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Saving Languages. An Introduction to Language Revitalization
Abstract
Written not only for linguists and anthropologists, this book serves as a general reference guide to language revitalization for language activists and community members who believe they should ensure the future use of their languages, despite their predicted loss. Drawing extensively on case studies, it highlights the necessary background and central issues such as literacy, policy decisions, and allocation of resources. The volume’s primary goal is to provide the essential tools for a successful language revitalization program, setting and achieving realistic goals, and anticipating and resolving common obstacles.
... Indigenous languages worldwide are in a very fragile state with many of the languages considered to be endangered or critically endangered. Despite some of the oppositions suggesting that a lingua franca would be cost-effective, the proponents of language revitalisation have argued that the preservation of these languages is not only the 'right thing to do' but also in the best of the public interest in terms of providing a diversity of worldviews that enriches humanity (Crystal, 2000;Fishman, 1991;Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Harrison, 2007;Hinton & Hale, 2001;Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013). ...
... Despite Grenoble and Whaley's (2006) argument that 'an honest evaluation of most language revitalisation efforts to date will show that they have failed' (p. ix), many countries have made dedicated efforts to revitalise and preserve Indigenous languages. ...
... ix), many countries have made dedicated efforts to revitalise and preserve Indigenous languages. Often, these efforts rely on determined individuals (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006), as has been shown to be the case with the revitalisation of Hebrew (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Spolsky, 2004Spolsky, , 2018, the Māori language nest model (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Hinton & Hale, 2001), the Master-Apprentice Programme (Hinton & Hale, 2001) and Hawaiian revitalisation (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). It is worth mentioning that the Hawaiian case is particularly interesting. ...
Unpacking the possible ramification of how ownership of language and the responsibility of language revitalisation is perceived and how this may impact language revitalisation, this study uses a critical discourse studies approach to examine how the speakers negotiate their language ownership, which eventually leads to the question ‘who is responsible for language revitalisation’. The data of this study comes from semi‐structured interviews with 11 Indigenous participants in Taiwan. The findings suggest that, when deciding who can ‘do’ language revitalisation, only those who are deemed legitimate by the speakers have the power to act. However, the speakers view the non‐Indigenous speakers as potential speakers and, thus, were also assigned language revitalisation responsibility. Thus, by encouraging non‐Indigenous speakers to become speakers of an Indigenous language via language acquisition, language ownership is shared. This study shows the complexity of how the speakers negotiate language ownership and how this has an impact on language revitalisation efforts.
... This is also known as language attrition. Language attrition is the process of losing a native, or first, language (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). Grenoble and Whaley (2006, p. 17) adopted Campbell and Muntzel's taxonomy of language endangerment situations and listed four causes of language attrition. ...
... As biodiversity is the prerequisite for human existence, linguistic diversity can be viewed in the same way (Crystal, 2000;Skutnabb-Kangas 2013). For this reason, it is argued that preserving and revitalising endangered languages that are at a brink of extinction is the 'right thing' to do (Fishman, 1991;Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Harrison, 2007;Hinton & Hale, 2001;Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013). However, opponents of such arguments assert that linguistic diversity and biodiversity are not comparable. ...
... This approach recognises a language as a public good. While it can be argued that language revitalisation requires vast amounts of expert time and funds, the cost of language revitalisation may impact on other aspects of society, as language issues are often an index of other social agendas, such as economy, education, crime, poverty and so on (Fishman, 1991;Grenoble & Whaley 2006;Hinton & Hale, 2001). Therefore, the budgets for language revitalisation need to be weighed against other social revenues, compared to the cost of 'not having it'. ...
... Estas lenguas con menos de cien mil hablantes que corren el mayor riesgo de desaparecer representan el 82% de las lenguas del mundo (Ethnologue, 2009). Si la situación sociolingüística de estas lenguas no cambia, se considera que para finales del siglo XXI más del 50% de las lenguas del mundo desaparecerán del planeta (Krauss, 1992;Grenoble y Whaley, 2006;Romaine, 2007). Esta preocupación aumenta en vista de la aparente difusión actual, en la era de la globalización y tecnologías modernas, de unas pocas lenguas que representan el 4% de las lenguas del mundo. ...
... Revisando los factores expuestos encontramos que los estudios sobre la vitalidad del quechua tienden a centrarse en los factores demográficos (criterios 5, 6, 7 y 9, cuadro 1), así como en los esfuerzos institucionales (criterios 1, 2 y 3, cuadro 1), si los hubiere. Esta perspectiva enfatiza lo que llamamos las fuerzas desde arriba o fuerzas centrípetas que afectan la vitalidad de una lengua (o «fuerzas sociales», Grenoble y Whaley, 2006). Se refieren especialmente al estatus político de la lengua, su uso en instituciones del país, como el gobierno, la escuela, servicios sociales o los medios de comunicación masiva. ...
... 3. Dinámica sociolingüística:fuerzas desde abajo o centrífugas Grenoble y Whaley (2006) proponen que, en contextos de contacto de lenguas, los esfuerzos desde la base (grass-root ejforts) son imprescindibles para lograr cambios que lleven a la revitalización de una lengua originaria. Ellas entienden la revitalización y el reclamo de lo local como la emergencia de una nueva identidad que consiste en un ajuste a las nuevas circunstancias y contexto en las que la comunidad originaria participa, manteniendo una identidad propia, pero nueva. ...
El presente volumen ofrece trabajos acerca de lenguas pertenecientes a las familias lingüísticas quechua, aimara, uro-chipaya, cahuapana, arawak, jíbaro y pano, entre otras, además de estudios enfocados en el castellano andino.
... Tembang dolanan, as part of the oral tradition of the Madurese people, has great potential in efforts to revitalize the Madurese language [9,10]. Tembang dolanan are children's game songs that are rich in moral, ethical, and cultural values, including the concept of Andhap Asor, which teaches about humility and respect. ...
... The government, educational institutions, and local communities need to work together to integrate this approach into formal and non-formal curricula. As expressed by Grenoble & Whaley (2006), language revitalization requires the involvement of all components of society, including the use of digital technology to facilitate language preservation [23]. Digital media, such as online platforms that provide tembang dolanan content, can play a role in introducing local languages and cultures to the younger generation in this digital era. ...
This study aims to explore the role of tembang dolanan in the revitalization of the Madurese language through an ecolinguistic approach. Tembang dolanan, as part of local wisdom, not only serves as entertainment but also as an educational medium rich in cultural values, including Andhap Asor, which teaches humility and respect. Through an ecolinguistic analysis, this research reveals how tembang dolanan can function as an effective tool in preserving the Madurese language, which has experienced a decline in use among younger generations. The ecolinguistic approach allows this study to understand the interaction between language, culture, and the social environment in the Madurese context. The findings show that tembang dolanan not only helps in maintaining the language but also strengthens cultural identity and local values. The revitalization of the language through tembang dolanan is a strategic step in preserving linguistic and cultural diversity in Indonesia.
... Language immersion is an effective method for language revitalisation because it promotes the use of minority languages and language maintenance through expanding the contexts of language use in minority communities (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Harrison, 1998;Hinton, 2002Hinton, , 2011Olthuis, Kivelä & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013). Immersion and CLIL for second languages have already been implemented and well proven with good results in several countries, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Finland (Culligan, 2010;de Courcy & Burston, 2000;Jäppinen, 2005;Meaney et al., 2012). ...
... In these programmes, teaching second language is then integrated into the instruction of other subjects. In the context of minority language immersion, the language used in instruction is a local minority or heritage language, and immersion programmes has the goal of helping students to attain bilingual proficiency (Baker, 2001;Fortune & Tedick, 2008;Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Hinton, 2002). CLIL-oriented education has bilingual proficiency as a goal, too, and the language of instruction is also the second language that the students are learning alongside the content. ...
This article discusses mathematical and cultural task design to support minority and endangered languages and cultures. More precisely, we propose a theoretical framework to design mathematical tasks for language immersion in mathematics for Kven students. Drawing on previous studies, we suggest that traditional tools have the potential to support the learning of mathematics, language, and culture. One challenge for endangered languages and cultures is that the younger generations may have lost connections with their traditional language and culture. We argue that the older generations can mediate authentic aspects of Kven culture to students, which then become historical-cultural authentic (HiCuA) aspects.
... Deben entenderse en el contexto de situaciones de desplazamiento y minorización sociolingüísticas que a través de factores -psicológicos, socioculturales y comunicativo-estructurales-impactan a los hablantes y sus idiomas. Diversos teóricos del desplazamiento presentan ideas al respecto; por ejemplo, Grenoble y Whaley (2006) hablan de macro y micro factores del desplazamiento; Bradley y Bradley (2019) enumeran nueve componentes implicados en el fenómeno bajo la noción de escenario sociolingüístico; Thomason (2015) también presenta diversas variables intervinientes en el proceso de sustitución. En suma, los procesos de desplazamiento y minorización no son reductibles a un solo factor, más bien se trataría de un conjunto de variables encadenadas y sujetas a diversas esferas que afectan a una comunidad de hablantes y sus procesos de socialización lingüística. ...
