Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum): Composition and Health Effects - A Review

Abstract

Goji berries contain many nutrients and bioactive compounds which allowed to classify them as superfruits. A short description of the fruits is presented together with cultivation requirements. The chemical composition of the berries and their health-promoting properties are described later in this literature review. Based on the available data, their potentially beneficial application in dietary prevention of diseases of affluence, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer, is elaborated. We also refer to the safety of Goji consumption in the context of ingredients potentially harmful for human health, allergic reactions and the interactions with other substances. © 2016 Bartosz Kulczyński et al., published by De Gruyter Open.

Full text

Pol. J.Food Nutr. Sci., 2016, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 0–0
DOI: 10.1515/pjfns-2015-0040
http://journal.pan.olsztyn.pl
Review article
Section: Nutritional Research
© Copyright by Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences
© 2016 Author(s). This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
INTRODUCTION
The rapid increase in diseases of prosperity has led to
more intensifi ed research into substances contributing to
their prevention and treatment. Results ofmany investiga-
tions showed that life style changes, such as awell-balanced
diet and physical exercise, may effectively prevent the oc-
currence ofmany diseases [Amagase & Farnsworth, 2011;
Amani & Gill, 2013; Batcagan-Abueg etal., 2013; Gramza-
-Michałowska et al., 2011; Gramza-Michałowska, 2014;
Marrazzo et al., 2014; Shashirakha et al., 2015]. Based on
thecurrent analysis of food, as well as clinical and epide-
miological research, scientists are searching for products
characterized by better health-promoting properties. Raw
materials that can be used for the production of properly
engineered food are also being investigated [Ahmad et al.,
2015; Hęś etal., 2011; Kmiecik etal., 2015]. Bioactive food
isan emerging fi eld inthecontext ofhealth andnutrition.
Many people andassociations have defi ned its importance.
However, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) has
proposed the most accurate defi nition of the bioactive in-
gredients of food: “Bioactive food components are physi-
ologically active constituents infoods or dietary supplements
derived from both animal andplant sources, including those
needed to meet basic human nutrition needs, that have been
demonstrated to have arole inhealth andto besafe for hu-
man consumption” [Saldanha, 2004]. Carotenoids, fl avo-
noids, isofl avones, phytoestrogens, sterols, stanols, vitamins
andchemical elements, fi ber, fatty acids, probiotics andpre-
biotics as well as bioactive peptides are constituents ofbioac-
* Corresponding Author: Tel.: +4861 8487331, Fax: +4861 8487430
E-mail: bartosz.kulczynski@up.poznan.pl (B.Kulczyński)
tive food [Guine etal., 2010; Milner, 2004; Hęś etal., 2011;
Reguła & Gramza-Michałowska, 2013; Sharma & Singh,
2010]. Research showed that bioactive compounds offood
origin may fulfi ll many health-promoting functions inthehu-
man organism [Astrup etal., 2010; Castro etal., 2005; Cho
et al., 2013; Kris-Etherton etal., 2002; Liu, 2013; Meydani
& Hasan, 2010; Moller etal., 2008; Morimoto et al., 2012;
Reguła & Gramza-Michałowska, 2010; Srinath & Katan,
2004]. They may lower cholesterol levels andblood pressure,
enhance theimmune system, regulate blood glucose levels
andhormonal balance, help inthereduction ofweight, slow
down theageing processes andcounteract cancer.
ORIGIN ANDDESCRIPTION OFGOJI FRUITS
Goji produces an ellipsoid orange-red berry approxi-
mately 2 cm deep with a sweet-and-tangy fl avor. The Goji
berry isthefruit ofL. barbarum and
L. chinense inthefamily
Solanaceae that ranges from tomato andpotato to eggplant.
Theauthor ofthespecies name, L. barbarum, was Carl Lin-
naeus in1753, whereas L. chinese was named 15years later
byPhilip Miller. Itisalso known as Chinese wolfberry, pos-
sibly because Chinese farmers observed wolves eating these
berries. L. barbarum andL. chinense are native to Asia, pri-
marily inthecentral north region called Ningxia Hui Autono-
mous Region. Inaddition, commercial volumes ofwolfberries
grow intheChinese regions ofXinjiang, Shaanxi, Gansu, He-
bei, Inner Mongolia, andalso inJapan, Korea, andTaiwan.
