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Hygienic aspects of using wooden and plastic cutting boards, assessed in laboratory and small gastronomy units

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Abstract

There is a long-term controversy on the safety of using hardwood cutting boards in food preparation. This study was designed to compare three types of cutting boards (maple, beech wood, polyethylene) in the laboratory and in a small gastronomic unit. Samples for microbiological analysis were collected by a swabbing method from the boards' surfaces that had been contaminated with a defined meat-egg-mixture and subsequently cleaned according to manufacturers' instructions. Our study did not show significant differences between the microbiological status of the three types of cutting boards tested, all of them being overall acceptable. Use of the maple board in a small gastronomic unit for 2 months did not result in problems in cleanability.
1 23
Journal für Verbraucherschutz und
Lebensmittelsicherheit
Journal of Consumer Protection and
Food Safety
ISSN 1661-5751
J. Verbr. Lebensm.
DOI 10.1007/s00003-015-0949-5
Hygienic aspects of using wooden and
plastic cutting boards, assessed in
laboratory and small gastronomy units
Friedrich-Karl Lücke & Agnieszka
Skowyrska
1 23
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Hygienic aspects of using wooden and plastic cutting boards,
assessed in laboratory and small gastronomy units
Friedrich-Karl Lu¨cke
1
Agnieszka Skowyrska
1
Received: 18 March 2015 / Accepted: 9 June 2015
Ó Bundesamt fu¨r Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit (BVL) 2015
Abstract There is a long-term controversy on the
safet y of using hardwood cutting boards in food
preparation. This study was designed to compare
three types of cut ting boards (maple, beech wood,
polyethylene) in the laboratory and in a small gas-
tronomic unit. Samples for microbiological analysis
were collected by a swabbing method from the
boards’ surfaces that had been contaminated with a
defined meat–egg-mixture and subsequently cleaned
according to manufacturers instruc tions. Our study
did not show significant differences between the
microbiological status of the thre e types of cutting
boards tested, all of them being overall acceptable.
Use of the maple board in a small gastronomic unit
for 2 months did not result in problems in
cleanability.
Keywords Cutting boards Wood Plastic
Hygiene Cross-contamination
1 Introduction
Nowadays, cutting boards for food processing are
available in a variety of materials such as: different
types of woods, bamboo, polymers, glass, stainless
steel etc. However, until the early 1970s, wood was
the predominating material (Ak et al. 1994).
Cross-contamination of foods with foodborne
pathogenic bacteria is a major cause for foodborne
diseases. Van Asselt et al. (2008) emphasized that
cross-contamination of food at home was an impor-
tant factor, and suggested it could be included in
microbiological risk assessments (MRAs) performed
for the whole food supply chain.
The present regu lations and standards on cutting
boards are mainly based on the assumption that
wooden cutting boards are difficult to clean. Annex II
Chapter V No. 1 (b) of Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004
(European Community 2004) indicates that ‘all arti-
cles, fittings and equipment with which food comes
into contact are to (a) be effectively cleaned and,
where necessary, disinfected. Cleaning and disinfec-
tion are to take place at a frequency sufficient to
avoid any risk of contamination; (b) be so con-
structed, be of such materials and be kept in such
good order, repair and condition as to minimize any
risk of contamination’’. Acco rding to Annex 1.1 of the
German ‘General Procedural Regulation on Food
Hygiene’ (AVV Lebensmittelhygiene 2009), the risk of
contamination is normally not minimized if wooden
equipment is used for purposes other than chopping
blocks, smoking and ripening rooms and pallets to be
used for transportation of packaged food.
Sector-specific guidelines, including various Guides
to Good Hygienic Practice notified according to
Directive (EC) No. 93/43 (European Community 1993)
and Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 (European Com-
munity 2004), describe the properties of food contact
materials. Generally, they should be smooth, free of
grooves and cracks, easy to be cleaned and, where
appropriate, to be disinfected. Some Guides also pro-
vide recommendations on the material of the items.
& Friedrich-Karl Lu¨cke
friedrich-karl.luecke@he.hs-fulda.de
1
Department of Nutritional, Food and Consumer
Sciences (OE), Fulda University of Applied Sciences,
Leipziger Straße 123, 36037 Fulda, Germany
J. Verbr. Lebensm.
DOI 10.1007/s00003-015-0949-5
Journal fu
¨
r Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit
Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety
123
Author's personal copy
For the present study, guides prepared for gas-
tronomy and catering units are relevant. The Guide
to Good Hygienic Practice prepared by the DEHOGA
(2006) for gastronomy does not specify the material
for food contact items. In the 2010 version of the
Guide to Good Hygienic Practice in small movable
and/or temporary premises, published by the Berufs-
genossenschaft Nah rungsmittel und Gaststa
¨
tten
(2010), it is stated that ‘tools and contact surfaces
made from wood, as well as cutting boards from
plastic, must be clean and must have a smooth sur-
face without grooves. They must be kept in good
conditions. For many purposes, wood surfaces are
not appropriate, due to their porous surface. In
exceptional cases, for technological reasons, wooden
tools and surfaces are used, e.g. for rolling out
doughs for baked goods, and for chopping blocks in
meat processing. This requires higher efforts for
cleaning’’. According to the Guide to Good Hygienic
Practice for catering units (Deutscher Caritasverband
und Diakonie 2009), furnishing in large kitchens
should not be made from wood while for tools
including cutting boar ds, it is only stated that they
should not consist of soft wood or soft plastics.