... La reflexión no debe restringirse a las nociones de hablante nativo, competente, o hablante bilingüe (Espinoza, 2019;Espinoza, Olate y Catalán, 2022). Así como actualmente se discute la simplificación que se hace sobre la categoría de hablantes, también es necesario re-considerar la conceptualización que se ha desarrollado sobre el bilingüismo, entendido como una ideología que orienta el comportamiento, las actitudes y las representaciones que se conciben sobre las lenguas (Grenoble y Whaley, 2006;Grenoble, 2011;Rice, 2014;Thomason, 2015;Bradley y Bradley, 2019;Olko y Sallabank, 2021;Sasse, 1992). ...
The notion of speaker is discussed in this article based on the diversity presented in 11 sociolinguistic studies on the Mapuche language spoken in Chile, an example of heterogeneity that usually goes unnoticed in these research works. The perspective and conceptualization observed in these studies pay little attention to the types of speakers that exist in situations of sociolinguistic displacement. As a result, the category "speaker" is presented in a general way, not recognizing the displacement processes and the consequences over the formative aspect of different types of speakers, and the emergence of multilingual repertoires. From a content analysis exercise of 11 sociolinguistic works developed in Chile on the Mapuche language, a typology of speakers is evidenced, that emerges in situations of linguistic vulnerability. Finally, this work concludes with a reflection that proposes rethinking taxonomies from a perspective focused on the complexities of the historical sociolinguistic processes that a language goes through and the experiences of the speakers immersed in them. This paper aims to contribute to the discussion of this category in the context of the processes of sociolinguistic displacement experienced by Mapudungun and to the understanding of these processes and the difficulties and potential benefits they activate for the preservation and revitalization of the language.
... Language diversity is a critical element of human cultural heritage, embodying a vast range of knowledge, history, and identity (Harrison, 2007;Romaine, 2006). Unfortunately, some indigenous languages worldwide are approaching extinction due to language endangerment and a lack of resources (Grenoble & Whaley, 2005). The Chittagong Hill Tract area in Bangladesh is home to various indigenous communities that include the Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Mru, Bawm, Khumi, and Pankho ethnic groups. ...
... Austin's (2021) recent work also explores aspects of documentation processes as they relate to revitalization initiatives today. A critical factor remains accessible solutions, ensuring that resources supporting linguistic research remain accessible not only by researchers but also by impacted communities themselves, such as those involved with education or even native groups seeking higher levels of relevance (Grenoble & Whaley, 2005). ...
Protecting endangered indigenous languages from extinction due to multiple threats is one way to foster cultural diversity across regions. However, documenting these endangered languages with no access barriers has proven difficult. This research explores the language documentation accessibility efforts among indigenous populations living in the Chittagong Hill Tract region. Protecting these vulnerable languages through proper linguistic documentation practices remains essential. Therefore, the study aims at identifying and proposing practical strategies for increasing access while identifying possible barriers hindering their preservation efforts. The findings from this study will reveal technological infrastructure issues alongside socio-political factors that obstruct effective language documentation practices and recommend innovative best practices for previously unknown issues not identified before. During the investigation, the accessibility of digital technology for effective documentation practice is assessed again for improved inclusiveness that serves all relevant groups concerned. A community-driven approach should be encouraged for safeguarding vulnerable indigenous populations' cultures and promoting wider dissemination of inclusive practices recommended within and beyond the Chittagong Hill Tract region context.
... While it may be advantageous to be multilingual, with the existing superiority, one of the learned language will cease to exist soon if it continues to be neglected and devalued. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization or UNESCO lists around 43% of the world's languages as vulnerable and may cease to exist in the future; thus, suggests a call of initiative of any agencies and organizations that prioritize languages around ----------------the globe to take action or further strengthen their support especially that at least one language dies every four months [7], [11], [42], [53], [60], [16]. Hence, if it is not acted upon due time, at least half of the world's languages will die by the year 2100 [16], [8]. ...
... This circumstances may cause for a certain language a cease of use which will bring endangerment to the language in the long run [39]. Furthermore, language shift is part of our history and it happens everywhere in the world, and it is the cycle whereby individuals from a local area in which more than one language is spoken forsake their unique vernacular language for another particularly in language contact circumstances where individuals are faced with decisions about which language to use [42]. Cycles of globalization, urbanization, and economy, have prompted more interactions between people communicating in various dialects, and along these lines, there is a need of a common language for communications. ...
Multilingualism poses several issues around the world, and language preservation is a helpful tool to preserve endangered languages. This study aims at analyzing how multilingualism helps in the preservation of the Kamayo language in Surigao del Sur, Philippines despite language urbanization. The data were gathered generally through reviewing available literature and studies related to the study. The study finds out that multilingualism and language preservation interrelates as multilingualism plays a role in language preservation but with limitation as existing languages such as the Kamayo language, are still not prioritize to be used as the medium in the institutions in the community. The existence of multilingualism and its practices such as MTB-MLE in the educational setting helps provide opportunities for languages to be used, but a need for policy revision to give every language its rights to be used and enriched by its speakers for language development for the future generations.
... Un peuple dont la langue n'est plus parlée par ses membres n'a plus sa raison d'être et meurt. Nous en avons des exemples dans le monde entier (Crystal, 2000 ;Freeland, 2013 ;Grenoble et Whaley, 2006 ;Hagège, 2000 ;Krauss, 1991 ;McWhorter, 2003 ;Ostler, 2010). ...
... Revitaliser une langue est une tâche monumentale (Fishman, 1991(Fishman, , 2001Freeland, 2013 ;Grenoble et Whaley, 2006) qui implique de multiples facteurs et l'investissement de ressources importantes. Le modèle sociolinguistique de l'autonomie culturelle résume la prise en charge de ces facteurs à une synergie d'actions provenant de trois acteurs sensibilisés au même défi. ...
Notre article vise à déterminer les conditions nécessaires pour qu’une loi et des politiques linguistiques puissent avoir un effet réel sur la vitalité d’une minorité. L’article comprend trois parties. Premièrement, nous concluons que la Loi sur les langues officielles (LLO) a eu peu d’effet sur la vitalité des minorités de langue officielle. En deuxième partie, nous distinguons trois acteurs essentiels qui agissent sur la vitalité linguistique : la communauté d’intimité, la société civile de la minorité et l’État. De ces analyses, nous dégageons deux principes sociolinguistiques que toute législation linguistique devrait respecter si son objet est de favoriser la vitalité/revitalisation d’une minorité. Enfin, nous focalisons sur la partie VII de la LLO, la plus susceptible de favoriser la mise en oeuvre d’un aménagement linguistique planifié et global capable de respecter les deux principes sociolinguistiques, de coordonner une synergie d’action des acteurs essentiels et d’avoir un effet réel sur la vitalité des minorités.
... Moving away from the historical debate to the contemporary, it is important to state that language prestige is at the heart of determining the linguistic significance of any language (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). There are also factors such as the location of a speech community, whether rural or urban, issues of code-switching, the population of speakers and the economic base of the language (Landweer, 2001). ...
The sub-Saharan African region is quite infamous because of a number of quite disturbing issues, chief amongst them, poor governance, coup d’états, poverty, hunger, collapsing health facilities, political tensions, egocentric political culture, decreasing life expectancy, endemic corrup-tion, as well as greed that has fueled malicious practices like increasing child trafficking, rape and murder cases. A critical scrutiny at most of these problematics bedeviling the region demonstrates that poor gover-nance is quite central to most of them which makes the region an ideal case study for research on the role of language and communication in political transformation. The significance of language and communica-tion to political transformation seems to have been underestimated over the years in conversations about how the region can re-think new trans-formative pathways. However, this scenario has been recently challenged with the advent of new perspectives such as the Critical Language Policy (CLP) theory (Ricento, 2006). CLP is defined as a field within critical applied linguistics whose post-modern approach, according to Penny-cook (2006, p. 44), ‘focuses on establishing how governance is achieved through language’. In this regard, CLP considers language a critical aspect in governance, a position which supports the understanding that language is far from being just an empty code of communication but, rather, a force that determines how the entire world is administered. It is thus, appropriate to argue that most of the political challenges in sub-Saharan African countries today are entangled with language policies andpolitics of languaging that were inherited from colonial rule and main-tained by the black elite rulers, chiefly for political reasons. For instance, linguistic differences often result in political differences within the conti-nent at times even escalating into civil wars. In this regard, the proposed edited volume assesses the opportunities that language and communica-tion have for the transformation of governance within the sub-Saharan African region. The chapters focus on the significance of language policy and language use in ensuring proper governance (or dearth of the same) within the sub-Saharan African region. Efforts are made in the process to demonstrate how the governance-related challenges being experienced could be eliminated through language reforms. The arguments would be of interest to established and upcoming scholars, administrators, and linguistics, governance as well as politics and administration students in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond.
... Primarily, economic necessity serves as one of the predominant forces propelling language shifts toward dominant languages, as individuals often pursue "linguistic capital" (Bourdieu, 2003) pertinent to their specific contexts, operating under the assumption that adopting or transitioning to a dominant language can secure enhanced employment prospects and facilitate greater mobility. Consequently, numerous individuals forsake their native languages in favour of languages that are perceived as economically advantageous (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). ...