China, the main supplier of wolfberry, yields 95,000 tones
ofGoji fruits, derived from 82,000hectares. Goji berries have
been an important part oftraditional Chinese medicine for
more than 2000 years due to their rich chemical composi-
tion andmedical properties. As afood, dried wolfberries are
traditionally cooked before consumption, used as herbal tea,
Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum): Composition andHealth Effects – aReview
Bartosz Kulczyński*, Anna Gramza-Michałowska
Faculty ofFood Science andNutrition, Poznań University ofLife Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60–624Poznań, Poland
Key words: goji berries, Lycium barbarum, bioactive compounds, antioxidants, polyphenols, health benefi ts
Goji berries contain many nutrients andbioactive compounds which allowed to classify them as superfruits. Ashort description ofthefruits ispre-
sented together with cultivation requirements. Thechemical composition oftheberries andtheir health-promoting properties are described later inthis
literature review. Based on theavailable data, their potentially benefi cial application indietary prevention ofdiseases ofaffl uence, such as diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases andcancer, iselaborated. We also refer to thesafety ofGoji consumption inthecontext ofingredients potentially harmful for
human health, allergic reactions andtheinteractions with other substances.

0 Goji Berries inNutrition
as well as in Chinese soups, or in combination with meat
andvegetarian meals. Goji fruits are also used for thepro-
duction ofjuice, wine andtincture [Gross, 2006; Amagase &
Farnsworth, 2011; Benzie & Wachtel-Galor, 2011; Potterat,
2010]. Goji isaplant introduced to Europe inthe18th cen-
tury [Sopher, 2013]. L. barbarum prefers well-drained slightly
alkaline soils [Peaceful Valley Farm Supply, 2013], andsunny
locations. Germination temperature is21–23°C, whereas for
L. barbarum this is15–25°C andisresistant to low tempera-
tures, fi rst fruition however istypically observed in3-year-old
plants [Dominion Seed House, 2013; Marczyński & Pio-
trowski, 2013].
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OFGOJI BERRY
Goji berries are not without reason termed a“superfruit”.
Wolfberries contain many nutrients with high biological activ-
ity, such as polysaccharide complexes, carotenoids, phenyl-
propanoids andothers, as characterized below. Thepolysac-
charide complex isthemost important andthemost abundant
group ofcompounds present inGoji fruits. They are present
in the water-soluble form of highly branched L. barbarum
Polysaccharides (LBP) with amolecular weight of8–214kDa,
and comprise 5–8% of the
total dry matter of the fruits.
Their composition includes six types of monosaccharides:
arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, mannose, galactose, glucose,
galacturonic acid and eighteen amino acids [Amagase &
Farnsworth, 2011]. Research ofdos Reis etal. [2014] showed
that goji berries fermentation yielded 87% sugars decrease
within 24h, without losses inpolyphenol content, however
carotenoid content was reduced by17%. Carotenoids pres-
ent inGoji are thesecond highly signifi cant group ofbiolog-
ically-active constituents with health promoting properties.
They are responsible for thecharacteristic orange-red color
of the berries. They comprise 0.03–0.5% of the dry matter
ofthefruits (Table 1). Zeaxanthin isone ofthemost common
carotenoids present inGoji (31–56% ofthetotal carotenoid
pool). Itispresent intheform ofdipalmitin zeaxanthin. Goji
isconsidered thebest natural source ofdipalmitin zeaxanthin
known so far. Beta-carotene, neoxanthin, cryptoxanthin are
also present at lower concentrations [Peng etal., 2005; Wang
etal., 2010]. Phenylpropanoids are bioactive compounds with
avery high antioxidant capacity. Analysis oftheantioxidant
activity and phenylpropanoids in different medicinal Chi-
nese herbs has confi rmed thepresence ofthese constituents
inGoji berry at thelevel of22.7mg (gallic acid equivalent/g
extract) [Guo et al., 2008]. A comparison of the phenolic
profi le andvitamin C content ofGoji berry fruit ispresented
inTable2. Wang etal. [2010] isolated andmeasured thelev-
els ofindividual fl avonoid fractions. Themost common were
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, chlo-
rogenic acid, caffeic acids andsmall amounts ofcaffeoylquin-
ic acid andp-coumaric acid [Zhong etal. 2013]. Goji berries
contain 1.0–2.7% offree amino acids, with themost abun-
dant being proline. Thepresence oftaurine andbetaine has
also been confi rmed [Potterat, 2010]. Additional compounds
present inGoji fruits are: vitamins, such as thiamin, ribofl a-
vin, andascorbic acid with its glucosidic precursor (2-O-β-D-
-glucopyranosyl). Theconcentration ofvitamin C was found
at 42mg/100g [Donno et al., 2015]. Llorent-Martínez etal.
