standardized method for monitoring crocodilians using drones. This efficient, non-invasive methodology is suitable for crocodilian species found in open environments. This technology, accessible to a wide range of users, including indigenous peoples and local communities, promotes their empowerment and the protection of ecosystems. This work offers new perspectives for conservation by combining community involvement and technological advances, for a more effective, inclusive and sustainable approach.
... According to a review of the ecological role of crocodilians popularized by Fittkau (1970), the theory was considered more of a myth, speculative, and anecdotal than scientific. It had little to no impact on aquatic productivity, as stated in various studies conducted by Gorzula (1987), Webb (2002), Somaweera et al. (2020), and Bucol et al. (2020. However, the fishing community in Bugsuk Island is well aware of the impact of crocodiles on fisheries production in mangrove ecosystems and surrounding waters. ...
The mangrove forest in Palawan has the most extensive distribution in the Philippines. The fisher community's perception of the mangrove forest as a known habitat for saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and its fishery benefits in Bugsuk Island were gathered using a participatory systems mental modeling framework for the coastal social-ecological system. From the causal loop diagram, six reinforcing and one balancing feedback loop were derived. The respondents observed a positive growth in the interaction between mangroves and crocodiles in Bugsuk Island, with both populations expanding and providing support to fishery resources. Bugsuk Island represents a unique diversity with great potential for resource conservation and economic benefit.
... There has been an ongoing discourse and debate surrounding the concepts of conservation and its underlying motivations within the scientific community and among conservation practitioners. What is and isn't conservation has long been a subject of debate (Luque-Lora, 2023; Webb, 2002). Here our focus is intent and motivation. ...
Official conservation activities are absent in many tropical regions, but local people living in and around these areas nonetheless engage in practices that contribute to conservation objectives. These practices, when they arise endogenously, are referred to here as autonomous conservation. They are not well documented
and their value and significance remain unclear and debated among scholars, practitioners, and policymakers. We reviewed literature on autonomous conservation practices, combining keyword searches, snowballing, citation tracking, and references from scholars in our network. Eighteen cases of autonomous
conservation in the tropics, representing marine (n=11), terrestrial (n=6), and combined systems (n=1) were identified for additional analysis. Our review identified three common themes linking long-standing local practices and conservation. The first theme emphasizes conservation as an outcome achieved through
various practices, including those associated with spiritual beliefs and taboos. These practices restrain
overharvesting, sustain resources, and protect places and species. Second, the overall effectiveness of these practices is influenced by the strength of social institutions, knowledge transfer mechanisms, and deterrence measures. They are grounded in norms, legitimacy, and respect that promote compliance, maintain social processes, and sustain practices over time. The third theme highlights the nuanced perspectives on conservation ethics within local communities. Some authors view conservation as embedded in local knowledge and practice, while others emphasize the importance of discerning a recognizable conservation motive when labeling these autonomous practices as ‘conservation’. As conservation policies and practices
increasingly demand evidence-based approaches, understanding local practices and their relevance in conservation is crucial for more effective and inclusive conservation.
... An extensive literature explores the sustainability of wildlife harvesting, and clarifies traits of the species involved (such as high rates of reproduction) and of the harvest (such as the degree to which hunters target critical cohorts such as reproductive females) that affect sustainability (e.g. Webb 2002;Leao et al. 2017). However, such analyses are available primarily for harvests of mammals, birds, and fish in temperate-zone habitats (Dobson et al. 2019;Natusch et al. 2019a). ...
Context. Masked water snakes (Homalopsis buccata, Homalopsidae) thrive in the muddy edges of agricultural ponds and canals in densely populated areas of West Java, Indonesia, and are harvested by local farmers to protect fish stocks and to provide meat, skins, and medicines for commercial use. Aims. Here, we aimed to quantify sexual dimorphism and reproductive biology of H. buccata, so as to deepen our knowledge of the species' inherent ability to withstand commercial harvests. Methods. We examined carcasses of 4286 snakes at six processing sites to quantify biological attributes (e.g. sexual dimorphism in body size and shape, seasonality of reproduction, fecundity, reproductive frequency), with emphasis on traits that affect the ability of snake populations to withstand this intensive harvesting. Key results. The snakes we examined were primarily adults (<1% juvenile), with approximately equal numbers of males and females except in January (when females comprised >90% of specimens). Females grow larger than males, and they are more heavy-bodied but shorter-tailed than are males of the same snout-vent length. Reproduction is seasonal in both sexes, with testis volumes decreasing to a minimum over the period August to November (late dry season) when most adult-size females were gravid. Litter sizes ranged from 1 to 37 (mean 12), increasing with maternal body size, with ~75% of females reproducing each year. Conclusions. On the basis of these results, we infer that the life history of H. buccata (viviparity, high fecundity, frequent reproduction, rapid maturation) renders it inherently resilient to harvesting, especially because that offtake is based on males as well as females. Because a lack of sustainability is evident only in hindsight, regular monitoring of the trade could assure that any problems are detected rapidly. Implications. To further buffer these populations from the impact of harvest, hunting could be restricted during January (a time when gravid females are disproportionately vulnerable) and the largest snakes (females, with high fecundity and reproductive frequency) could be excluded from harvests.