This study investigates endangered language preservation through three research questions: risk factors for endangerment, socio-cultural effects of language loss, and complexities in preservation and revitalisation. A qualitative systematic review underscores the cultural, historical and intellectual importance of endangered languages. It identifies globalisation, urbanisation, and dominant languages as key accelerators of linguistic endangerment. The findings indicate significant sociocultural consequences of language loss, notably the decline of cultural identity and heritage. The study concludes that community involvement, technological advancements, and supportive government policies are crucial to successful preservation, ensuring that at-risk languages are maintained and revitalised for future generations.
... Этим она отличается от сохранения языка (language maintenance), которое в таком контексте трактуется как сохранение численности носителей и числа языковых доменов. Относительно механизма, ревитализация почти всегда требует изменения отношения (со)общества к языку, в то время как сохранение направлено на защиту от навязывания сообществу внешних взглядов (Grenoble & Whaley, 2005). В стремлении перенести идеи языковой ревитализации на российскую почву исследователи часто забывают, что обязательным условием успешности ревитализации является благоприятная политическая среда и соответствующая языковая политика. ...
In recent years, “preservation of linguistic diversity” has been included as one of the goals of the state nationality policy. Efforts to preserve languages are undertaken both at the level of state policy “from above” and the practical activities of language activists “from below”. However, despite the official recognition of the problem of language loss and the rise of language activism, it has not yet been possible to achieve any noticeable results in solving the practical problem of preserving languages. In this article, I analyze the reasons for the ineffectiveness of these efforts and argue that obstacles exist not only at the level of practical activity, but also in applied research. Language policy practitioners implement language policy “from above,” but so far their work remains without solid scientific and conceptual grounds. In the world science at the moment there are two relevant research programs – research on language policy and research on language revitalization. In Russian science, at the theoretical level in the study of language, society and power an adequate interdisciplinary basis has not yet appeared, therefore, at the applied level, there is no high-quality scientific expertise in the field of policy for the preservation and development of Russian languages and their revitalization.
... Literature about language revitalisation in general (e.g. Grenoble & Whaley, 2006;Olko & Sallabank, 2021;Stebbins et al., 2017) and language revitalisation projects, in particular (e.g. Grinevald & Pivot, 2013;Junker, 2018;Quintrileo, 2019;Taylor et al. 2020), offers very little information about what identity entails in the context where those efforts occur. ...
... The use of indigenous forms of address as a means of preserving a language is extremely common and natural for interlocutors in their daily communication (Wardhaugh, 1992). Significantly, Grenoble and Whaley (2006) regard language preservation as the efforts and practices aimed at preserving and sustaining languages at risk of falling out of use. They further assert that this process is critical for safeguarding linguistic diversity and cultural heritage, especially for languages that face threats from dominant languages, globalisation, and socio-economic changes. ...
This sociolinguistic study explored the significance of language preservation through the use of indigenous forms of address by the Vhavenḓa in South Africa. Indigenous forms of address are integral to the language and cultural identity of a society. Furthermore, they are indispensable in the preservation of the language and culture of any society. Ignoring the use of these forms of address can lead to language shift or even extinction. This study utilised face-to-face semi-structured interviews to gather and analyse data. The researchers sampled 22 Tshivenḓa L1 participants, 14 youths, and eight elders. The study used the ethnopragmatic theory as its framework. This theory helped the researchers to understand the use of forms of address within the Tshivenḓa cultural scripts, such as cultural norms and values. The findings revealed that using forms of address is pivotal in preserving the Tshivenḓa language. The language will be preserved if lexical items, such as aa, nndaa, and mboloma, are used for greeting. The Vhavenḓa speech community is found in the Limpopo Province in South Africa; the term "Vhavenḓa" refers to people who speak Tshivenḓa, while Tshivenḓa refers to the language and culture of these people. The study recommends that Indigenous Tshivenḓa forms of address should be included in school syllabuses and aired on television and radio programmes. In this way, the Tshivenḓa language can be prevented from shifting or dying, as its disappearance may have dire consequences for its development as a language.
... Fishman (1991) introduces the concept of reversing language shift (RLS), offering strategies that can inform efforts to revitalize Petjo. Grenoble and Whaley (2006) provide case studies on language endangerment and revitalization, offering practical insights for community-based initiatives. Despite the existing literature, significant gaps remain in the documentation and analysis of Petjo. ...
This research focuses on the development of a comprehensive corpus for Petjo, a Dutch-Indonesian creole language spoken historically in the colonial era and still used in contemporary Indonesia. The corpus compilation involved collecting and digitizing written and textual sources to facilitate linguistic analysis and cultural preservation. Key linguistic features such as morphological simplification, flexible syntax, and a rich vocabulary blending Dutch and Indonesian elements were identified through POS tagging and syntactic analysis. The corpus serves as a valuable resource for further research in linguistics, language revitalization, and digital humanities, contributing to the understanding and documentation of Petjo's linguistic and cultural heritage.
... To bolster language revitalization efforts, individuals can actively incorporate the endangered language into their daily interactions. They can also champion this advocacy by participating in language classes and workshops, documenting oral traditions and stories, and engaging in cultural events that celebrate the language (Grenoble and Whaley 2006). Additionally, individuals can extend their support by advocating for the integration of endangered languages into educational curricula, collaborating with linguists and language experts for documentation and preservation initiatives, and raising awareness about the significance of preserving endangered languages within and beyond their communities (Hinton and Hale 2001). ...
The rise of machine learning and technology transforms how we engage with our past, present, and future expressions of the human experience. Digitization plays a crucial role in converting texts and even media objects into machine-readable formats, unlocking a treasure trove of possibilities. AI-powered object recognition, topic modeling, and even decolonizing methodologies have become accessible, allowing us to name and organize cultural artifacts with greater sensitivity to diverse perspectives (Cruz 2023).
Bridging the gap between machines and meaning is the true essence of digital humanities. As a space, digital humanities encourages critical reflection, ignites innovative exploration, and challenges traditional research methods. By harnessing the power of technology alongside the depth of humanistic inquiry, we can unlock new ways of understanding and appreciating the human experience. Thus, this paper encapsulates the collective insights derived from the four-day “Identities and Digital Humanities Workshop” by the University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Decolonial Studies Program (UP CIDS), which took place online on October 2–3 and 12–13, 2023.
The original copy of this discussion paper can be accessed here: https://cids.up.edu.ph/download/philippine-identities-digital-humanities/
... In many endangered language communities around the world, continuous hard work has been undertaken to document and revitalize their languages and cultures. For instance, traditional documentation and revitalization efforts include the development of writing systems, the production of dictionaries and grammars, publications and media productions, language classes and programs such as Language Nests (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006), and Master-Apprentice Language Learning Programs (MALLP; Hinton et al., 2018). ...
Current theoretical advances in applied linguistics have not yet found wide practical application in the field of language revitalization. In this paper, plans for an open source application for desktop computers and mobile devices for Indigenous language learning settings will be outlined. The app consists of building blocks inspired by cognitive linguistics and task-based language learning. Members of Indigenous language communities can use these to create exercises and assessment modules for their respective languages. In the paper, a mock-up with model exercises will be showcased to illustrate how certain aspects of the afore-mentioned theories can be applied. For example, vocabulary tasks are informed by insights from the analysis of collocations, connotations, frames, metaphors, prototypicality, and semantic relations.
... Language revival initiatives focus on promoting and revitalizing local languages in education and research [14]. This effort recognizes that language is a crucial medium for transmitting cultural knowledge and preserving indigenous wisdom [15]. ...
Colonial legacies have deeply shaped Africa's scientific and educational realms, imposing Western knowledge systems while marginalizing indigenous wisdom. The journey of decolonizing African science involves a profound recognition of this historical bias and the endeavor to restore indigenous knowledge to its rightful place. This article explores contemporary efforts, challenges, and future directions within this crucial mission. Contemporary Africa is witnessing a resurgence of interest in its indigenous knowledge systems, spanning agriculture, medicine, environment, and culture. Curriculum reforms are underway, aiming to weave indigenous knowledge into the educational fabric, nurturing cultural relevance. Indigenous knowledge centers have sprung up to systematically study and promote traditional wisdom. Language revival initiatives are bridging linguistic gaps, democratizing access to knowledge. Yet, formidable challenges persist, including limited resources, language barriers, resistance to change, and the hierarchical dominance of Western academia. International collaboration, community engagement, and ethical considerations remain pivotal. As Africa forges ahead in decolonizing its science and education, it paves the way for a harmonious coexistence of diverse knowledge systems, fostering innovation and empowerment.
... A partir de esta experiencia, es importante hacer alguna precisiones. Si bien no es interés de este artículo profundizar, a nivel conceptual, en la diferencia entre la rl y otro tipo de conceptos, como "preservación lingüística", es importante señalar una cuestión importante (Grenoble y Whaley, 2006). La rl es un proceso cuyo objetivo es el restablecimiento de la transmisión y uso de la lengua en contextos tradicionales y nuevos. ...