On the other hand, Ak et al. (1994) pointed out that
there is poor evidence that the restrictions of use of
wooden cutting boards in food processing industr y
and in gastronomy is justified by hygienic argu-
ments. In their experiments, the recovery of bacteria
from the surface of experimentally inoculated woo-
den blocks was much lower than from plastic boards,
indicating that bacteria are absorbed and sucked into
the wood. This study triggered various other studies
on the fate of bacterial contaminants on cutting
boards. Ro¨del et al. (1994) could recover inoculated
bacteria from samples retrieved from the upper
0.25 mm layer of wooden cutting boards, especially
after the bacteria had been inoculated together with
bovine serum albumin. However, Bours illon and
Riethmu¨ller (2007) did not observe differences
between beechwood and polyethylene boards with
respect to remobilization of bacteria, and Cliver
(2006) stressed that re-transfer of bacteria from the
interior of the wood to food via knives has not been
demonstrated yet. Wood constituents, especially
those from pine, may also play a role in inactivating
adsorbed bacteria (Milling et al. 2005). Gehrig et al.
(2000) reported that bacteria may grow on cutting
boards while wet, and that wooden boards with
porous surface dry faster. Moreover, they found that
surface scars on used wooden boards did not affect
this process while scars in plastic boards delay drying
considerably.
Taken together, there is still controversy on the
hygiene of using wooden cutting boards but reviews
on this problem (Carpentier 1997; Lauzon 1998; Cliver
2006; Stingl and Domig 2008) and various other
recent studies (e.g. Prechter et al. 2002; Milling et al.
2005; Boursillon and Riethmu¨ller 2007) concluded
that there is no evidence for the superiority of plastic
cutting boards.
In the USA, it is permitted to use hardwood cut ting
surfaces in commercial food preparation provided
the surface material had been certified by the
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). This is why we
included in our study a cutting board made from
NSF-certified North American hard maple. We also
tested this board in a real gastronomy environment
where boards are used continuously and accumulate
cuttings. In laboratory experiments (sporadic, gentle
and careful usage with no surface dama ge), we also
compared the maple board with one board from
beech and one board from polyethylene under
hygienic aspects. For this, we assessed the microbial
contamination by enumerating total aerobic meso-
philic microorganisms and Enterobacteriaceae on
cutting boards after artificial contamination and
common cleaning procedures.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Cutting boards used
For the purpose of this study, we used three types of
cutting boards, namely, made from hard North
American maple certified in the USA by National
Sanitation Foundation (NSF) (manufacturer: John
Boos & Co.; Brand: Boos Blocks
Ò
), beech wood, as
commonly used in homes (manufacturer: Roesle),
and polyethylene hard plastic widespread in the food
industry (manufacturer: Dick). All boards were new
and hand-washed before the first use. To maintain
the surface quality and a good cutting performance,
the instructions provided by the producer of the
maple board were followed: the board was oiled with
special mineral oil (BoosBlocks
Ò
Mystery Oil) before
the first use and af ter the third round of the labora-
tor y experiments, and after 3 weeks of use in the
bistro unit, respectively.
Different cleaning conditions were applied for
plastic and wooden cutting boards. The plastic board
was placed in an industrial dishwasher (Winterhalter
UC-L) using standard detergent (Winterhalter F 8400)
and conditions (washing temperature of 60 °C for
2 min, followed by rinsing at 85 °C), then wiped with
F.-K. Lu¨cke, A. Skowyrska
123
Author's personal copy
clean clo th and left to dry for 30 min. Wooden
boards were hand washed under warm tap water
with commercially available washing liquid (Palmo-
live
Ò
) and by using a soft cloth. After that they were
wiped with clean cloth and air dried for 30 min.
2.2 Method of artificial contamination
As a contaminant used in the laboratory experi-
ments, a food mixture, based to some extent on food
items used for testing of cleaning performance of
household used dishwashers, as specified in the
standard DIN EN 50242/EN 60436 (2008), was pre-
pared as follows: Minced meat was purchased in a
local supe rmarket, transported to the laboratory
kitchen and left at room temperature for 12 h (in
order to stimulate microbial growth). Then, 75 g of
minced beef and 75 g of minced pork were mixed
with the contents (albumen and yolk) of a me dium-
size egg (50 g). The resulting mixture had a pH of 5.8.
20 g of the mixture were then removed for micro-
biological analysis, homogenized in 180 ml of 0.85 %
sodium chloride solution containing 0.1 % tryptone.
Appropriate dilutions were then spread on Plate
Count Agar (PCA; Merck KGaA, Darmstadt) and Violet
Red Bile Glucose Agar (VRBG; Merck KGaA, Darm-
stadt), for the enumeration of aerobic mesophilic
microorganisms and Enterobacteriaceae, respectively,
and incubated at 30 °C for 2 days. In the contami-
nant mixture, Pseudomonas spp. were also
enumerated, using Cetrimid Fucidin Cep haloridin
Agar (CFC; Oxoid No. CM 0559). For the subsequent
contamination experiments, the remaining mixture
was rapidly frozen and stored at -21 °C.
2.3 Design of the study
The experiments were designed in a way to simulate
normal usage conditions of cutting boards at home
and in small gastronomic units. In addition, b oards
were tested in a laborator y setting where they a re
no cuts wi th knives. The first par t of the study was
performed in a laboratory kitchen at Fulda Univer-
sity of Applied Sciences, and the second one took
place in a bistro-type unit which provides meals for
company workers and thus served as a model for
conditions in small g astronomy units and in private
households.
In the first part of the study, all three cutting
boards (maple, beech and plastic) were examined in
five repeated experiments. For each repetition, the
frozen food mixture (prepared as described in Sect.
