Article

Azolla-Anabaena association and its significance in supportable agriculture. Hacettepe

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... It is available in both tropical and temperate regions. An AzollaAnabena combination is perfect for the rice cultivation because of its property of faster multiplication and nitrogen fixation [49] Azolla are environment and competition friendly for the nutrition and photosynthesis with the plants of rice. These types of biological organism provided around 1.52.0 million tonnes of nitrogen for the productivity of crop in India whereas 3.3-4.4 million tonnes of urea will be required for the same productivity of crop. ...
... The Azolla is very popular as a manure among the farmers of China and Vietnam. They reported Azolla as mini factory of nitrogen fertilizer [49]. In India, The Azolla was popularized by the singh and his co-workers [48]. ...
... The advantage of application of Azolla in the field of rice are as following [49] Application of Azolla at the rate of 10-12 tones/hectare resulted in the increase of soil nitrogen up to 5060 kg/ha and reduced the requirement of 30-35 kg of nitrogen fertilizer. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Bio-fertilizers are the formulations containing living organism that are used for different purposes such as in increasing soil fertility and crop productivity. Bio-fertilizers are environment-friendly, so they do not pose any harm to the environment or to the health of the human beings whereas chemical fertilizers are non-environment-friendly. Current strategies which are in regular practice for the management of soil involve chemical fertilizers and this is because of the rising of burden on the agricultural land for the production of food crops. The use of different microorganism as a biofertilizer become increasing in the sector of agriculture and forestry because of their various advantages. Different type of microorganisms which are used as a biofertilizers are as follows: Fixer of nitrogen, solubilizer of phosphorous and potassium, rhizobacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi etc. but these biofertilizers also be used in appropriate quantity because the long-term exposure of these fertilizers also create problems. Now a days, government also making efforts for the commercialization of bio fertilizers so that people came to know that there is a better alternative to chemical fertilizers available in the market. So, this chapter basically deals with the sustainable use of different types of biofertilizers and their method of application. Biofertilizers are also reported with some limitations so, this motivates us to find some new technologies or microorganisms which are more suitable in terms of limitations and application and for that there is a need of active participation in the different science and developmental programmes which are conducted all over the India for the betterment of society and agricultural practices.
... The dorsal lobe has the green or purple colour with a central cavity that houses the symbiotic Anabaena azollae. The ventral lobe is relatively thin and mainly stays partially immersed in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al., 2012). The optimal target crop for applying Azolla is lowland rice on account of the similarity of their reuired environmental conditions, where areas with plenty of water such as swamps, streams, lakes and other small water bodies are the suitable environment of Azolla. ...
... Therefore, the flodded habitat of lowland rice is a suitable environment for Azolla to grow in. The global species of Azolla are: A. pinnata, A. filiculoides, A. rubra, A. microphylla, A. imbricate and A. caroliniana and all these contain the Anabaena association (Giller 2001;Raja et al., 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
The challenge of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) for preserving the environment and increase the food production is one of the main challenges in the agricultural sector to face climate change impact. This challenge encourages the world for maximaizing the mineral fertilizers' efficiency with the less utilized amount. This paper aims to evalualte the efficacy of Azolla on vegetative growth, fruit quality, yield and storability in zucchini with utilizing different rates of mineral fertilizers. The experiment was carried out in the experimental farm of Dokki site for Protected Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Giza, Egypt, during two successive seasons of 2022 and 2023. Three different treatments of mineral fertilizers were applied on zucchini (Cucurbita pepo), which represented 100, 75 and 50% of the recommended dose of NPK. The applied fertilizer treatments were represented once with Azolla (soil addition at rate 5g/plant) and once without. The best vegetative and fruit properties, nutritional status of plants and yield of Zucchini were revealed by the recommended dose of mineral fertilizers (100%). The treated soil with Azolla indicated significant higher measurements such as growth, NPK content of plants, yield and properties of zucchini fruits compared with the untreated soil plants. The highest yield was recorded with the recommended mineral fertilizer dose and the treated soil with Azolla. The less mineral fertilizer treatment (75% of the recommended dose) with the treated soil of Azolla had achieved higher nutrient content, physical and chemical properties than using the recommended dose of mineral fertilizer without Azolla, however the recommended dose of mineral fertilizer without Azolla showed higher yield and fruit quality higher the 75% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla. The highest nutrient use efficiency was performed with Azolla treatment and 50% of mineral fertilizer. The highest revenue and net profit appeared by 100% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla, but with low to insignificant difference between the same fertilization dose with non-Azolla addition. While 75% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla showed a high revenue and net profit with a significant difference (close to double) between the same fertilization dose with non-Azolla addition.