Fecha de recepción del artículo: mayo de 2020 Fecha de aceptación: octubre de 2020 Título del artículo en inglés: Language revitalization, planning and cultural management. Resumen Este artículo analiza cómo la revitalización lingüística (rl) es un campo de investigación de planificación del esta-tus en el que, junto con el desarrollo y el fortalecimiento de metodologías, se pueden generar procesos cultura-les locales sostenibles (agencia colectiva). Así, se parte de la premisa de que la rl no depende de la presencia de especialistas (investigaciones) y/o financiamiento de organizaciones públicas o privadas (dominios instituciona-les), sino del fortalecimiento de la base social desde las que emerge y se sostiene dicha iniciativa. La propuesta es reflexionar desde la "gestión cultural" y la política y planificación lingüística, la tarea de desarrollar políticas para la democracia cultural (Gattinger, 2011) y el establecimiento de diferentes fases de un proyecto cultural que fa-cilite la gestión y la continuidad de proyectos revitalizadores. Palabras clave: revitalización lingüística, planificación lingüística, planificación cultural y gestión cultural. Abstract This paper analyzes how language revitalization (lr) is a status planning research field in which, together with the development and strengthening of methodologies, sustainable local cultural processes (collective agency) can be generated. It starts with the premise that lr does not depend on the presence of specialists (researchers) or public financing, or private organizations (institutional domains), but on the strengthening of the social base from which these emerge and are sustained. The proposal reflects the "cultural management" and language policy and planning, the task of developing policies for cultural democracy (Gattinger, 2011) and the establishment of different phases of a cultural project that facilitates the management and continuity of revitalizing projects.
... Technology, despite not yet being fully dialogic in terms of cocreation of knowledge, was a means of interaction among language activists. Email lists and the like enabled platforms for sharing Indigenous innovations, aspirations, and concerns across different website groups (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). Technology connected language activists both within, across, and outside of Indigenous communities, fostered relationships across the globe, and was a crucial "key motivator in the sense they are 'not going it alone'" (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006, p. 190). ...
One common goal for Indigenous language revitalization (ILR) initiatives is to promote intergenerational language transmission and use at home. Could technology assist in ILR? This paper will illustrate and give examples of how technology in relation, or relational technology, can facilitate formal, informal, and self-directed/-determined forms of language learning and knowledge transmission (e.g., community-led apps, websites, and social media). These "transnational" forms can (1) assert nondominant heritage/ Indigenous voices, creations, maps, and "right[s] to speak" (Darwin & Norton, 2014) across nation-state boundaries, and (2) acknowledge the central role of local territory, community, and the land/environment (e.g., the Indigenous Knowledge Social Network [SIKU] app).
... Isa et al. (2014) stated that language death is when anyone no longer uses a language. Grenoble and Whaley (2005) also added that the key to success in implementing language conservation is community involvement. Therefore, language conservation needs to be done so that the Balinese language still has its speakers and can be passed down to a new generation. ...
Satyeng Berati dance is a traditional dance from Bali with many lexicons to identify and document. But over time, several lexicons are rarely used when doing dance practice. It has the possibility of language extinction because the number of speakers of that language has decreased. The purpose of this study is to document the lexicons in the Satyeng Berati dance, especially the cultural meanings of the lexicons in movement. This study is designed in the form of descriptive qualitative research. Data collection is done through observation and interviews. Based on the results of the study, it was found that there were thirty-one lexicons in the Satyeng Berati dance movements. The lexicons are divided into six, namely, the lexicon on eye movements (four lexicons), neck movements (one lexicon), body movements (twelve lexicons), hand movements (seven lexicons), finger movements (two lexicons), and foot movements (five lexicons). The thirty-one movements are nyeledet kanan, nyeledet kiri, ngelier kanan, ngelier kiri, ngegenjet leher, ngelung bulan kanan, ngelung bulan kiri, ngotag pala, ngeseh, ngelo, sleag-sleog kanan, sleag-sleog kiri, agem kanan, agem kiri, ngegol kanan, ngegol kiri, teisik, nagastru, luk nerudut, nabdab petitis, mentang laras, nyalud, ngukel, luk ngelimat, jeriring, ulap-ulap, gandang arep, milpil, nyeregseg kanan, nyeregseg kiri, and ngelikas. These lexicons have their cultural meaning, which is certainly different from other traditional dances. The documentation activity on the lexicon in the Satyeng Berati dance is one of the efforts to preserve the local language to avoid language death.Keywords: Lexicons, cultural meaning, movements, Satyeng Berati dance
... There is a lot of previous research on children in endangered language situations worldwide, highlighting the importance of environmental support and attitudes towards language revival, including in Indigenous language contexts (Dorian 1994;Fishman 1991;Grenoble and Whaley 2005;Hinton 2001;Hornberger 2006;Outakoski 2015;Pasanen 2015;Reyhner 1999). Previous literature indicates that young children are often viewed as "becomings" rather than as "beings" within their communities. ...
... Language vitality refers to the condition in which a language is still used by its speech community for various functions (Meyerhoff, 2006). A language is considered to have vitality if it is used as a medium to connect among the community (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). It is also stated that vitality refers to the ability of a language to accommodate and perform various functions and purposes (Candrasari & Nurmaida, 2018). ...
PurposeThere have been many studies on local languages in Indonesia. However, the study that focuses on Banten Sundanese Language, henceforth is BSL, seems to have not been widely studied, especially its idiomatic phrases. To reach the gaps, this present study aims to explore in-depth investigations about (1) the form of idiomatic phrases in BSL; (2) the use of idiomatic phrases among BSL speakers; and (3) the efforts to preserve the idiomatic phrases in BSL.Method
To solve the problems, Pandeglang Regency in Banten Province was selected as the locus, and it involved 27 informants who were justified and snowballed. The method used in this research was a case study, with observation, interviews, and documentation as data collecting techniques.Results/findingsThe findings show there are 94 idiomatic phrases in BSL, and most of the informants (63%) claim that the phrases are limited in use.Conclusion
It concludes that real works are emerged in collecting and preserving the BSL phrases through: (a) using BSL as a colloquial language; (b) applying BSL as a compulsory course at both primary and secondary schools; (3) encouraging the regulations to rule the use of BSL among the speakers; (4) publishing BSL dictionary and other literatures; and (5) controlling the use of gadgets, smartphones, and other technological media for the children.
... An endangered language is a language that is in danger of extinction, and the phenomenon is called language endangerment (Tsunoda, 2006;Sallabank, 2010). Language endangerment happens when the language speakers abandon their indigenous language and prefer to use another language, which is more dominant socially or economically, instead (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006). That process of acquiring a new language by a community that replaces the community's first language is known as a language shift (Richards et al., 1986). ...
This article aims to describe the function of the Awig-awig (AA) of Tenganan Village as the primary basis for regulating the activities of the people of Tenganan Village, especially in nature conservation. Several research questions are the main focus of this research, namely 1) what are the unique lexicons contained in AA, especially the rules regarding nature conservation? 2) are these regulations still applicable in Tenganan Village? 3) How high does the younger generation master those lexicons? 4) What efforts have been made by Tengan residents to preserve the lexicon so the younger generation can still understand it? The methodological approach taken is field research using the deep interview method to collect data. The eesearcher also distributed questionnaires to measure the level of understanding of the younger generation. There are 100 respondents involved in this process. Then, the data was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Based on the research results, there are two significant results. First, it was found 17 unique lexicons regulate nature conservation that residents of Tenganan Village must understand. Second, mastery of the lexicon varies based on age, gender, education level, and region of origin. In addition, these rules are still applicable until now. It is evidenced by the natural state, which is still well preserved. Unfortunately, the residents’ efforts to encourage the younger generation to understand this lexicon are still lacking. If this condition is not resolved immediately, the AA of Tenganan Village will only be sustainable among the elders and will become extinct when the elders are gone.
... Almost all of the interviewed respondents are implementing their own language preservation projects, often going beyond their official workplace duties. 9. Growing interest in the Nenets language and culture in recent years, mainly through participation in public events and actions. ...
The article presents the results of a sociological study conducted in 2022 in the city of Naryan-Mar, as well as in the villages of Nelmin Nos and Krasnoe of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Based on the results of interviews with specialists and experts in the field of the Nenets language, working in education and culture, as well as in the relevant executive authorities of the Okrug, conclusions about the preservation of the Nenets language in the region were made. Particular attention is paid to the respondents’ per-ceptions of such aspects of the language situation as the use of the Nenets language by different population groups in various spheres of life, intergenerational transmission, the presence of the language in public space and on the Internet, and the motivation of the population to learn and use the language. The study resulted in recommendations for the preservation of the Nenets language in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, taking into account the linguistic situation in the region, as well as Russian and foreign practices for the preservation of small languages. The following are proposed as priority areas of work: (1) organizing systematic work to preserve and improve the status of the Nenets language in the Okrug; (2) supporting workplaces, initiatives, organizations and individuals involved in the preservation of language and culture; (3) creating an attractive language environment, especially in the digital sphere (the Internet), with a focus on primary school children; (4) supporting communities, especially reindeer herding communities and agricultural production cooperatives, where the language is used and its intergenerational transmission is maintained.