2.2) was thawed in cold water for about 30 min. 30 g
of the mixture were then mixed with 8 ml of cold tap
water, applied to the boards and left for 10 min. In
the meantime, the un-inoculated part of the board
was swabbed. After the food mixture had been
removed from the boards, they were left for 2 h at
room temperature. Subsequently, the contaminated
area was swabbed. Then, boards were washed as
specified above, wiped with clean cloth and left to
dry for 30 min. The last two samples were then taken
by swabbing the un-inoculated (control) areas and
contaminated areas of the boards, respectively.
In the second part of the study, only the maple
board was used. It was washed and oil treated simi-
larly as the other wooden boards in the first part of
the study before star ting the experiment s. It was left
with a small gastronomy unit (company bistro) for
2 months. During this time the board was used once
ever y working day for about 1.5 h for preparation of
sandwiches (cutting fresh vegetables, bread and rolls,
breakfast meat products and cheeses) and cleaned
manually after use. Samples were taken three times
(after the 2nd, 5th and 8th week of use). At each
sampling day, the first swab was taken after the
preparation of the last sandwiches and the second
swab after cleaning. After 2 months of use in the
bistro, the board was transported to the laboratory
kitchen. There, it was artificially contaminated,
washed and sampled in the same way as in the first
part of our stud y, in order to find out differences
between the maple board used in the laboratory
kitchen (no cut ting on the board and no damage to
the surface) and the one used in the small gastro-
nomic unit (frequently used and with visible grooves
on the surface).
2.4 Sample coding, collection and analysis
of samples
Samples were removed by swabbing from the surface
of 20 cm
2
and placing the swabs in 5 ml 0.85 % saline
solution. Subsequently, this dilution was inoculated
on: Plate Cou nt Agar (PCA, Merck KGaA, Darmstadt)
and Crystal violet Neutral Red Bile Glucose Agar
(VRBG, Merck KGaA, Darmstadt), incubated aerobi-
cally for 48 h at 30 °C, in order to obtain CFU/cm
2
of
aerobic mesophilic microorganisms and Enterobac-
teriaceae, respectively. The results were calculated
according to standard DIN 10113-1 (1998). The detec-
tion limit was 2.5 CFU/cm
2
(50 CFU/sample).
Hygienic aspects of wooden and plastic cutting boards
123
Author's personal copy
3 Results and discussion
Samples from new cutting boards without grooves,
obtained in the laboratory kitchen before cleaning,
had mean counts of aerobic mesophilic microor-
ganisms of 7.5, 23.5 and 41 CFU/cm
2
for maple, beech
and plastic boards, respectively. No Enterobacteria-
ceae were detected. The meat-egg mixture used for
contamination of the boards contained 1.7 9 10
7
,
7.7 9 10
3
and 4.5 9 10
6
/g of mesophilic aerobes, En-
terobacteriaceae, and Pseudomonas spp., respectively.
Samples obtained from the boards after artificial
contamination had 327 CFU/cm
2
(maple board) and
more than 500 CFU/cm
2
(beech and plastic board).
Enterobacteriaceae were found on only 4 of 12 samples
tested, with counts not exceeding 45 CFU/cm
2
. The
data are summarized in Table 1.
After cleaning, no Enterobacteriaceae were detec-
ted in any sample. Moreover, 23 of 30 samples had
less than 2.5 CFU/cm
2
of aerobic mesophilic
microorganisms, irrespective of previous contami-
nation. Of the remaining 7 samples having counts
between 2.5 and a maximum of 32.5 CFU/cm
2
, 3 were
obtained from the beech wood board, and 2 each
from the maple and plastic board.
Results from experiments performed in a small
gastronomic unit using the maple cutting board are
compiled in Table 1, too. Samples were collected
three times from the board before and after the
cleaning procedure. The results obtained after 2 and
5 weeks of use did not differ significantly from those
obtained after 8 weeks of use and were not included
into Table 1. Cleaning of the board gave reduction of
aerobic mesophilic microorganisms to 5 CFU/cm
2
or
below. All samples collected had \2.5 CFU/cm
2
of
Enterobacteriaceae.
The final part of the study was performed in the
laboratory kitchen with use of all three types of cut-
ting boards (maple, beech and plasti c) as well as and
the maple board used previously in the bistro in
Experiment 2). This trial was conducted according to
the procedure in Experiment 1. Important difference
between maple board from Experiment 1 and the
maple board used for 2 mont hs in bistro was the
presence of small grooves from knife cut s on the
surface of the bistro board. Bacterial counts on the
boards used in the laboratory kitchen were similar to
those obtained in the first experiment and therefore
included in Table 1. Only the aerobic mesophilic
count on one plastic board after cleaning (32.5 CFU/
cm
2
) was classified as unacceptable. Count s on all
wooden boards after applying the cleaning proce-
dure can be qualified as acceptable. The maple board
used in the bi stro for 8 weeks contained more than
500 aerobic mesophilic bacteria before and no
detectable bacteria (\2.5/cm
2
) after cleaning.