... The dorsal lobe has the green or purple colour with a central cavity that houses the symbiotic Anabaena azollae. The ventral lobe is relatively thin and mainly stays partially immersed in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al., 2012). The optimal target crop for applying Azolla is lowland rice on account of the similarity of their reuired environmental conditions, where areas with plenty of water such as swamps, streams, lakes and other small water bodies are the suitable environment of Azolla. ...
... Therefore, the flodded habitat of lowland rice is a suitable environment for Azolla to grow in. The global species of Azolla are: A. pinnata, A. filiculoides, A. rubra, A. microphylla, A. imbricate and A. caroliniana and all these contain the Anabaena association (Giller 2001;Raja et al., 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
The challenge of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) for preserving the environment and increase the food production is one of the main challenges in the agricultural sector to face climate change impact. This challenge encourages the world for maximaizing the mineral fertilizers' efficiency with the less utilized amount. This paper aims to evalualte the efficacy of Azolla on vegetative growth, fruit quality, yield and storability in zucchini with utilizing different rates of mineral fertilizers. The experiment was carried out in the experimental farm of Dokki site for Protected Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Giza, Egypt, during two successive seasons of 2022 and 2023. Three different treatments of mineral fertilizers were applied on zucchini (Cucurbita pepo), which represented 100, 75 and 50% of the recommended dose of NPK. The applied fertilizer treatments were represented once with Azolla (soil addition at rate 5g/plant) and once without. The best vegetative and fruit properties, nutritional status of plants and yield of Zucchini were revealed by the recommended dose of mineral fertilizers (100%). The treated soil with Azolla indicated significant higher measurements such as growth, NPK content of plants, yield and properties of zucchini fruits compared with the untreated soil plants. The highest yield was recorded with the recommended mineral fertilizer dose and the treated soil with Azolla. The less mineral fertilizer treatment (75% of the recommended dose) with the treated soil of Azolla had achieved higher nutrient content, physical and chemical properties than using the recommended dose of mineral fertilizer without Azolla, however the recommended dose of mineral fertilizer without Azolla showed higher yield and fruit quality higher the 75% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla. The highest nutrient use efficiency was performed with Azolla treatment and 50% of mineral fertilizer. The highest revenue and net profit appeared by 100% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla, but with low to insignificant difference between the same fertilization dose with non-Azolla addition. While 75% mineral fertilizers with adding Azolla showed a high revenue and net profit with a significant difference (close to double) between the same fertilization dose with non-Azolla addition.
... Azolla can flourish well in flooded rice fieldsthus, it is also extensively used as a most suitable bio-fertilizer for the rice fields to improve the nitrogen content within few weeks of its incorporation (Bhuvaneshwari and Singh, 2015). Azolla biomass can be used in rice fields as partial or complete replacement of synthetic fertilizers because of its ability to provide 1.5-2.0 million tons of nitrogen whereas the requirement of urea for same amount of crop production is 3.3-4.0 million tons (Raja et al., 2012). Along with the supply of nitrogen, Azolla also decreases the soil pH and water temperature, inhibit NH3 volatization, and prevents weeds and mosquito prolification (Pabby et al., 2004). ...
... Azollais a free water fern widespread on tropic and subtropic and warm temperate regions (Raja et al., 2012). The delicate, small triangular or polygonal shaped plants grows luxuriantly in ditches, fresh water and paddy fields (Yadav et al., 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
Azolla is a free-floating water fern which in symbiotic association with cyanobacterium Anabaena azollaefixes the atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen fixing ability of cyanobacterialsymbiont varies between 30 and 60 kg N ha−1 which designates Azolla as an important biological nitrogen source for rice ecosystem. Inoculation of Azolla is an alternative and sustainable source of nitrogen to increase the rice productivity and it also can decrease the use of synthetic fertilizer. A number of past researches prove that Azolla has been used as apotential biofertilizer for rice production. Azolla is either incorporated in the soil before rice transplanting or grown as a dual crop along with rice. The objective of this paper is to provide a brief account of importance as well as developments in the utilization of Azolla-Anabaena system in agriculture, mainly rice production. KEYWORDS Azolla, nitrogen,Anabaena azolla,rice crop.