Postcolonial politics has retained Accra’s position as a hub of cosmopolitanism, which challenges Ghana's rhetoric of decentralization. The city continues to attract migrants, particularly of Akan descent, who have leveraged their demographic strength, resource endowment and entrepreneurial skills to dominate the media space. This has also been routinized by the strategic opening up of the media by the state, which has tended to benefit the Akan, whose presence in the corridors of power has continued since colonial times. The situation is such that the various languages within the Akan, particularly the Asante Twi, have routinized the dominance of the Akan culture over the Ga culture. The Akan linguistic dominance in the city has created discontent among the Ga political elites and traditional authorities, which at times has fostered ethnic politics at the national level. Considering the complexities and potentially devastating impact of ethnic polarity on building a socially constructed postcolonial country, this chapter seeks to answer the question: To what extent can the media serve as a channel for fostering cultural plurality and social conviviality for the flourishing of humanity? The chapter reflects on and responds to this question by providing contextual and socio-historical analyses as a means of rationalizing a need for affirmative action for the Ga language. Admittedly, while linguistic affirmative action cannot be relied on as an enduring solution, it would encourage a renewed interest in the study of the Ga language in Ghana’s elementary schools and set the pace for equitable cultural representation in the country’s contemporary media space. In a situation where public language policy and planning are called for, the chapter argues for supportive public language policy, such as acquisition planning in favor of Ga.
This article highlights the translator's crucial role in the revitalisation of the severely endangered FinlandSwedish Sign Language (FinSSL). By giving voice to professional translators, filling in lexical gaps in FinSSL as part of the translation task, we discuss the concept of “Language Making” in relation to language revitalisation. The data of the study comprises interviews with two translators responsible for translating official information by authorities in Finland from Swedish into FinSSL. The translators taking part in the study identify areas where lexical gaps occur and draw on different resources for filling in gaps. When filling in lexical gaps, the translators use both written Swedish and Finnish Sign Language as well as Swedish Sign Language and Finnish, thus showing a flexible view of linguistic borders not commonly recognised in Translation Studies (cf. Kuusi et al. 2022). Besides resources such as using dictionaries and contacting peers, the community of signers are given a normative role in the choice of signs for filling in gaps. In addition to a professional responsibility for the translation, the translators show moral responsibility in relation to the audience of the translation and in mediating information to the FinSSL community. However, they do not explicitly express a responsibility for the development of the language itself.
This chapter addresses the relationship between the Márku-Sámi and the Márku (an inland area on the Norwegian side of Sápmi) through the lenses of the Márkomeannu festival, an annual event held at Gállogieddi (Stuornjárga, Norwegian side of Sápmi) since the early 2000s. Unlike previous festival editions, Márkomeannu-2018 was organized around a “festival plot” which merged fiction and reality by setting the festival 100 years in the future. This narrative device, a Sámi articulation of Indigenous Futurism, offers important insights into Sámi youth’s concerns over the ramifications of climate change, Indigenous sovereignty, and cultural survival and acknowledgment. Implemented through site-specific art and a participative theater performance, the festival plot also functioned as a programmatic statement concerning the position of the Márku in the symbolic geography of Sápmi by affirming the centrality of Gállogieddi—the farmstead-cum-museum where Márkomeannu is held—in contemporary Sámi and Nordic societies.
In this article, I emphasize the importance of maintaining and transmitting indigenous languages to the next generations, and I explore the motivations and difficulties of indigenous language speakers to do so when living far away from their native language community. The article is an autoethnographic analysis that amplifies the insider’s perspective and reflects on my own thoughts, perceptions, and emotional reactions regarding my language use practices. Specifically, I analyze the use of the Udmurt language with my children and the process of writing a blog in Udmurt. As a researcher of the Udmurt language, I use my previous sociolinguistic studies in the analysis and place it within the broader context of indigenous peoples from Russia. Indigenous languages often involve the use of multiple languages simultaneously, including language mixing, which is entirely natural. In societies with a monolingual language ideology, such practices are seen as signs of linguistic incompetence, leading to feelings of shame or inferiority among indigenous speakers. This negatively impacts the preservation of indigenous languages. Raising sociolinguistic and emotional awareness about how indigenous languages function and sharing personal experiences, including negative ones, can help overcome these challenges.
In the paper we define, elaborate and illustrate what language documentation is, firstly by focusing on the global context where the large number of vanishing languages warrants such an approach in applied linguistics, and then by narrowing our scope to the local context of the Republic of Serbia, which itself has a certain number of endangered and vulnerable languages and language varieties. Indicating the discrepancy between official records found in world catalogues and databases (UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, Ethnologue, and The Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat)) and the situation in the field as described by researchers familiar with the local context, we investigate the experiences of a team of researchers currently working on documenting Aromanian, Banat Bulgarian, Vojvodina Rusyn (Ruthenian), Judezmo (Ladino), Romani (Gurbet and Arli varieties), Megleno-Romanian and Romanian (Bayash and Vlach varieties) as endangered and vulnerable languages and language varieties in Serbia. Using interviews as a method for collecting data, conveying the researchers’ experiences in the field and their ways of dealing with various issues that come up in the process of language documentation, we have singled out two broad fields of topics. The first one tackles methodological challenges encountered prior and during field work, whereas the second focuses on ethical issues that necessarily must be resolved due to the participation of human subjects. In terms of the first group of topics, we have focused on research design (considerations involved in the project preparation), sampling (usually relying on researchers’ previous experiences more than on official records), personal involvement (often inevitable, but researchers do present strategies that help them maintain objectivity), and establishing first contact and recruiting informants (which also relies on previous work in the community). As for the second group of topics, that concerns ethical issue, the researchers have discussed the ways of getting informants’ consent for research and how they explain the importance of language documentation for that particular community and its members. Additionally, it addresses the issue of compensation that sometimes occurs, where informants expect either material or other kind of reward for helping out the research team. The paper also discusses how researchers deal with various sensitive topics that may range from personal issues to political opinions, and finally, the ethical responsibility that the researchers have towards the community they are studying in terms of giving something back and providing a sustainable relationship towards the language in question. We conclude by positioning the process of language documentation in the wider field of social studies, indicating its importance not only for sociolinguistics but also for the sociology of language, sociology of ethnicity and other related disciplines.
Plain Language Summary
The purpose of the study was to assess the vitality and challenges facing the Cantonese language in Ipoh, Malaysia, a community where Cantonese has been traditionally spoken. The study used a variety of factors to assess the vitality of Cantonese, including language transmission, the number and proportion of speakers, domains of language use, government support, and community attitudes. The study found that while Cantonese has strong adaptability to new media and high-quality documentation, the lack of intergenerational transmission, decreasing proportion of speakers, and limited government support have made the language unsafe and endangered. The implications of the study are that immediate action is needed to protect the Cantonese language and promote its importance to younger generations. Encouraging intergenerational language transmission, increasing the proportion of speakers, and providing more government support for the language are essential to preserve its vitality. The study’s limitations include a small sample size and self-reported fluency levels, which may have resulted in variability in scores on language tests. The study also did not investigate the impact of digital media and technology on Cantonese use and learning. Further research is needed to provide a more nuanced understanding of the vitality and challenges of Cantonese in Ipoh and beyond, and to develop innovative approaches to language revitalization.
Current research on language revitalisation through education has highlighted the impact of the standard language ideology on minoritised language practices. This ideology is intertwined with emerging literacy practices in language revitalisation, leading to debates on what to teach minority language students, and how. The paper argues that language education is as much about the language standard, as it is about the sociolinguistic voices that are raised in the language revitalisation classroom. Some heteroglossic voices become authorised as a language that is worth writing in when educators derive their authority from two sources: anonymity and authenticity [Woolard, K. A. (2016). Singular and plural: Ideologies of linguistic authority in 21st century Catalonia. Oxford University Press]. The analysis shows how anonymous and authentic voices are authorised within a literacy-based language educational programme in North-East Romanian Moldavia; the programme has evolved in the context of the regional Hungarian – often called Csángó – language revitalisation. The authorisation of voices has profound implications for the specific purpose of language education and the content of language classes, its methodology and its desired long-term consequences. By bringing together Woolard's concept of linguistic authority and sociolinguistic voice, the analysis suggests that authorising voice is crucial in understanding emerging literacy practices of language revitalisation through education.
تعتبر اللغة المهرية من اللغات التي بقيت تصارع الزمن مع أخواتها الخمس من اللغات العربية الجنوبية الحديثة او ما يعرف بالإنجليزية Modern South Arabian Languages (MSAL) (وهي السقطرية والجبالية او"الشحرية" والهوبيوتية والحرسوسية والبطحرية)، والمنحدرة أصلا من عائلة اللغات السامية المتفرعة عن عائلة اللغات الإفرو-آسيوية الكبيرة، وهذه اللغات يتحدث بها اقوام في جنوب شبه الجزيرة العربية، لكنها جميعها تصارع من أجل البقاء. وتعتبر اللغة المهرية، وهي كبرى هذه اللغات من حيث رقعة انتشارها وعدد متحدثيها، من أعرق اللغات وأقدمها، حيث تنتشر على رقعة واسعة في شرق اليمن(المهرة) وغرب عمان(ظفار) وجنوب السعودية (جنوب صحراء الربع الخالي).