Table 1 Counts of microorganisms on cutting boards before and after cleaning
Inoculated Status cleaning Type of the board Samples with aerobic
mesophilic count/cm
2
Samples with
Enterobacteriaceae/cm
2
\2.5 2.5–24 25–249 [250 \2.5 2.5–24 25–250
No (control) Before Maple (used in laboratory) 4 1 1 0 6 0 0
Maple (used in bistro) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Beech 2 4 0 0 6 0 0
Plastic 1 4 1 0 6 0 0
After Maple (used in laboratory) 5 0 1 (32.5) 0 6 0 0
Maple (used in bistro) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Beech 4 2 (12.5; 2.5) 0 0 6 0 0
Plastic 5 0 1 (37.5) 0 6 0 0
Yes Before Maple (used in laboratory) 0 0 2 4 5 1 0
Maple (used in bistro) 0 0 0 4 4 0 0
Beech 0 0 0 6 2 0 4
Plastic 0 0 0 6 1 2 3
After Maple (used in laboratory) 5 1 (7.5) 0 0 6 0 0
Maple (used in bistro) 2 2 (5; 2.5) 0 0 4 0 0
Beech 5 1 (2.5) 0 0 6 0 0
Plastic 3 2 (2.5; 2.5) 1 (32.5) 0 6 0 0
Counts above 2.5 CFU/cm
2
on cleaned boards are given in brackets
F.-K. Lu¨cke, A. Skowyrska
123
Author's personal copy
Similar results were reported by Miller et al. (1996)
who found no significant differences in bacterial
loads on plastic and hardwood cutting boards after
contamination with ground beef and subsequent
cleaning.
Kleiner and Lampe (2014) also compared the Boos
Blocks
Ò
maple cutting board with a polyethylene
board, by cutting chicken or salad on them and
manually cleaning them. In ter ms of hygiene, they
found the oil-treated maple board equal or superior
to the polyethylene board, even after various use and
cleaning cycles over 4 weeks, with ever increasing
numbers of scrat ches on the boards. The lowest
counts after cleaning were obtained from a maple
board not treated with oil. Apparently, the contami-
nant liquid was sucked into this board, and bacterial
contaminants may also have been inactivated by
wood constituents.
In the studies performed by Cools et al . (2005)
and Moore et al. (2007), the inactivation of
microorganisms (Campylobacter jejuni and Sal-
monella Typhimurium, respectively) on the surfaces
studied (including beech wood, polypropylene,
stainless steel and Formica) over time was measured.
In both studies, there was a significant reduction of
recovered microorga nisms with time from all tested
surfaces. Cools et al. (2005) did not observe signifi-
cant differences between materials while Moore
et al. (2007) found a much faster inactivation on
wood.
The authors studying the recovery of microor-
ganisms from common food contact surfaces,
especially in home kitchens, uniformly highlight the
need for proper cleaning and disinfection of used
utensils (especially cutting boards) in order to mini-
mize the cross-contamination effect. Repeated
cleaning of wooden boards in the dishwasher under
harsh conditions resulted in cracks sufficiently large
to entrap bacteria, and in adsorption of organic
matter and bacteria (Welker et al. 1997), and should
be avoided.
There are no legal standards on acceptable
microbial counts on food contact surfaces, and it
makes lit tle sense to introduce them (see e.g. ICMSF
2002). However, the repealed Decision 2001/417 by
the European Commission (European Community
2001) stated that on surfaces which are cleaned, dry
and smooth, and which have contact with meat or
poultry in slaughter houses or cutting rooms, total
viable counts below 10 CFU/cm
2
and of Enterobacte-
riaceae below 1 CFU/cm
2
are acceptable. Hence, we
conclude that on cleaned boards, the counts
observed and listed in Table 1 are acceptable.
4 Conclusions
The experiments performed both in the laboratory
kitchen (with three different cutting boards) and in
the bistro (with maple board) showed no significant
differences in microbiological counts on wooden and
plastic cutting boards after proper cleaning. The
overall hygienic status of the examined boards was
good and classified as acceptable. We found no evi-
dence for an increased microbiological risk when
properly maintained wooden cutting boards are used
at home or in gastronomic units. Nevertheless,
cleaning procedures (hand wash vs. use of dish-
washer) should be always adjusted according to the
material of the boards. Hence, the instructions of the
manufacturers on cleaning and maintenance should
be followed, to ensure optimal performance and
safet y of the food preparation.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Margit
Ochs and Viktoria Fritz for their technical support and overall
contribution. The study was supported by Fo¨rdergesellschaft
der Heiz- und Kochgera
¨
te-Industrie mbH, Frankfurt/M.
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boards with commercial food service maintenance prac-
tices. J Food Protect 60:407–413
F.-K. Lu¨cke, A. Skowyrska
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... 30 In one disinfection study focused on the safety of hardwood cutting boards in food preparation it was found that between maple, beech, and plastic cutting boards, the plastic boards were the most contaminated with bacteria with a mean count of 41 CFU/cm 2 compared to 7.5 CFU/cm 2 for maple and 23.5 CFU/cm 2 for beech. 31 In a similar study of cutting boards, bacteria survived best on plastic and glass and were not viable on wood. 32 When looking at wood, it was found that oak exhibited an antibacterial effect and that after cultivation, bacteria could not be found on the wood after 48 h. ...
... 54 Ultraviolet radiation Pulsed xenon ultraviolet disinfection was found to be effective in reducing the recovery of MRSA and C. difficile within a 10-min exposure time. 31 As the distance increased between the device and the pathogens, the device did not work as efficiently. Compared to ultraviolet C radiation, UV-C achieved significantly greater log-10CFU reductions than the PX-UV device. ...
... hand cleaning wood products instead of using a dishwasher). 31 Chemical treatment Chemical disinfectants are used to inactivate pathogens on inert surfaces. The most common chemical disinfectants include alcohol, hypochlorite, and hydrogen peroxide. ...