... The dorsal lobe is green or purple in colour and has a central cavity which houses the symbiotic blue-green alga Anabaena azollae. The ventral lobe is relatively thin and always remains partially submerged in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al., 2012). The worldwide distribution of Azolla is represented by following six recognizable species: Azolla pinnata, A. filiculoides, A. rubra, A. microphylla, A. imbricate and A. caroliniana and all these contain the Anabaena azollae association (Raja et al., 2012). ...
... The ventral lobe is relatively thin and always remains partially submerged in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al., 2012). The worldwide distribution of Azolla is represented by following six recognizable species: Azolla pinnata, A. filiculoides, A. rubra, A. microphylla, A. imbricate and A. caroliniana and all these contain the Anabaena azollae association (Raja et al., 2012). ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
Azolla is a fast growing free floating freshwater fern which fixes atmospheric nitrogen by forming a symbiotic association with a prokaryotic cyanobacterium -Anabaena azollae. It is a costeffective, eco-friendly biofertilizer in lowland rice fields. As green manure in water logged soil, it enhances the rapid mineralization of nitrogen, improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil and increases soil microbial activities. It increases the rice yield equivalent to that produced by 30-60 kg N/ha. Azolla application is considered as a good practice for sustaining soil fertility and crop productivity.
... For this purpose, wheat straw/ stubble was amended with Azolla pinnata (a nitrogen-fixing weed), Aspergillus terreus (cellulolytic fungi), and cattle dung and subjected to vermicomposting (with Eisenia fetida) and aerobic composting for recycling of nutrients that are otherwise lost by burning. Azolla is a free-floating water fern that floats in the wastewaters, fixes atmospheric nitrogen because of its association with the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae (Raja et al. 2012), and is used as a biofertilizer (Yadav et al. 2014). The beneficial effect of Azolla is that it increases the soil's organic matter, improves soil quality, and supplies fixed nitrogen. ...
... The improved C/N ratio of the mixtures therefore not only led to faster bioconversion but also resulted in higher N of the products. A. azollae (symbiotic cyanobacterium) fixes atmospheric nitrogen (Raja et al. 2012), and addition of azolla has been reported to improve the structure and chemical composition of soil (Hakeem et al. 2016;Subedi and Shrestha 2015). Mineralization of organic matter during vermicomposting may have been responsible for higher content of nitrogen in the products of the Vcom group (Viel et al. 1987;Das et al. 2014;Shak et al. 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
A vast amount of surplus wheat straw/stubble (a carbon-rich bioresource) is wasted every year by burning. Harmful gases and residue matter released due to burning cause harmful effects on the environment and human health. Therefore, there is a strong need to recycle this bioresource in a sustainable manner. In the present study, wheat straw (W) was spiked with cattle dung (C), Azolla pinnata (A), and Aspergillus terreus (F) to make eight different treatments (1 kg each), viz. W (1 kg), WC (666 g + 334 g), WA (980 g + 20 g), WF (980 g + 20 ml), WCF (666 g + 314 g + 20 ml), WCA (666 g + 314 g + 20 g), WFA (960 g+ 20 ml + 20 g), and WCFA(666 g + 294 g + 20 ml + 20 g), and subjected to vermicomposting (Vcom) and aerobic composting (Acom). A comparison was made for the time required for degradation and nutrient profile of the products. The fastest recycling of wheat straw/stubble (120 days) was observed in WCA and WCFA, but the nutrient quality of WCA was better (N 18.67, P 3.88, K 38.84 g/kg). In the Acom group, longer time was required for degradation of various mixtures, but in this group also, WCA was degraded first of all (138 days) and yielded a product with the best nutrient quality (N 14.77, P 2.56, K 28.80 g/kg). Maximum growth of E. fetida and maximum number of hatchlings were observed in WCA while the highest cocoon production was observed in WCFA. It was observed that azolla enhanced conversion of wheat straw into a nutrient-rich product for agronomic use. Thus its use will reduce the amount of cattle dung in the mixture and the bulk to be handled by the farmers for ecosafe disposal of surplus straw/stubble. Therefore, this technology can be adopted as an alternative to burning.