تواجه اللغة المهرية خطر الفناء بنهاية القرن الحالي، وذلك لعدة أسباب شأنها شأن 50% من لغات العالم البالغ عددها سبعة آلاف لغة وفق أطلس لغات العالم المهددة بالفناء الصادر عن اليونسكو (موسيلي 2010). يعتبر توثيق لغات العالم المهددة بالفناء، ومنها المهرية بالطبع، من المهام الاساسية للحفاظ على هذه اللغات من الانقراض بل إنه تحد كبير ضمن مهام انقاذها والابقاء عليها حية. حيث يعود الفضل في بدايات التوثيق للغة المهرية واخواتها الى جهود الاوربيين وأولهم هو الضابط البريطاني في البحرية، جيمس ويلستد عام 1834 م، ثم تلته بعد مدة طويلة البعثات العلمية اللغوية الاوروبية الى الجنوب العربي، وكانت أولها تلك البعثة النمساوية في العام 1889 م، والمكونة من ثلاثة من اللغويين المتخصصين، والتي تعد نقطة تحول في دراسات اللغات العربية الجنوبية الحديثة. ثم تلاحقت الدراسات كدراسات جونستون 1975 م وما بعدها، وتركيزه على المهرية بالذات. تلت ذلك دراسات سيمون-سنيل ورفاقها الفرنسيين للمهرية مع بدايات الثمانينيات من القرن المنصرم، وغيرها من الاعمال حتى وقتنا هذا.
يسلط البحث الضوء على أهمية الحفاظ على المهرية من خلال التركيز على تكاتف الجهود الرسمية وغير الرسمية ،ومنها اللغوية والاجتماعية وغيرها، فيما يعرف في علم اللغة وعلم اللغة الاجتماعي تحديدا بالتخطيط اللغوي والسياسة اللغوية للمحافظة على اللغة المهرية من الاندثار، حيث يتم من خلال دعم المختصين في علم اللغة وعلم اللغة الاجتماعي وغيرها من العلوم ذات الصلة لوضع آليات علمية للحفاظ على المهرية من خلال تعزيز دورها في حياة المجتمع اللغوي هذا، وحتى في مناهج تعليمها للأجيال وتخصيص حصص لتدريسها لأبناء المهرة في المدارس الابتدائية وغيرها من الاجراءات الرسمية، وضمان تناقلها بين الاجيال القادمة بما يحفظ وجودها كلغة حية مزدهرة بين لغات العالم.
Amidst globalization and the Fourth Industrial Revolution, indigenous language preservation and promotion gain paramount significance. These languages encapsulate rich cultural, historical, and ecological value, embodying unique knowledge systems and identities. Nevertheless, challenges stemming from historical, social, resource, and institutional constraints impede preservation, with digital media technology thus emerging as a pivotal tool in this endeavour. This paper meticulously explores the role of digital media technology in indigenous language preservation during the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Through a comprehensive review of reputable literature, including scholarly articles, case studies, and expert insights, the paper underscores the imperative of language preservation, delving into the obstacles hindering preservation efforts and spotlighting the pivotal role of digital media technology in rejuvenating indigenous languages. The paper also examines various digital tools and applications that facilitate preservation, emphasizing their accessibility and engagement , while also underscoring the importance of collabo-rative efforts involving indigenous communities, linguists, and technology experts. Ethical considerations, encompassing intellectual property rights and informed consent, are of paramount importance in indigenous language preservation , and thus this paper also consolidates insights derived from the findings and provides recommendations for effective preservation strategies, underlining the necessity of ethical guidelines and emphasizing the indispensable role of government support. The study concludes by addressing prospects and challenges in indigenous language preservation , providing a comprehensive view of safeguarding linguistic heritage in the digital age.
The role of bilingual institutions is crucial in developing bilingualism. The study proposes a performance management system to find out how one of the key cultural institutions in the ethnically mixed area – the Central Library Srečko Vilhar Koper – implements the special rights of members of the Italian national community in terms of the library’s operations and activities. The research method applied was case study. The descriptive method was used in the analysis of the research problem and research data. The analysis involved a set of five factors, and the success achieved by each factor was scored. The results suggest that the library properly implements institutional bilingualism. Nevertheless, there is still room for improvement to achieve a full implementation of bilingualism.
One of the most fundamental issues in sociolinguistics today is the growing number of moribund languages that need urgent attention regarding their revitalisation. While there are many language communities that have succeeded in implementing effective language planning strategies, there are still languages that are severely endangered and in need of further support. The present paper examines the current situation of the Norman language. Norman is a severely endangered language. For the last four years, Norman authorities have been implementing various initiatives involving promotion and documentation of the language. The results of the surveys conducted for the purpose of writing this paper allow conclusions to be formed, regarding the attitudes and commitment shared in the Norman-speaking community.
This study uses a qualitative approach that focuses on analyzing greeting expressions used by the Pancana community. The location of this research is Watumobote Village, Kapontori District, Buton Regency. The research data obtained is spoken language, which is then transcribed. Data was collected using interview and observation methods. The results of the study show that the commonly used forms of addressing in the Pancana language consist of several forms that are adapted to kinships, such as a) Addressing in family relations, b) Addressing in society, c) Addressing in an official setting, and d) Addressing due to uniqueness or certain characteristics. The addressing system in the Pancana language is used according to several considerations, namely the position of the speaker and the interlocutor, the gender of the speaker and the interlocutor, the age of the speaker and the interlocutor, kinship, and the speaker’s situation. Addressing in the Pancana language can occur either directly or indirectly.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of current research in African languages, drawing on insights from anthropological linguistics, typology, historical and comparative linguistics, and sociolinguistics. Africa is believed to host at least one-third of the world’s languages, usually classified into four phyla—Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan—which are then subdivided into further families and subgroupings. This volume explores all aspects of research in the field, beginning with chapters that cover the major domains of grammar and comparative approaches. Later parts provide overviews of the phyla and subfamilies, alongside grammatical sketches of eighteen representative African languages of diverse genetic affiliation. The volume additionally explores multiple other topics relating to African languages and linguistics, with a particular focus on extralinguistic issues: language, cognition, and culture, including color terminology and conversation analysis; language and society, including language contact and endangerment; language and history; and language and orature.
La lectoescritura en lengua indígena ha sido usada para aumentar su prestigio y construir un registro duradero, así como medio de aprendizaje de la lengua, mientras que en español facilita el éxito académico y el acceso al trabajo. En el mundo globalizado y urbano, permite la participación, el diálogo social y el disenso. Es necesario generar procesos de aprendizaje de literacidad que no signifiquen el debilitamiento de las lenguas indígenas ni de su oralidad. El objetivo fue formular participativamente recomendaciones para la enseñanza de la lectoescritura en lengua wounmeu (ISO 639-3 noa) y en español acordes con la visión de mundo wounaan, con el fin orientar la toma de decisiones en la construcción del Proyecto Educativo Comunitario y la planificación lingüística en literacidad en el escenario urbano. Para esto, se exploran las posturas sobre la literacidad en las comunidades indígenas y se presentan el proyecto, las prácticas lingüísticas de la comunidad, la explicación de las recomendaciones, un balance del proceso y las conclusiones.
В статье на материале данных, полученных в результате проведения социолингвистических обследований в чувашской и марийской диаспорах Московского региона, рассматриваются языковые практики представителей этнических групп, проживающих в условиях внутренней диаспоры, демонстрирующих высокий уровень языковой лояльности и стремление сохранить этнический язык в качестве одного из ключевых маркеров этнической идентичности. Тем не менее уровень языковой лояльности респондентов не коррелирует со степенью сохранности языка, о чем свидетельствует низкая межпоколенческая передача этнического языка в выборках. Задача по трансмиссии языка детям закрепляется представителями диаспоры за этнической деревней. Особое место в работе отводится анализу языковых идеологий, лежащих в основе подобных языковых практик, и описанию механизма (не)передачи этнического языка, характерного для исследуемых сообществ в условиях города. Наиболее устойчивыми представляются идеология легитимности (аутентичности), «приковывающая» язык к определенной местности, в пределах которой проживают традиционные носители, и идеология анонимности, распространенная в урбанизированной среде и де факто предполагающая, независимо от этнической принадлежности говорящего, использование русского языка в качестве немаркированной лингвистической и социальной нормы. Определяющее значение в процессе непередачи этнического языка в диаспорной среде имеют стереотипы, устоявшиеся представления и убеждения в отношении изучаемых языков, а также отрицательный и травмирующий опыт, прослеживаемый в языковых биографиях опрошенных. Результаты обследований позволяют получить представление о языковой ситуации в чувашской и марийской деревне в диахронии и синхронии и свидетельствуют о том, что этническая деревня в настоящее время не способна справиться с возложенной на нее ранее задачей по бесперебойной трансмиссии языка, поскольку языковой сдвиг затронул и традиционные компактные места проживания данных этнических групп. Автором делается вывод о необходимости пересмотра существующих в диаспорной среде языковых практик в целях выработки новых и более эффективных стратегий по передаче этнического языка, предполагающих – в случае представителей диаспоры – сознательную корректировку актуальных моделей речевого поведения в деревне, а также осознание собственной меры ответственности за передачу языка будущему поколению.