[2013] confi rmed the presence of many mineral elements,
themost common ofwhich were potassium (1460mg/100g),
sodium (550mg/100g), phosphorus (184mg/100g), magne-
sium (90g/100g) andcalcium (50mg/100g). Interestingly,
theiron concentration of5.5mg/100g ishigh inrespect to Di-
etary Reference Intake (DRI). Goji also contains organic ac-
ids, such as citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid andshikimic
acid [Mikulic-Petkovsek etal., 2012]. Themost common fatty
acids are: palmitic acid, linoleic acid andmyristic acid. Ac-
cording to literature, Goji berries provide 370kcal/100g dried
fruits [Gross, 2006].
HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES OF GOJI
BERRIES
Hypoglycemic properties
Many experiments have been performed inorder to un-
derstand how Goji acts on the way the body handles car-
bohydrates. Luo et al. [2004] have investigated thecorrela-
tion between supplementation with different polysaccharide
fractions of Goji fruit and the levels of glucose in blood.
Theeffects ofL. barbarum preparations inalloxan-induced
diabetic rabbits have been investigated bymeasuring ablood
glucose level. Decreased blood glucose levels (3.9mmol/L)
were recognized as substantial hypoglycemic effects. Results
oftheexperiment were unambiguous. Itwas found that all
Goji preparations resulted in signifi cantly decreased blood
glucose levels after 10days oftreatment inthetested animals,
indicating that there was asubstantial hypoglycemic effect.
Moreover, thehypoglycemic effect ofpurifi ed polysaccharide
fractions was more signifi cant than those ofwater decoction
andcrude polysaccharide fractions, implying that L. barbarum
polysaccharides were major bioactive components inthehy-
poglycemic effect. Guowen etal. [2010] performed asimilar
experiment andthe
results were propitious. Mice treated with
L. barbarum extracts were characterized bysignifi cantly re-
duced blood glucose levels compared to thediabetic control
group. Many experiments confi rm diabetes iscorrelated with
high oxidative stress. Hyperglycemia–induced oxidative stress
TABLE 1. Composition ofbioactive carotenoid fractions ingoji berries
(Lycium barbarum).
Compound
References
Wang etal. [2010] Inbaraj etal. [2008]
Carotenoid
fractions
13- or 13’-cis-β-carotene
(8.97mg/g), all-trans-
-β-carotene (16.6mg/g),
9- or 9’-cis-β-carotene
(10.3mg/g), neoxanthin
(13.2mg/g), all-trans-β-
cryptoxanthin (53.3mg/g),
9- or 9’-cis-β-
-cryptoxanthin (5.61mg/g),
9- or 9’-cis-zeaxanthin
(39.3mg/g), 13- or 13’-cis-
zeaxanthin (4.85mg/g),
15- or 15’–cis-zeaxanthin
(32.8mg/g), all-trans-
zeaxanthin (1326mg/g)
all-trans-zeaxanthin
(1.4μg/g), all-trans-β-
-carotene (23.7μg/g),
zeaxanthin monopalmitate
(11,3–62.8μg/g),
β-cryptoxanthin
monopalmitate
(32.9–68.5μg/g),
zeaxanthin dipalmitate
(1143.7μg/g)

B.Kulczyński & A.Gramza-Michałowska 0
may beimplied indiabetes onset. Theeffect ofL. barbarum
treatment on antioxidative protective mechanisms has been
investigated in streptomycin-induced diabetic rat kidneys.
Theantioxidative activity ofsuperoxide dismutase, catalase
andglutathione was signifi cantly increased after Goji poly-
saccharide fractions treatment. Moreover, free radical scav-
enging activity was also elevated [Li, 2007]. Another experi-
ment confi rmed theincreased activity ofantioxidant enzymes
in kidneys, lungs and liver of polysaccharide fractions-fed
mice. Moreover, thesame experiment revealed that animals
on high-fat diets supplemented with polysaccharide fractions
had statistically lower levels ofglucose, compared to mice on
high-fat diets only [Ming etal., 2009].