Article
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Increased concern over climate change and the emergence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus resulted in a clash of political directives around reusable and disposable food serviceware. Decreasing single-use items will likely reduce consumption and environmental emissions; however, improper cleaning of reusable items could result in greater risks of disease transmission. We sought to assess the risks of reusable and disposable food serviceware and document disinfection protocols by conducting a systematic literature review of articles that assessed materials or products that could be fomites to specific food-borne pathogens. After initial screening, the study team extracted data from 122 articles. The most common pathogens studied were E. coli (25% of included studies), general bacteria (24%), and Norovirus (16%). Thirteen studies (8%) focused on SARS-CoV-2. A majority of studies analyzed plastics (27%), stainless steel (22%), or porous surfaces such as paper and cardboard (12%). Forty seven of the studies (35%) were conducted in a food service setting, and 40 studies (30%) tested disinfection techniques. Despite a large body of related literature, there is very little evidence suggesting that either reusable or disposable food serviceware is safer for minimizing infectious risks. Pathogens can survive on various fomites, though greater surface porosity and higher humidity levels increase viability of most pathogens. There appear to be no major differences in pathogen viability on various fomites. There is a paucity of research that can specifically aid in developing policy or guidelines for appropriate use of reusable food serviceware. Though given recent studies on SARS-CoV-2, banning reusable bags and food serviceware is an inappropriate response to this particular pathogen, which is rarely spread through surface contact. Further research is needed that explicitly studies pathogen viability, transmission risks, and appropriate disinfection techniques for disposable and reusable food serviceware in order to devise effective sustainability policies.
... For example, the electron microscopy revealed that the cuts on wood surfaces open in the drying process and cleaning also becomes easier (Gehrig et al. 2000), at least not more difficult as compared to plastic (Boursillon and Riethmüller 2007;Lucke and Skowyrska 2015). Meanwhile, under similar circumstances, the plastic surface cuts have a closing structure that can provide shelter to microbes (Gehrig et al. 2000). ...
... Many studies have shown that wood surfaces are not more difficult to clean as compared to other non-porous surfaces (Ak et al. 1994a, b;Lucke and Skowyrska 2015). ...
... The results showed that wood was more efficiently cleaned with all types of products as compared to glass, plastic and antibacterial plastic surfaces. Lucke and Skowyrska (2015) also reported that after proper cleaning, the microbial counts were the same on polyethylene, maple and beech cutting boards, suggesting that the wood material is not worse in cleanability than commonly used plastic. ...
Thesis
The wood material provides a nature-based theme to construction because of its natural appearance, ecofriendly nature and biophilic effects on humans. However, its organic and porous nature is questioned when using it in hygienically important places such as hospitals. Studies have shown that wood has antimicrobial properties against some pathogens; work is still needed, however, to demonstrate this antimicrobial action and its relation to wood and microbiological variables. This research gathers and generates information to guide stakeholders of hospital hygiene on the hygienic safety of wood materials. First, a simple and direct method was developed to study the antibacterial and antifungal activity of solid wood, which also identified the role of wood and microbial variables on antimicrobial behavior. Further, an elution based bacterial recovery method was investigated which showed that the most common nosocomial bacteria did not survive as well on wood as compared to smooth surfaces such as aluminum, steel and polycarbonate. Meanwhile, an innovative tool was developed, involving the use of fluorescent probes to study the bacterial distribution on and inside wood using confocal spectral laser microscopy. These experiments produced the information that will help the decision makers regarding the choice of wood material in the healthcare buildings. It not only enhances our understanding of hygienic safety of wood in healthcare buildings but also provides the basis for future research on the prevalence of pathogens in the wooden healthcare institutes and the perception of the occupants those buildings.
... However, efforts crucial to reduce losses for securing future sustainability are practically absent. Many previous studies have focused on cutting boards harboring microbes that lead to foodborne diseases and the safety of wood as a meat-contact material (Lucke & Skowvrska 2015;Munir et al. 2019;Sekoai et al. 2020;Rao et al. 2021). Others have examined the performance of vegetable chopping boards from an ergonomic perspective of proper handling and discomfort (Radhika & Lakshmi 2021). ...
Article
Although wood degradation and ergonomics are critical design issues in the wood product industry worldwide, data on wood as a degradable and culturally important material for cutting meat and the ergonomics of meat marketing in urban Nigerian markets are unavailable. This study investigated the degradation of wooden cutting boards ( WCB ) caused by meat cutting and marketing ergonomics. Degradation was estimated using eight WCB administered to four participants marketing chevon and four participants marketing beef. Descriptive and anthropometric data were obtained from 129 participants using questionnaires and measurements. The degradation results showed that after three months, cutting meat caused a significant monthly average WCB loss of 19.6 ± 4% and 11.6 ± 4% and a cumulative weight loss of 58.17% and 34.72% for chevon and beef, respectively. A substantial number of meat marketers were found to work in awkward postures, especially in the upper extremity mismatched condition, where they potentially exert more force, resulting in contact between the cutting tools and WCB that degrades the cutting board during meat cutting. Therefore, mismatched working conditions are a feasible and heightened factor contributing to wood degradation during meat cutting and marketing. The results can help people gain a deeper understanding of wood degradation from commercial meat cutting and the ergonomics of meat marketing and provide strategies for ensuring a sustainable supply of high-quality wood and improving ergonomic conditions.
... The use of water alone, although effective to some extent, was unable to completely remove the fluorescent gel from the surfaces. These results, like those of other studies, highlight the importance of considering the cleaning products and tools used, the specific type of surface being cleaned, and the movement and pressure applied during the cleaning process (Lücke and Skowyrska, 2015). ...