... Furthermore, many freshwater megafauna species are considered to be charismatic, and as such may play important roles in future conservation initiatives (e.g., as flagship umbrella species; He, Jähnig, et al., 2021a;Kalinkat et al., 2017). Despite this, they tend to be long-lived with slow life-history traits (e.g., long lifespan and late maturity), which makes them vulnerable to human impacts (He, Langhans, et al., 2021b;WWF, 2020) because individuals lost from a population are not replaced at a rate fast enough to prevent declines in that population (sensu Webb, 2002). For example, the incubation period for eggs of Australian freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnsoni) is typically 75-85 days (which gives predators, including alien wild boar [Sus scrofa], an adequate opportunity to consume their eggs) (Webb et al., 1983). ...
1. Freshwater megafauna species (i.e., animals that can reach a body mass ≥30 kg, including fish, reptiles, mammals, and amphibians) play important roles in freshwater systems (e.g., by influencing habitat structure, trophic dynamics, or the dispersal of smaller species). As they tend to be large and charismatic, they may also function as flagship umbrella species in future freshwater conservation initiatives. Despite this, as a group they are highly threatened, and our knowledge of the nature of these threats is limited. In this study, we aim to improve our understanding of the impacts of alien species on native freshwater megafauna.
2. We undertook the first global assessment of the impacts of alien species on native freshwater megafauna using the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT) framework. We conducted a literature review to identify published and grey literature on impacts, which we quantified and categorised by their severity and type, following the EICAT guidelines.
3. Negative impacts on native freshwater megafauna were caused by 61 alien species from a diverse range of taxonomic groups, including both freshwater and terrestrial alien species, and both vertebrates and invertebrates. They adversely affected 44 of 216 native freshwater megafauna species, including amphibians, fish, mammals, and reptiles. The Great Lakes Basin had the highest number of affected megafauna species (six of the 14 freshwater megafauna species it supports, mainly fish). Impacts occurred through a broad range of mechanisms (10 of the 12 identified mechanisms under EICAT); predation and competition were the most frequently reported mechanisms. Some impacts were relatively minor, adversely affecting the performance of individuals of native freshwater megafauna species. However, some reported impacts did cause declining populations of native freshwater megafauna species, and one impact contributed to the local extinction of the ship sturgeon ( Acipenser nudiventris ) in the Aral Sea. The vulnerability of native freshwater megafauna species to different types of impact varies during different life‐cycle stages (egg, juvenile, and adult).
4. Our understanding of impacts posed by alien species on native freshwater megafauna is limited because data are unavailable for many regions, particularly the Global South, including hotspots for freshwater megafauna diversity such as the Amazon, Congo, Mekong, and Ganges‐Brahmaputra basins. Freshwater megafauna species are often subject to multiple threats, which makes it difficult to determine the significance of alien species impacts relative to other threats such as habitat degradation and overexploitation. In addition, short‐term studies are likely to be masking the severity of the impacts identified. We call for more long‐term studies that attempt to identify population‐level impacts, and for studies that identify impacts in data‐deficient regions.
5. The EICAT assessments undertaken for this study will be reviewed by the EICAT Authority and subsequently incorporated into the IUCN EICAT database. They may be used to guide future research and conservation actions.
... Communitybased management involving both people with and without decisional power, and integrating scientific knowledge (particularly of population dynamics) with traditional knowledge, proved to be effective in resource management and restoration (see for example the Locally Managed Marine Area Network 14 ). Conservation through sustainable use, tailored to local situations and implemented via adaptive management, can be the way forward to ensure a sustainable use of the marine resources that is also respectful of local culture and traditions (Webb 2002). For example, in the case of crocodilians, there are several instances across the Southern Hemisphere where modern management of crocodiles was successfully carried out by integrating local traditional values (Brackhane et al. 2019). ...