The article is based on the data obtained through sociolinguistic research in the Chuvash and Mari diasporas in the Moscow region. It examines the linguistic practices of representatives of ethnic groups living in the internal diaspora. These show a high level of linguistic loyalty and a desire to preserve their ethnic language as one of the main features of ethnic identity. Nevertheless, the respondents' linguistic loyalty level does not correlate with the level of language maintenance, as shown by the low level of intergenerational transmission of the ethnic language in the samples. Passing the language on the children is transferred from the diaspora representatives to the ethnic village. Special attention is paid in this paper to the analysis of the language ideologies underlying such practices and to the description of the mechanism of (non)transmission of the ethnic language characteristic of these communities living in urban environments. These are an ideology of legitimacy (authenticity), which confines the language to a specific area where traditional speakers live, and an ideology of anonymity, which is widespread in urban spaces and de facto presupposes the use of Russian as an unmarked linguistic and social norm, regardless of the identity of the speakers. Stereotypes, deeply rooted beliefs, attitudes towards the respective languages, and negative and traumatic experiences traced in the linguistic biographies of the respondents are crucial to ethnic language maintenance in the internal diaspora. The results of the survey provide a comprehensive picture of the language situation in Chuvash and Mari villages in diachrony and synchronicity and show that the ethnic village is currently unable to cope with the task of uninterrupted language transmission, as the village itself, which is considered the traditional compact place of residence of these ethnic groups, is affected by the language shift. The author concludes that there is an urgent need to revise existing language practices in the diaspora in order to develop new and more effective strategies for ethnic language transmission. This requires – in the case of the representatives of the internal diaspora – a conscious adaptation of their current language practices in the village, as well as a growing awareness of their own responsibility for the transmission of their ethnic language to the future generation.
The reason behind Canada's choice of a multicultural policy as a significant identification of its national identity remains a mysterious enigma. The focus of this paper will be on how Canadian ethno-racial minorities, especially Asian-Canadians, would question the Canadian multiculturalism in their literary narratives like the novelists, Joy Kogawa, Hiromi Goto and Gurjinder Basran. As a matter of fact, the characters of Kogawa's Obasan, Goto's Chorus of Mushrooms and Basran's Everything Was Good-Bye, go beyond the fact of being a part of literary imagination to encouraging the reader to revisit the efficiency of the Canadian multicultural system in the real world. They are unable to tell if this multiculturalism really guarantees them the right to be culturally different and at the same time to be regarded as Canadian citizens. On the one hand, this system encourages the cultural diversity of the ethnic Other and this is viewed by minorities as an act of segregation sending them back to their ethnic Otherness. On the other hand, it tends to assimilate them within the mainstream culture, which is taken by racial groups as an attempt to erase their racial origins. Thus, the reader of Asian-Canadian literature finds him/herself as confused as the Asian diaspora studied.
Nawat, the highly endangered indigenous language of El Salvador, is undergoing a revitalization process. This dissertation, conceived within this context, focuses on the second-language (L2) acquisition of features of Nawat pronunciation by learners who have Salvadoran Spanish as their first language (L1). Specifically, I assess the acquisition of one Nawat segmental feature and one prosodic feature through their production by L2 learners: 1) the Nawat velar stop phoneme /ɡ/, which has different allophones according to its surrounding sounds, and 2) Nawat utterance-final vowel glottalization, that is, the production of utterance-final vowels with increased constriction of the vocal folds to signal the end of an utterance. The goals of this dissertation are: 1) to explore whether L2 Nawat learners become more proficient in the production of these Nawat features as their years of Nawat study increase, 2) to identify the linguistic contexts in which the productions of these Nawat features by L2 learners differ the most from L1 Nawat speakers, and 3) to assess whether the progress in the L2 acquisition of these Nawat features is equally linear or if one aspect is more difficult to learn than the other.
For this purpose, a total of 21 L2 Nawat learners were recorded performing a reading task in Nawat and Spanish designed to elicit the sounds of interest in different contexts. A control group consisting of five L1 Nawat speakers were also recorded performing open-ended interviews and a picture description task to serve as a baseline. I find that, overall, L2 Nawat learners become more proficient in the production of Nawat /ɡ/ as their years of study increase. However, there are contexts in which productions of Nawat /ɡ/ by L2 learners and L1 speakers consistently diverge, namely, when word-initial /ɡ/ is in the post-lateral position and when word-medial /ɡ/ is in the post-approximant, post-lateral, and post-obstruent contexts. I argue that these differences are the result of L1 transfer and hypercorrection.
As for the L2 acquisition of Nawat utterance-final vowel glottalization, progress is observed but, unlike Nawat /ɡ/, even the most advanced learners do not produce Nawat utterance-final vowels at rates comparable to L1 speakers. In fact, most Nawat utterance-final vowels produced by L2 learners show weakened voicing rather than glottalization, which I interpret as L1 transfer. Thus, an asymmetry in the acquisition of these features of Nawat pronunciation is identified, which I attribute to the inherent complexity of prosody, the perceived similarity between the L1 and L2 sound systems, frequency, and the Nawat input received by L2 learners. This dissertation highlights the need to inform the Nawat teaching curricula to focus on the production and perception of utterance-final vowel glottalization and develop more effective pedagogical materials and practices to teach them.
En este artículo se revisan 22 investigaciones sociolingüísticas sobre la lengua mapuche desarrolladas en Chile, con el propósito de dar cuenta de los ámbitos del desplazamiento y los factores sociolingüísticos a los que estos estudios otorgan mayor atención. Para lograr esta tarea, se propone una discusión teórica sobre el fenómeno del desplazamiento sociolingüístico, las dimensiones y los factores que lo activan, luego, con la ayuda del programa Atlas.ti, se clasifican diversas proposiciones y unidades textuales contenedoras de categorías y subcategorías que integran distintas dimensiones del desplazamiento y de los procesos sociolingüísticos por los que atraviesa la lengua. Se concluye con reflexiones referidas a los vacíos en torno al estudio sociolingüístico del mapudungun en el contexto de los procesos de mantención y/o desplazamiento. Palabras clave: desplazamiento sociolingüístico, ámbitos y factores del desplazamiento, sociolingüística mapuche
The aim of this chapter is to provide an account of the movement to develop Roman script orthographies for African languages. The first part traces the history of this movement from its origins in the early nineteenth century to the development of the Unicode standard in the twenty-first century. Each stage includes an assessment, noting which initiatives have stood the test of time and which have been discarded. The second part draws attention to five of the most challenging issues facing contemporary orthography developers, which are identified as under-representation of vowels, grammatical tone marking, dialect issues, cross-border issues, and smartphone adaptations. These are illustrated with cases studies from DR Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Niger, Benin and Togo.
This paper compares the language ideologies expressed in two monologues from speakers of Barayin, a Chadic language spoken by about 6000 people in the Guera region of Chad. Both speakers express an essentialist conceptualization of their language in which an authentic use of the language is linked to ethnic identity. However, one speaker rejects the need for literacy in Barayin, while the other argues for literacy to help the younger generation maintain their vital link to the language.
This article seeks to evaluate the level and type of changes in Sesotho as a result of language contact in multilingual Gwanda South, Zimbabwe. It will indicate choices that speech communities have and reasons for specific language preferences. It looks at the multilingual situation in Gwanda South and the language choices that the community is free or forced to make. It seeks to indicate how language contact could result in language shifts in supposed multilingual communities that could be affected by other languages appearing and being used for essential social, political, religious, and administrative purposes. Survey data reveals that Gwanda South has the following languages: Sesotho, Ndebele, Chi-Jahunda, Venda, and English. Sesotho is the home language while Ndebele has come through administrators and its being the original national language for Matabeleland South. Chi-Jahunda is a primary/ indigenous variety for Gwanda South. Attention is centered on the apparent move from the home language to other varieties that have moved into the district over time. The main worry is the apparent demise of the home language due to both internal and external forces. While there might be a high level of retention of the language in the home domain, the use of languages that are spoken by the few combined with English as the official language tends to interfere with the retention and continued use of Sesotho. This suggests that language contact leads to a shift influenced by a speaker’s inability to preserve their mother language by switching to dominant languages as mediums at home and school once such languages have been learned and mastered.