LIPID-LOWERING PROPERTIES INBLOOD
Theeffect ofpolysaccharide fractions supplemented high-
fat diet has been analyzed inmice inorder to evaluate its im-
pact on total cholesterol, its LDL andHDL fractions andtri-
glyceride levels. Mice administered polysaccharide fractions
supplemented high-fat diets were characterized bydecreased
concentrations oftotal cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol andtri-
glycerides and increased HDL-cholesterol concentrations
compared to mice on high-fat diets without polysaccharide
fractions [Li, 2007]. Cui et al. [2011] obtained identical re-
sults. Pai et al. [2013] performed similar experiments with
rats on high-fat diets. Two groups of animals were tested,
acontrol group (normal diet) andagroup on high-fat diets
supplemented with hypoglycemic drug-statin (Atorvastatin).
The results are consistent with previous
fi ndings. Polysac-
charide fractions supplementation caused adecrease intotal
cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol fraction and triglyceride con-
centration compared to therats on thecontrol high-fat diet.
Moreover, the polysaccharide fractions-supplemented rats
were characterized bystatistically lower triglyceride andsta-
tistically higher HDL-cholesterol concentrations compared to
theatorvastatin-treated rats [Pai etal., 2013]. Guowen etal.
[2010] performed an alternative analysis where the effect
ofthepolysaccharide fractions supplementation on thedia-
betic mice lipid profi le was evaluated. Thegroup ofanimals
supplemented with Goji extract had signifi cantly lower con-
centrations oftriglycerides andtotal cholesterol compared to
thediabetic control group. Zhao etal. [2005] obtained simi-
lar results confi rming thehypothesis that Goji polysaccharide
fractions supplementation has apositive effect on the lipid
profi le of rats through decreasing total cholesterol and tri-
glyceride concentrations. Luo et al. [2004] performed an
experiment with alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits andfound
that polysaccharide fractions supplementation resulted
inahypolipemic effect andasimultaneous increase in
HDL-
-cholesterol concentrations. Then, Cheng etal. [2011] investi-
gated changes inthelipid profi le ofpolysaccharide fractions-
supplemented rats with alcohol defects oftheliver andfound
much lower levels oftriglycerides, total cholesterol andLDL-
-cholesterol fraction, andasimultaneously increased HDL-
-cholesterol concentration.
TABLE 2. Phenolic profi le andvitamin C content ofGoji berry (Lycium barbarum) fruit.
Chemical compound
(mg/100g fw)
Donno etal. [2015]
(mg/g ext)
Wang etal. [2010]
(μg/g pm)
Mocan etal. [2014]
Cinnamic acids Caffeic acid 110.84 3.73 < 0.02
Chlorogenic acid 113.18 12.40 5899.29
Coumaric acid 111.32 6.06 30.29
Ferulic acid 125.80 n.e. < 0.02
Flavonols Hyperoside 116.27 n.e. n.e.
Isoquercitrin n.d. n.e. < 0.02
Quercetin n.d. n.e. 5.59
Quercetin-diglycoside – 66.00 n.e.
Quercitrin n.d. n.e. 13.00
Rutin n.d. 42.00 5646.66
Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside – 11.30 n.d.
Benzoic acids Ellagic acid n.d. n.e. n.e.
Gallic acid 15.31 n.e. n.e.
Catechins Catechin 118.76 n.e. n.e.
Epicatechin 229.18 n.e. n.e.
Ellagitannins Castalagin n.d. n.e. n.e.
Vescalagin n.d. n.e. n.e.
Vitamin Vitamin C 48.94
fw – fresh weight; ext – extract; pm – plant material; n.d. – not detected; n.e. – not evaluated

0 Goji Berries inNutrition
IMMUNOSTIMULATORY AND ANTICANCER
ACTIVITY
Traditional Chinese medicine has utilized compounds pres-
ent inGoji fruits to prevent theonset andprogression ofcancer.
Goji also exhibits immunostimulatory activity. Ithas been con-
fi rmed inmany tests that compounds present inGoji berries
have pro-apoptotic andantiproliferative activity against cancer
cells [Tang etal., 2012]. Gan etal. [2004] confi rmed that Goji
polysaccharide fractions could signifi cantly inhibit thegrowth
oftransplantable sarcoma inmice, moreover increased mac-
rophage phagocytosis andantibody secretion byspleen cells.