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Background Maintaining effective surface hygiene and preventing contamination is of paramount importance. Our study introduces Glo Germ, a versatile product available in various forms, which possesses the unique ability to reveal hidden truths under ultraviolet light, enhance understanding of hygiene, and spread awareness of COVID-19 transmission and preventive measures. Materials and Methods A comprehensive study was conducted to assess different surface cleaning techniques’ effectiveness. Glo Germ, containing a fluorescent dye activated by ultraviolet light, was used to visualize germ spread and compare disinfectant cleaners’ efficacy. The study encompassed diverse surfaces and materials, aiming to identify optimal cleaning techniques for each context. Furthermore, a small illustrative study was conducted during a COVID-19 awareness presentation involving students. Glo Germ was applied to hands, revealing its subsequent spread to faces and surfaces. This visual experiment effectively emphasized hand hygiene and mask-wearing importance. Results Results indicated that while water alone achieved satisfactory cleaning results, using detergent and the appropriate cleaning tools further improved efficacy. Notably, adhering to consistent patterns and applying pressure during cleaning proved essential. The student demonstration showed how contaminants spread quickly, highlighting hand hygiene’s significance and the potential extent of contamination through sneezing. Conclusion Glo Germ inclusion in these experiments highlights its potential in educating about surface cleaning and microbial transmission, offering an interactive and engaging approach to promoting personal hygiene and fostering illness prevention awareness.
... The porosity of wood does not necessarily impact its cleaning, for example, studies of wooden cutting boards have shown that the in-use methods of cleaning were equally efficient for wood as they were for plastic surfaces [59,[74][75][76][77][78][79]. In addition, washing does not decrease the cleanability of wood over time [80] and the action of disinfectants in cleaning equally efficient for cleaning E. coli, L. monocytogenes, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, C. jejuni, Salmonella Typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7 on both the plastic and wooden boards [81][82][83][84]. ...
Article
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Wood materials are being adopted as nature-based architectural themes inside the healthcare buildings. Concern is raised that the organic and porous character of wood might support microbial survival. Therefore, this review discusses the hygienic properties of wood including the antimicrobial potential and its cleanability in comparison to smooth surface materials. In general, wood has antimicrobial properties owing to its chemical composition and physical structure. However, the hygienic potential of wood is influenced by the type of wood, age of wood, the cleaning method, surface treatment, and its moisture content. This information is intended to guide decision-makers regarding the use of wood in hygienically sensitive places and researchers to help them identify the variables for better utilizing the hygienic potential of this material.
... Berdasarkan observasi, talenan berbahan kayu digunakan oleh semua industri jasa boga golongan A2 dan sebagian industri jasa boga golongan B. Permenkes 1096/2011 tidak merekomendasikan penggunaan talenan kayu karena susah untuk dibersihkan dan dapat mengakumulasi kotoran sehingga mendukung terjadinya pertumbuhan mikrob. Akan tetapi, perlu dilakukan kajian lebih lanjut karena hasil penelitian Lücke & Skowyrska (2015) menyimpulkan tidak terdapat perbedaan yang nyata antara jumlah mikrob pada permukaan talenan kayu dan plastik setelah pencucian. Higiene peralatan yang digunakan untuk pengolahan pangan perlu ditingkatkan oleh semua industri jasa boga golongan A2, A3, dan B. Walaupun secara visual kondisi wadah tampak bersih dari debu dan kotoran lainnya, secara mikrobiologi belum dapat dipastikan higienis. ...
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Catering industry is a food business which produces ready-to-eat food or food that will not be cooked or reheated before serving. Therefore, the safety of food produced by catering industry becomes very important. During period of 2015–2017, the food produced by catering industry was the third largest cause of food borne outbreak in Indonesia. This showed poor compliance level of food hygiene and sanitation in the catering industry, especially during food production. This study was aimed to measure the compliance level of sanitation and hygiene practices during food production in catering industries. This study was carried out in 10 catering industries located in Bogor City, consisting of 2 catering industries in class A2, 4 catering industries in class A3, and 4 catering industries in class B. Data collection was carried out by observation using checklist which was developed from Regulation of The Minister of Health Number 1096 Year 2011. Result showed that catering industries in class A2, A3, and B had an average compliance level of hygiene and sanitation practices during food production. The stage of raw material procurement in class A2 and stage of food processing in class A2, A3, and B were still in poor compliance level of hygiene and sanitation practices that should be more improved. Keywords: catering industries, compliance level, hygiene and sanitation, food production