Globally and locally, conservationists and scientists work to inform policy makers to help recovery of endangered sea turtle populations. In Fiji, in the South Pacific, sea turtles are protected by the national legislation because of their conservation status, and are also a customary iTaukei resource. Centered on our interview-based study at Qoma and Denimanu villages, parallel management systems coexist, where both the (written) national legislation and the (unwritten) customary iTaukei rules determine the time and the quantity of sea turtle harvest. In addition, non-governmental organizations and academic institutions may influence local sea turtle management by providing scientific awareness and helping divert the economic values from the meat to the living animal. We suggest that the government and non-governmental organizations emphasize community management of sea turtles, and work alongside the customary chiefs and their fishing clans to understand the real harvest (eventually by allowing quotas) and to monitor the recovery of South Pacific sea turtles in Fijian waters.
... Whilst not free of controversy, the consumptive use of wildlife is considered by conservation professionals as being not necessarily in conflict with conservation objectives, and in many situations can contribute to them (Webb 2002). A resolution of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) adopted at the General Assembly in 1990 recognised that "... ethical, wise and sustainable use of some wildlife can provide an alternative or supplementary means of productive land use, and can be consistent with and encourage conservation, where such use is in accordance with adequate safeguards" (Hale 1994). ...
This wildlife management program for Magpie Goose (Anseranas semipalmata) in the Northern Territory of Australia is a legal instrument under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976 (TPWC Act). It aims to protect and conserve the species whilst allowing for its sustainable use, and appropriate control in situations where it is causing economic damage.
The Magpie Goose is found in continental Australia, surrounding islands and the southern lowlands of New Guinea. Its range contracted from the south-eastern part of Australia following European settlement. Magpie Geese are most abundant in the Top End of the Northern Territory (NT) with population estimates over the past 36 years ranging from just under a million to more than 3 million birds. High rates of recruitment are possible with nesting success closely tied to above average wet season rainfall.
Numbers are highest in the floodplains of the central Top End. Approximately 30% or about 1,400 km2 of key Magpie Goose floodplain habitat lies within existing parks and reserves, most notably the Mary River National Park and Kakadu National Park.
Magpie Geese are protected wildlife under the TPWC Act and their conservation status is assessed as “least concern” in the NT. They are considered threatened in some other jurisdictions due to historical declines in distribution and abundance in those states. It is listed as a marine protected species under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).
Magpie Geese have very high socio-economic values in the Top End with an iconic status for residents and visitors alike. They are a totemic animal for Aboriginal people as well as an important seasonal source of food. Other sections of the community see hunting as important with a tradition of such harvest since the early 1900s. In some situations Magpie Geese cause economic damage to horticultural production, and there is potential for significant commercial use of geese.
This article examines the legal category sustainable use of wildlife as a process of realization of rights and obligations by the subjects, based on the provisions of the Concept of Sustainable Development, International law and National legislation on wildlife. This process is aimed at ensuring biological diversity, achieving a balance of economic, environmental and social interests of the citizens, society and the state as a whole, the process, as well as to preserve the reproductive ability of the animal world. Based on the analysis of certain provisions of the legislation on wildlife and law enforcement practice, the author makes a conclusion that Russia lacks a complex system of legal support measures for the sustainable use of wildlife. Legal, economic, ideological, organizational measures, proposed by the author of the article will make it possible to use wildlife in such a way, that will preserve and increase the number of wildlife populations, maintain an ecological balance, and ensure the needs in favorable environment for life and health for the present and future generations. The measures proposed by the author can create the legal basis for sustainable management of wildlife. The author suggests, that these measures can be useful in developing national programs for sustainable use of wildlife; providing incentives for the transition to sustainable use; strengthening the dialogue between the authorities and the population in order to involve them into the process of sustainable use of wildlife, so that to ensure a balance of economic, environmental and social interests.
Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) were protected in the Northern Territory in 1971, and a General Survey Program Based on spotlight counts was initiated 3 yr later. In the mid-1980s, monitoring needs were reviewed and rationalized. The current monitoring program operates at two levels of resolution. At a local population level, annual spotlight counts are conducted in six river systems, to monitor closely the process of recovery in those systems. Sixteen years of survey data for the Blyth-Cadell River system are analyzed here. Changes in the age structure of the population during the period of recovery are discussed. At a total population level, current monitoring (since 1989) involves an annual helicopter count over 70 sample segments in 68 tidal rivers around the complete coastline. The results of this program to date are presented and discussed. The experience and results obtained in the Northern Territory emphasize the need to clearly establish levels of resolution within which monitoring aims, objectives, and programs are compatible.