Furthermore, spleen lymphocyte proliferation was enhanced
in comparison with the affl icted control group. It was also
found that Goji polysaccharide fractions could signifi cantly
reduce lipid peroxidation in mice and inhibit proliferation
ofliver cancer cells [Zhang etal., 2005]. Mao etal. [2011] also
showed theanticancer properties ofpolysaccharide fractions.
They proved theanticancer effect ofL. barbarum polysaccha-
rides on colon cancer cells through G0/G1phase arrest. Zhu
& Zhang [2013] also confi rmed the antiproliferative activity
of
Goji polysaccharide fractions against HeLa cells, probably
through induction ofapoptosis. Zhang et al. [2011a,b] also
observed asimilar effect. They found that theanticancer effect
ofGoji berry was attributed to 2-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)
ascorbic acid. Goji fruits are also asource ofscopoletin. Ithas
been proven that scopoletin induces inhibition ofhuman pros-
tate cancer cell proliferation (PC-3) [Liu etal., 2000]. Amagase
with cooworkers [2009b] investigated theeffect ofGoji juice
on healthy Chinese adults. Lymphocyte, interleukin- 2 (IL-2)
andimmunoglobulin G levels inthetreated group were signifi -
cantly higher than those intheplacebo group. Gan etal. [2003]
observed activation oftheimmune system components through
the administration of a L. barbarum polysaccharide-protein
complex that increased theexpression ofinterleukin-2andtu-
mor necrosis factor-alpha at both mRNA and protein lev-
els in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Glycans
andglycoconjugates present inGoji exert astimulatory effect
on theexpression ofNF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-
enhancer ofactivated B cells) andtheactivator protein 1(AP-1)
[Peng et al., 2001]. Chen et al. [2008] confi rmed activation
NF-κB andAP-1through L. barbarum polysaccharides. They
claimed that isolated fractions ofLBP affected theproliferation
ofT cells andenhanced production ofInterleukin 2andInter-
feron gamma (IFNγ).
PROTECTIVE PROPERTY OF GOJI ON RETINA
CELLS
Aprotective property ofGoji extracts on retina cells has
been proved intheearly stage ofthedegeneration ofthereti-
na. Itis
proposed that absorbing thelight zeaxanthin andlu-
teolin present in Goji fruit displays an inhibitory effect on
neuron apoptosis [Ni etal., 2013]. Yu etal. [2013] proved that
bioactive compounds present inL. barbarum enhance theex-
pression of zeaxanthin and luteolin genes in diabetic mice.
Itispostulated that inhibited expression ofthese genes can
cause hyperglycemia. Thus, Goji berries display neuroprotec-
tive properties on adiabetic animal’s retina. Theneuroprotec-
tive effect ofpolysaccharide fractions on theretinal ganglion
cells (RGC) inrats with high intraocular pressure (IOP) also
contributes to theprevention ofglaucoma [Chiu etal., 2010].
Tang et al. [2011] and Hu et al. [2012] also confi rmed its
protective infl uence on diabetic retinal injury. Theprotective
property ofL. barbarum extract on human retina neuron cells
has also been demonstrated [Shen etal., 2012]. Itissuggested
that Goji extract containing taurine may inhibit theprogress
ofdiabetic retinopathy [Song etal., 2011].
FIGURE 1. ORAC values for antioxidant activity ofdifferent fruits
ORAC – Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity; H-ORAC – hydrophilic for water soluble antioxidants ORAC value; L-ORAC – lipophilic for lipid
soluble antioxidants ORAC value; TE – Trolox equivalents; compilation ofresults [USDA, 2010].