... On the other hand, Cyanobacteria are a diverse group of prokaryotes possessing oxygen evolving photosynthetic system Prabina et al. (2004). Azolla is a free floating water fern that floats in the water and fixes atmospheric nitrogen because of its association with the nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena, Waseem et al. (2012). Several studies have indicated that, Azolla and cyanobacteria as biofertilizer could improve plant growth and yield under salinity conditions Sikander et al. (1995) and Aziz and Hashem, (2004). ...
... In addition, cyanobacteria can store resources like P in excess of their immediate needs. In addition, (Waseem, et al., 2012) indicated that, Azolla has great ability than rice to accumulate potassium in its tissues in low potassium environment; thus, after decomposition, it makes this nutrient available to rice, also, Azolla fixes nitrogen at substantial rates, optimize fertilizers use, especially nitrogen, and increase tolerance to soil salinity. ...
... The dorsal lobe is green or purple in colour and has a central cavity which houses the symbiotic Anabaena azollae. The ventral lobe is relatively thin and always remains partially submerged in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al. 2012). The symbiont liberates a substantial amount of biologically fixed nitrogen as ammonia which is absorbed by the host through branched hairs present in the cavity and unbranched hairs transport fixed carbon from host to the Cyanobiont (Peters et al. 1980 (Giller 2001;Raja et al. 2012). ...
... The ventral lobe is relatively thin and always remains partially submerged in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al. 2012). The symbiont liberates a substantial amount of biologically fixed nitrogen as ammonia which is absorbed by the host through branched hairs present in the cavity and unbranched hairs transport fixed carbon from host to the Cyanobiont (Peters et al. 1980 (Giller 2001;Raja et al. 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
The continuous usages of chemical fertilizers have harmful effects on soil organic matter reserves, soil health and environmental safety. The use of Bio-fertilizers like Azolla not only increases the rice productivity but also improves the long term soil fertility. Azolla is a fast growing aquatic pteridophyte which fixes atmospheric Nitrogen by forming a symbiotic association with the Blue-Green Algae, Anabaena azollae. Azolla is an efficient Nitrogen fixer. It is grown in lowland rice fields because flooded habitat is suitable for it. Under favorable field condition, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen at a rate exceeding that of the Legume-Rhizobium symbiotic relationship. It increases the rice yield equivalent to that produced by 30-60 kg N/ha. As green manure in water logged soil, it enhances the rapid mineralization of nitrogen. It reduces the NH3 volatilization losses through its influence on floodwater pH that leads to the conservation of urea-N in the system to improve the efficiency of N fertilizers. It significantly improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil including improvement in soil microbial activities. It helps in addition of Organic Matter and release of cations such as Magnesium, Calcium and Sodium. The total N, available P and exchangeable K in the soil and N-uptake by rice can be improved. Therefore, Azolla application is considered as a good practice for sustaining soil fertility and crop productivity irrespective of some limitations.
... Continuous Azolla application significantly enhances the soil organic nitrogen content (Yadav et al. 2014). Its cultivation in paddy fields, either as a monoculture or intercrop, serves to increase soil humus and nutrient content, resulting in a remarkable 20-30% boost in rice yields (Raja et al. 2012). Marzouk et al. (2023) described various positive impacts of Azolla as a biofertilizer in lowland rice production. ...
Article
Full-text available
Azolla, also known as "green gold" or "super plant," is a nitrogen-fixing pteridophyte found in temperate and tropical freshwater ecosystems. This free-floating aquatic fern, native to Asia, Africa, and the Americas, thrives in diverse aquatic habitats, including swamps, ditches, lakes, and shallow rivers. It generates full biomass in a relatively short period of time. It acts as a nitrogen biofertilizer and boosts rice productivity. Beyond its role in agriculture, Azolla serves as a versatile resource, finding applications in livestock feed, human nutrition, hydrogen fuel production, biogas generation, pest control, and water purification. Notably, Azolla exhibits hyperaccumulation capabilities for various heavy metal contaminants and can effectively absorb ammonium and phosphorous from wastewater. Moreover, it possesses antimicrobial properties and a rich array of phytochemical compounds, promising multifaceted benefits in diverse fields. This review highlights the vast potential of Azolla, emphasizing its suitability for extensive research and development in food, feed, and fodder applications, as well as household cultivation and utilization. To fully harness the myriad advantages offered by Azolla and promote sustainability across various sectors, further exploration and investigation into its untapped applications remain imperative. Azolla holds the key to addressing numerous environmental, agricultural, and industrial challenges, paving the way for a more sustainable and resource-efficient future.