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Yeterli ve dengeli beslenme bireylerin sağlığını devam ettirebilmeleri için gerekli yaşamsal fonksiyonlardan biridir. Bu bağlamda gastronomi sektörü kişilerin beslenme ihtiyacını, değişen yaşam koşullarına da cevap verecek şekilde karşılamaktadır (Aguilera, 2018; Tuncer, 2019). Gastronomi sözcüğü “gaster” ve “nomas” sözcüklerinden türemiştir. Gast�ronomi terimi veya iyi yemek seçme, hazırlama, sunma ve tadını çıkarma sanatı olarak, 1835 yılında Academie Francaise tarafından kabul edilmiş ve "mutfak" veya yiyeceklerin bir bölge veya ülkede geleneksel olarak pişirilip tüketilme bi�çimleriyle eşanlamlı hale gelmiştir. (Courtine, 2003; Alıntaş, 2021). 20. yüzyılın sonunda, moleküler gastronomi kavramı da ortaya çıkmıştır ve gastronomi, mut�fak sanatının sırlarını ortaya çıkarmak ve yeni olasılıkları keşfetmek için bilimsel ilkelerin uygulanması ve fizik, kimya, antropoloji, sosyoloji, felsefe vb. birçok bilim ile ilişki olan multidisipliner bir alan olarak değerlendirilmektedir (Kivela ve Crotts, 2006; Burešova vd., 2020; Britwum ve M. Demont 2022). Modern tüketiciler giderek daha fazla ev dışında yemek yemekte ve gıda kalitesi, tadı ve sağlık yönleriyle daha fazla ilgilenmektedir (Aguilera 2018). Zaten sağlık ve gıda tüketimi arasındaki ilişki tartışılmazdır. Gıda güvenliğinin sağlanamamasından dolayı, gıda kaynaklı hastalıklar ortaya çıkmakta ve her yıl çok sayıda insan bu hastalıklardan dolayı hayatını kaybetmektedir (Sani ve Siow, 2014). Gıda kaynaklı hastalıklar enfeksiyon ya da intoksikasyon şeklinde görüle�bilmektedir. Gıdada gelişen mikroorganizmanın gıda ile birlikte alınması sonucu ortaya çıkan sağlık sorunları “enfeksiyon”, gıdada bulunan mikroorganizmanın ürettiği toksinin gıda ile birlikte vücuda alınmasıyla ortaya çıkan sağlık sorunları ise “intoksikasyon” olarak adlandırılmaktadır (Çınaroğlu, 2022). Bu çalışmada gastronomi ve gıda güvenliği arasındaki ilişkiden, gıda güvenliği ve hijyen uygulamalarından, gıda güvenliğinin öneminden bahsedilerek, gıda güvenliği ve gastronomi ile ilgili yapılan literatür çalışmalarına yer verilmiş ve çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuştu
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This chapter explains about ergonomic problems faced by the chopping board users and their material and design preference
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The Food Safety Modernization Act, specifically the Produce Safety Rule, requires growers to clean and sanitize food contact surfaces to protect against produce contamination. An ATP monitoring device is a potential sanitation tool to monitor the efficacy of an on-farm cleaning and sanitation program that could help growers meet regulatory expectations mandated by the Produce Safety Rule. This ATP monitoring device uses bioluminescence to detect all ATP (found in bacteria and produce matter cells) from a swabbed surface. Because little work has been done to test the efficacy of these tools under postharvest conditions, the present study evaluated ATP measurement for postharvest food contact surface cleanliness evaluation. Concentrations of leafy greens (spinach, romaine, and red cabbage, with or without Listeria innocua) were used as organic matter applied to stainless steel, high-density polyethylene plastic, and bamboo wood coupons to represent postharvest food contact surfaces. The ATP levels on the coupons were then measured by using swabs and an ATP monitoring device. Results showed that the concentration of L. innocua and leafy greens on a food contact surface had a highly significant effect on the ATP monitoring device reading (P < 0.0001). The ATP monitoring device had a lower limit of detection for L. innocua at 4.5 log CFU per coupon. The type of leafy green on a food contact surface did not affect the ATP reading (P = 0.88). Leafy greens with added L. innocua had a higher ATP reading when compared with saline and L. innocua, demonstrating the presence of leafy green matter contributes to ATP reading when combined with L. innocua. The different food contact surfaces had different ATP response readings (P = 0.03), resulting in no detectable levels of bacteria and/or leafy green material from bamboo wood surfaces (P = 0.16). On the basis of our results, the ATP measurement is an appropriate tool to measure produce or bacterial contamination on stainless steel or high-density polyethylene plastic surfaces; however, it is not recommended for wood surfaces. Highlights:
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E. coli kontaminiert und darauf die Koloniebildung (cfu = colony forming units) mit der Agar-Methode bestimmt. Bakterienwerte nach 15-stündiger Lagerung bei Raumtemperatur wurden verglichen mit Werten nach dem Waschen (maschinell und von Hand). In feuchter Umgebung zeigten beide Brettertypen hohe Bakterienwerte. Sogar das maschinelle Waschen reduzierte den Wert kaum. Wahrscheinlich bietet die feuchte Oberfläche ideale Bedingungen für die Koloniebildung. In trockenerer Umgebung wurden an Holzproben deutlich weniger Bakterien gezählt als an PE-Brettern. Der Grund dafür ist nicht eindeutig; es wurde aber beobachtet, dass die poröse Holzoberfläche schneller trocknete als die PE-Oberfläche. Weiterhin ergab sich aus elektronenmikroskopischen Beobachungen, dass die Kunststoffbretter nach einmonatigem Gebrauch eine rauhe und ausgehöhlte Oberfläche aufwiesen (allerdings ohne tiefe Poren). Bei Holz öffnen sich diese oberflächlichen Schnittspuren während des Trocknens, und die Bakterien können daher nicht überleben. Bei PE-Oberflächen wird vermutet, dass die Bakterien länger in den Vertiefungen verweilen können. An allen Materialien konnte die Bakterienzahl deutlich reduziert werden durch Handwaschen mit Detergentien und Bürsten, sowie Spülen mit warmem Wasser. Nach dieser Behandlung werden Bakterien nur vereinzelt angetroffen. Für Holz könnte eine noch stärkere Desinfektion mit der Mikrowellenmethode erreicht werden, die von Park and Cliver (1996) vorgeschahlagen wurde. Allgemein kann gesagt werden, daß Holz, anders als allgemein angenommen, nicht weniger hygienisch ist als PE. Die Behauptung, daß der Gebrauch von Holz für die Lebensmittelbearbeitung zu erhöhten hygienischen Risiken führt, konnte daher nicht bestätigt werden.