Orange
Grapefruit
Raspberries
Blueberry
Blackberry
Apple
Plum
Goji berry
Fruit
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
ORAC (μmol TE/100g)
TOTAL-ORAC L-ORAC H-ORAC

B.Kulczyński & A.Gramza-Michałowska 0
ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL
Chemical analysis ofGoji berry confi rmed its high anti-
oxidative activity. Based on the current analysis it was con-
cluded that L. barbarum displays scavenging activity against
free radicals (superoxide anion, hydroxyl radicals). Goji anti-
oxidative activity ismainly attributed to carotenoid pigments,
fl avonoids, polysaccharide fraction and vitamin analog –
C-2-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl) ascorbic acid [Guo et al.,
2008; Jiang, 2014; Li & Zhou, 2007; Lin et al., 2009; Wang
et al., 2010; Zhang etal., 2011a,b]. One ofthewidely used
markers ofantioxidant potential isORAC value (TheOxygen
Radical Absorbance Capacity) [Gramza-Michałowska & Kor-
czak, 2013]. ORAC offresh berries was found to besimilar to
cherry or red currant [USDA, 2010]. Acomparison ofORAC
values for the antioxidant activity of goji berries and other
fruits ispresented in Figure 1. ORAC assay results for fruits
represent its antioxidant value, not proportionally however for
thehuman body, because ofthebioactive compounds absorp-
tion and metabolism. The effect of L. barbarum extract on
theoxidative stress induced inliver ofrats on high-fat diets
was investigated. Changes in
theliver tissue levels ofmalondi-
aldehyde (MDA), glutathione, as well as activity ofantioxidant
enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase andglutathione per-
oxidase) andoxygen radical absorbance capacity were used as
biomarkers oftheprotective effect ofL. barbarum used as adi-
etary supplement. Thedecreased MDA level used as amarker
oflipid peroxidation was observed inanimals on high-fat di-
ets supplemented with L. barbarum. Furthermore, increased
concentrations ofglutathione andantioxidant enzyme activi-
ties were evaluated [Cui etal., 2011]. Theprotective effect of
L.barbarum extract on rats with alcohol-induced liver necrosis
was investigated byCheng & Kong [2011]. Results showed
that animals supplemented with Goji fruits extract exhibited
decreased activity ofalanine aminotransferase (ALT) andas-
partate transaminase (AST), biomarkers of liver damage.
Moreover, adecreased MDA concentration andasignifi cant
increase inantioxidant enzyme activity SOD, CAT, GPx andin-
creased glutathione levels characterized rats supplemented
with L. barbarum extract. Shan etal. [2011] analyzed theinfl u-
ence ofGoji fruit polysaccharides on oxidative stress induced
by physical activity. The L. barbarum supplemented-group
was characterized bya
decreased MDA content andhigher
levels ofSOD andGPX, which confi rmed protection against
oxidative stress caused byphysical activity. Li etal. [2007] per-
formed an interesting experiment on mice supplemented with
polysaccharide fraction andanalyzed oxidative stress caused
by ageing. They observed increased activity of endogenous
antioxidant systems (SOD, CAT, GSH-Px), decreased levels
oflipid peroxidation markers (MDA) andincreased total anti-
oxidative capacity intheorgans ofanimals (lungs, liver, heart,
andbrain) supplemented with polysaccharide fraction ofGoji
berries [Li et al., 2007]. Then, Xiao et al. [2012] confi rmed
that this fraction exhibited liver-protective properties against
thehepatotoxic oxidative stress inducer carbon tetrachloride.
Reduced liver necrosis rates, increased activity ofendogenous
antioxidant system, anddecreased lipid peroxidation expressed
as MDA level were measured. Responses ofhumans supple-
mented with Goji juice exhibited similar patterns (increased
activity ofantioxidant enzymes SOD andGSH-Px, andde-
creased lipid peroxidation) [Amagase et al., 2009a; Bucheli
etal. 2011]. Wu etal. [2004] confi rmed thescavenging activity
against superoxide anions andinhibition oflipid peroxidation.
Huang et al. [2001] also proved theantioxidative properties
of L. barbarum. They showed that glycoconjugates present
inGoji berries inhibit peroxidation ofLDL-cholesterol frac-
tion. Goji berries antioxidant capacity parameters evaluated
with several methods were presented inTable 3.
SAFETY ISSUES
Wolfberries have attracted rapidly growing attention for
their documented nutrient value, which has led to aprofusion
ofconsumer products. Goji products can bebought inhealth
food stores inEurope andNorth America, andare advertised
as natural mood boosters with anti-ageing properties. There-
ported health-promoting biological effects of L. barbarum
indeed justify theterm “superfruit”. While Goji berries have
many health benefi ts, there are some side effects that consum-
ers need to beaware of(thepresence oftoxic substances, risk
ofallergies andinteractions with other medications).
The controversially high content of atropine (0.95%),
a
toxic alkaloid naturally present in Goji fruit, was tested
in berries from India in 1989. However, published case re-
ports do not describe people who have experienced atropine
poisoning [Harsh, 1989]. Adams etal. [2006] carefully tested
atropine levels bymeans ofHPLC-PAD andTLC methods.