« Les principaux objectifs des programmes d’immersion réciproque sont d’aider les deux groupes d’élèves à atteindre des niveaux supérieurs de compétence académique et bilingue, de développer l’estime de soi et de promouvoir des attitudes interculturelles positives. » L’enseignement bilingue est considéré comme une approche efficace pour apprendre une langue étrangère. Mais il existe presque autant de manières de l’appliquer qu’il existe de projets dans le monde. L’immersion réciproque est un type de dispositif particulier puisqu’il prévoit un enseignement en deux langues pour des classes composées d’élèves de deux communautés linguistiques distingues. Il en résulte des modalités intéressantes, comme la possibilité d’apprendre par les pairs, et des enjeux didactiques spécifiques, notamment liés à la présence des deux langues dans et en dehors de la classe. Cet ouvrage tente d’éclairer non seulement la question de l’efficacité d’un tel dispositif pour le développement des ressources linguistiques et disciplinaires (en l’occurrence, en mathématiques) des élèves, mais aussi la question d’une didactique spécifique à l’enseignement bilingue, en particulier à l’immersion réciproque.
Certain concerns pertaining to documentation of endangered, minoritized and the lesser known languages are evocative of doubts and interventions by the participating audience reflective of a social condition, which marked a contraction of our zone of sensitivity, verging on derision and suspicion. It resonates with the “cynical opening” of the story concerning the “bandwagon syndrome.”
Reading in early years plays a crucial role in learning programs since it is fundamental for all other subjects and paves a way to successful school attainments. Challenges in reading faced by EALD (English as an additional language/dialect) learners are undeniable and cannot afford to be overlooked. However, very little research has been documented with regard to culture-related factors that contribute to EALD learners’ unsatisfactory reading performance in a dominant school setting. This chapter explains why and how I chose Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital as a conceptual framework, highlighting the gaps in previous studies that have applied the concept of cultural capital while acknowledging the significant contributions made by the previous scholars in developing the concept.KeywordsReadingCultural capitalConceptual frameworkDominant school settings
This article advocates for representing grammatical tone diacritically in orthographies.
The work of the linguist Charles A. Ferguson spans more than three decades, and is remarkable for having been consistently at the forefront of scholarship on the relationship between language and society. This volume collects his most influential and seminal papers, each having expanded the parameters of sociolinguistics and the sociology of language. Taken together, they cover a wide range of topics and issues, and, more importantly, reflect the intellectual progress of a founder of the sociolinguistic field. The volume is divided thematically into four sections, and an introduction by Thom Huebner outlines the evolution of Ferguson's ideas and the impact they have had on other scholars. This book is essential reading for everyone interested in the field of sociolinguistics.
This book provides an overview of the issues surrounding language loss. It brings together work by theoretical linguists, field linguists, and non-linguist members of minority communities to provide an integrated view of how language is lost, from sociological and economic as well as from linguistic perspectives. The contributions to the volume fall into four categories. The chapters by Dorian and Grenoble and Whaley provide an overview of language endangerment. Grinevald, England, Jacobs, and Nora and Richard Dauenhauer describe the situation confronting threatened languages from both a linguistic and sociological perspective. The understudied issue of what (beyond a linguistic system) can be lost as a language ceases to be spoken is addressed by Mithun, Hale, Jocks, and Woodbury. In the last section, Kapanga, Myers-Scotton, and Vakhtin consider the linguistic processes which underlie language attrition.
This book provides an overview of the issues surrounding language loss. It brings together work by theoretical linguists, field linguists, and non-linguist members of minority communities to provide an integrated view of how language is lost, from sociological and economic as well as from linguistic perspectives. The contributions to the volume fall into four categories. The chapters by Dorian and Grenoble and Whaley provide an overview of language endangerment. Grinevald, England, Jacobs, and Nora and Richard Dauenhauer describe the situation confronting threatened languages from both a linguistic and sociological perspective. The understudied issue of what (beyond a linguistic system) can be lost as a language ceases to be spoken is addressed by Mithun, Hale, Jocks, and Woodbury. In the last section, Kapanga, Myers-Scotton, and Vakhtin consider the linguistic processes which underlie language attrition.
This book provides an overview of the issues surrounding language loss. It brings together work by theoretical linguists, field linguists, and non-linguist members of minority communities to provide an integrated view of how language is lost, from sociological and economic as well as from linguistic perspectives. The contributions to the volume fall into four categories. The chapters by Dorian and Grenoble and Whaley provide an overview of language endangerment. Grinevald, England, Jacobs, and Nora and Richard Dauenhauer describe the situation confronting threatened languages from both a linguistic and sociological perspective. The understudied issue of what (beyond a linguistic system) can be lost as a language ceases to be spoken is addressed by Mithun, Hale, Jocks, and Woodbury. In the last section, Kapanga, Myers-Scotton, and Vakhtin consider the linguistic processes which underlie language attrition.
This book provides an overview of the issues surrounding language loss. It brings together work by theoretical linguists, field linguists, and non-linguist members of minority communities to provide an integrated view of how language is lost, from sociological and economic as well as from linguistic perspectives. The contributions to the volume fall into four categories. The chapters by Dorian and Grenoble and Whaley provide an overview of language endangerment. Grinevald, England, Jacobs, and Nora and Richard Dauenhauer describe the situation confronting threatened languages from both a linguistic and sociological perspective. The understudied issue of what (beyond a linguistic system) can be lost as a language ceases to be spoken is addressed by Mithun, Hale, Jocks, and Woodbury. In the last section, Kapanga, Myers-Scotton, and Vakhtin consider the linguistic processes which underlie language attrition.
This paper addresses the impact of information technology (IT) and the World Wide Web (WWW) on the 21st century and the challenges which we will face as responsible members of a dynamically changing society. Reviewing the spread of potentially alienating technology, the paper highlights the implications for change with reference to the “haves” and the “have nots” — developing societies, economically disadvantaged groups, women and children. The authors argue that organisational, sociological and cultural factors may inhibit an effective transformation to a global Information Society. Particular consideration is given to policies, infrastructure, human resources and development responsibilities in developing societies.
Over the past several years, there has been a focus on literacy in the native American languages of the Northwest Territories, Canada. I have been involved in a committee that is concerned with the development of orthographic conventions for one of the languages of the Athapaskan family in the Northwest Territories. This language, defined largely on geographical and political grounds rather than on linguistic grounds, is usually called North Slavey or Dene.1In this paper, I discuss a process that is part of the development of literacy for North Slavey, a process that is designed to lead to orthography standardization.
Recently, a new vision has emerged in Latin America that challenges conventional, top-down approaches to Latin American Indian problem. It builds on the positive qualities of indigenous cultures and societies, including a strong sense of ethnic identity, close attachments to specific landscapes and territories, a sophisticated knowledge of natural resources and the environment, and the capacity to collectively mobilize labor, capital, and other resources. Currently, several programs are under way that promote the idea of a new partnership among the international agencies, governments and nongovernmental organizations for purposes of promoting indigenous development. -from Authors
The Tamil language has had its current standard written form since the 13th century; but because of increasing diglossia, spoken Tamil dialects have now diverged so radically from earlier norms, including the written standard (LT, or Literary Tamil) that no spoken dialect, regional or social, can func-tion as the koiné or lingua franca. Because LT is never used for authentic informal oral communication between live speakers, there has always been a need for some sort of spoken "standard" koine for inter-dialect communication. Aside from interpersonal communication, one hears this inter-dialect koine most clearly in the so-called "social" film, which arose out of its antecedent, the popular or "social" drama. Conversational portions of novels and short stories also exhibit spoken forms, though not always as clearly "phonetic" as a phonetician might expect. The goal of this paper is to examine the concept of "language standardization" as it has been applied to other languages, focusing on the role of literacy and writing in this process; then to present evidence for, as well as the sources of, koinéization of "Standard Spoken Tamil"; and then to determine whether SST is in fact an emergent standard, given the challenges of literacy and writing. (Standardization, Tamil, diglossia, linguae francae, koinés).
This paper examines the question of what constitutes a good writing system. I have taken it as given that some writing systems are better than others. This question could certainly be debated. The opposite position would be that all writing systems are equally good for all languages, that it simply makes no difference which writing system is used. As far as I know, very few people have held this position, either academics or lay people. Consider the presence of proposed spelling reforms for English, the recent character simplifications of China, and the considerable thought that is often given to establishing an orthography for a previously unwritten language. All these are clear testimony to the fact that people generally feel that some writing systems are better than others. (Berry, 1977;Justeson, 1988;Sampson, 1985;Winter, 1983)
Introduction PART I: THE ORIGINS OF CONFLICT 1. The Question of Origins 2. Religions and Language 3. A Multilingual World 4. Ideologists of Superiority PART II: THE BATTLEFIELD 5. Lingua Francas and Vernaculars 6. The Family as a Battlefield 7. Markets and Languages 8. Lingua Francas 9. The Death of Languages PART III: AMONG THE ADMINISTRATORS 10. Language Policy and Planning: First Approach 11. Case Studies: The Management of Multilingualism 12. Case Studies: Language Planning and Nationalism 13. Case Study: The Language Struggle of the Jivaro of Ecuador 14. The War of Writing 15. The War of Words 16. Trench Warfare: The Case of French 17. The Pacifist Illusion and Esperanto Conclusion