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Purpose – This study aims to compare the aptitude of pine as a softwood and beech as a hardwood, regarding their different retention and antimicrobial performances as compared to polyethylene. Design/methodology/approach – Four sets of tests were carried out: recovery, cleaning, remobilization and survival experiments. For all experiments wood and control blocks or chippings were spiked with bacteria and tested at set intervals for bacterial counts using standard procedures. Findings – Overall, wood performed at least as good as polyethylene. Polyethylene is not as easy to clean. The problematic cleansing capabilities of wood are compensated by its open structure. Pine exerted antimicrobial abilities faster than beech and showed better performance than both beech and polyethylene. The differences between beech and polyethylene were only marginal. Research limitations/implications – The findings may help along with further research to re-establish the value of wood in some food processing settings and in the home. However, only new materials were used so that no statement on the performance of used wood and plastic utensils can be made. Besides, only two types of woods and one type of plastic were used in this study. Originality/value – This article is written with the expertise of the authors and will be of interest to those in the field.
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The potentials for removal of beef bacterial microflora from unscored polyethylene and hardwood cutting boards were compared. Ground beef was placed for 0 to 90 min onto cutting boards at room temperature and then removed; the surfaces were swabbed and the bacteria were enumerated. The boards were cleaned with various cleaning agents and then analyzed for bacterial removal. In addition, aqueous extracts from eight hardwoods were incubated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 for 0 to 30 h at 37°C to determine their inhibitory potential. Differences between the bacterial levels on wooden and plastic boards were not significant regardless of contact time. Washing with any cleaner, including water, removed most bacteria from either type of board. White ash extracts reduced E. coli O157:H7 levels to undetectable within 24 h; black cherry and red oak exhibited low inhibitory activity. Slight growth was observed in extracts from all other hardwoods, including hard maple, suggesting that aqueous extractable agents that are active against E. coli O157:H7 are not generally present in hardwoods. This study demonstrates the need to control cutting board sanitation regardless of composition.
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The microbiology of plastic and wooden cutting boards was studied, regarding cross-contamination of foods in home kitchens. New and used plastic (four polymers plus hard rubber) and wood(nine hardwoods) cutting boards were cut into 5-cm squares("blocks"). Escherichia coli (two nonpathogenic strains plus type OI57:H7), Listeria innocua, L. monocytogenes, or Salmonella typhimurium was applied to the 25-cm2 block surface in nutrient broth or chicken juice and recovered by soaking the surface in nutrient broth or pressing the block onto nutrient agar, within 3-10 min or up to ca. 12 h later. Bacteria inoculated onto plastic blocks were readily recovered for minutes to hours and would multiply if held overnight. Recoveries from wooden blocks were generally less than those from plastic blocks, regardless of new or used status; differences increased with holding time. Clean wood blocks usually absorbed the inoculum completely within 3-10 min. If these fluids contained 103-104 CFU of bacteria likely to come from raw meat or poultry, the bacteria generally could not be recovered after entering the wood. If ≥106 CFU were applied, bacteria might be recovered from wood after 12 h at room temperature and high humidity, but numbers were reduced by at least 98%, and often more than 99.9%. Mineral oil treatment of the wood surface had little effect on the microbiological findings. These results do not support the often-heard assertion that plastic cutting boards are more sanitary than wood.
Article
Hygienic aspects of cutting boards made of wood (european maple, beech and oak) and polyethylene (PE) were compared in order to determine the risk of food contamination in household and commercial kitchen. Boards were contaminated with Escherichia coli bacteria, and the colony forming units (cfu) were retrieved by agar contact methods. Bacteria counts after 15 hour storage at room temperature were compared to values obtained after machine and manual washing processes. Results showed that in very humid environment, both wood and PE showed very high numbers of bacteria. Even machine washing of the wet samples hardly reduced the cfu counted. Probably, the high bacteria density observed was due to the high surface moisture of the samples which led to ideal conditions for the microorganisms on the surface from where they are easily retrieved. In drier environment, contact plates removed significantly less bacteria from wood samples than from PE. The reason for this effect was not clearly established, but it was observed that the porous wood surface dried faster than the polyethylene surface. Also, observations of surface samples in a scanning electron microscope proved that after one month of intensive use polyethylene boards obtained a very rough and cavernous surface similar to wood (but with less profound porosity). On wood, these surface cuts open in the drying process and therefore bacteria cannot survive. However, on PE a retention of bacteria enclosed in caverns and the possibility of later release is suspected. On all materials a significant decrease of bacteria count was achieved upon manual washing with detergent and brush followed by rinsing under warm water. After this treatment, bacteria were recovered only sporadically. For wood, an even higher degree of disinfection could possibly be achieved with the microwave method suggested by Park and Cliver (1996). In general, the results of the present experiments show that wood is not, as commonly assumed, less hygienic than polyethylene. The statement that the use of wood in food processing increased the risk of infestation by microorganisms could therefore not be supported.
Article
This bibliographic study on chopping board hygiene is based on 12 scientific publications indicating that little work has been done on this subject. Furthermore, some studies concern household chopping boards and others butchers' chopping blocks. Experimental factors were very different from one study to another and this could explain the different survival rates of bacteria after inoculation onto wooden surfaces. It seems that desiccation leads to loss of culturability of laboratory-grown micro-organisms, but the presence of organic matter may protect bacteria from desiccation. Natural microflora had higher survival rates than laboratory-grown bacteria. The bacteria sampling method is also of great importance: destructive methods like scraping gave the best bacteria recovery rates because bacteria can penetrate into the wood to a depth that depends on the orientation of the wood fibres. Also discussed is the lack of arguments to prove that plastics are more hygienic than wood for meat cutting boards. Only one field study compared wood and plastic as materials for meat cutting blocks. The only situation where plastic appeared less contaminated than wood (when sampling had been done by contact agar) was just after a drastic cleaning and disinfecting. But we do not know how long this difference was maintained during the working period, or whether the wood had been scraped before cleaning and disinfecting.