They were not able to detect atropine. Using HPLC-MS,
asmall amount ofatropine was found, with amaximum con-
tent of19ppb, well below atoxic level.
Allergic reactions to Goji berries rarely occur and only
afew cases have been described. Monzón Ballarín etal. [2011]
described thefi rst two cases ofpatients who experienced al-
lergic symptoms after Goji berry consumption. First woman
developed anaphylaxis after eating Goji berries, accompanied
byacute generalized urticaria on thehands, palms andlips,
edema, dyspnea, andacute rhinitis; andsecond who reported
generalized urticaria, severe pruritus andskin lesions (hives),
TABLE 3. Goji antioxidant capacity parameters evaluated with several
methods.
Refer ences TEAC FRAP DPPH TPC
Henning etal.
[2014]
2.7
[mmol
TE/100g]
0.9
[mmol
TE/100g]
1.4
[mmol
TE/100g]
–
Mocan etal.
[2014]
35.72
[μg TE/mg]
–
29.30
[μg QE/mg]
6159
[mg GAE/g]
dos Reis etal.
[2014]
–––
16.67
[mg GAE/g]
Medina
[2011]
–––
895
[mg
GAE/100g]
Donno etal.
[2015]
–––
268.35
[mg
GAE/100g]
TEAC – Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity; FRAP – Ferric Reduc-
ing Antioxidant Potential; DPPH – 2,2’-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; TPC
– Total Polyphenol Content; QE – Quercetin equivalents; TE – Trolox
equivalents; GAE – Gallic Acid Equivalents

0 Goji Berries inNutrition
angioedema, and dysphagia after Goji berry consumption.
Theskin prick tests were positive for Goji berry. Additional
tests confi rmed an allergy to Goji berries inboth cases. Lipid
transfer proteins (LTPs) seem to beinvolved inallergic sensi-
tization to L. barbarum berries, andresults have demonstrated
ahigh degree ofcross-reactivity between Goji berry andpeach
andtomato [Carnes etal., 2013; Larramendi etal., 2012].
Three published case reports have described patients who
experienced interactions between Goji berry andwarfarin, an
anticoagulant drug. An elevated International Normalized
Ratio (INR) was observed inpatients after drinking Goji tea
and juice, previously stabilized on anticoagulation therapy,
also increased bleeding from rectum andnose was observed
[Lam etal., 2001; Leung etal., 2008; Rivera etal., 2012]. Pos-
sible interactions between Goji andprescription medications
are still unknown, thus therisks ofwolfberries should betaken
into consideration inindividuals who take medications with
anarrow therapeutic index.
CONCLUSIONS
Goji berry is well-known in traditional Chinese medicine
andhas been utilized as an important element ofahealth-pro-
moting diet for hundreds ofyears. Recently, there has been rap-
idly growing attention surrounding wolfberries inthe
Western
world. Health food stores provide arich variety ofGoji products,
such as dried fruits, tea, beer, juice, sweets, musli andsupple-
ments [Potterat, 2010]. L. barbarum isaplant that could becul-
tivated inEurope. Themain aim ofthis review was to gather
andpresent state oftheart data regarding thehealth-promoting
properties ofGoji fruits. Goji berry isasource ofmany bioactive
compounds, characterized byhigh antioxidant potential. Goji
fruits with awide spectrum ofbiological effects have numerous
implied health effects. Wolfberry may be an effective supple-
ment inprophylaxis ofdiseases ofaffl uence, such as diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases andcancer. Goji isasafe food supple-
ment, free from toxins; however, it can cause allergies; thus,
therisks should betaken into consideration inindividuals with
food allergies, due to thehigh degree ofcross-reactivity between
wolfberry andpeach andtomato. On thegrounds ofharmful
herb-drug interactions that enhance drug performance, an an-
ticoagulation therapy (warfarin) isacontra-indication to use
Goji berry and
any product containing wolfberry. Themajority
ofpublished studies have used animal models inexperiments.
Theresults have been very optimistic andpromising. However,
additional research must bedone with agreater number ofex-
periments involving alarger number ofanimals, as well as ex-
periments involving human subjects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support by the UE Project no. PO IG
01.01.02.00–061/09 “Bioactive Food” isgreatly appreciated.
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Submitted: 3February 2015. Revised: 4May and31May 2015.
Accepted: 3June 2015. Published on-line: 1March 2016.