... Continuous Azolla application significantly enhances the soil organic nitrogen content (Yadav et al. 2014). Its cultivation in paddy fields, either as a monoculture or intercrop, serves to increase soil humus and nutrient content, resulting in a remarkable 20-30% boost in rice yields (Raja et al. 2012). Marzouk et al. (2023) described various positive impacts of Azolla as a biofertilizer in lowland rice production. ...
Article
Full-text available
Azolla, also known as “green gold” or “super plant,” is a nitrogen-fixing pteridophyte found in temperate and tropical freshwater ecosystems. This free-floating aquatic fern, native to Asia, Africa, and the Americas, thrives in diverse aquatic habitats, including swamps, ditches, lakes, and shallow rivers. It generates full biomass in a relatively short period of time. It acts as a nitrogen biofertilizer and boosts rice productivity. Beyond its role in agriculture, Azolla serves as a versatile resource, finding applications in livestock feed, human nutrition, hydrogen fuel production, biogas generation, pest control, and water purification. Notably, Azolla exhibits hyperaccumulation capabilities for various heavy metal contaminants and can effectively absorb ammonium and phosphorous from wastewater. Moreover, it possesses antimicrobial properties and a rich array of phytochemical compounds, promising multifaceted benefits in diverse fields. This review highlights the vast potential of Azolla, emphasizing its suitability for extensive research and development in food, feed, and fodder applications, as well as household cultivation and utilization. To fully harness the myriad advantages offered by Azolla and promote sustainability across various sectors, further exploration and investigation into its untapped applications remain imperative. Azolla holds the key to addressing numerous environmental, agricultural, and industrial challenges, paving the way for a more sustainable and resource-efficient future.
... Azolla is a type of fern that floats freely in the water (Mooventhan et al., 2019;Singh et al., 2020 andAbd El-Ghany 2020). It is associated with fixing cyanobacterium anabaena, which fixes atmospheric nitrogen (Raja et al., 2012), and has the potential to be a sustainable animal feed alternative (Pillai et al., 2002). The Azollaeanabaena symbiosis is outstanding due to its fast biomass production because of its rapid growth rate, and higher contents of protein, carotene and β carotene (Lakshmanan et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
The present study was conducted to evaluate azolla (Azolla pinnata) in ruminant feeding by comparing it with clover hay (CH). Twelve adult male Barki sheep, 2 years old, averaging 42.87±2.11 kg of body weight, were used in a palatability and metabolism trial. Animals were separated into two comparable groups according to their live body weight (6 animals/ group). The experimental animals were kept individually in metabolic crates. Results demonstrated that there were no significant differences between Sun-dried Azolla (SDA) and CH in dry matter content, while the content of OM, CP, and EE were significantly higher in SDA (84.16, 26.93 and 3.80%, respectively) than in CH (81.75, 14.48 and 2.70%, respectively). The content of CF % was significantly lower in SDA (13.48%) than in CH (24.82%). The results of the chemical analysis showed that SDA is rich in CP content (26.93%), which exceeds the CP content of CH (14.48%). Digestion coefficients for SDA were significantly (P<0.05) higher than CH for DM and CP, but NFE was significantly (P<0.05) lower than CH, while, CF did not differ significantly. The nutritive values (DCP and TDN %) for SDA were significantly (P<0.05) higher (18.49 and 51.93%) than CH (7.70 and 46.55), the N balance followed similar pattern being significantly (P< 0.05) higher (19.14 g N/d) than for those fed CH (7.73 g N/d), which was 2.5 times higher. Rumen characteristics (pH, VFA and NH3-N) started to be significantly (P<0.05) higher in animals fed SDA than in those fed CH after six hours of feeding. Generally, Azolla pinnata can be used successfully in Barki sheep feeding with beneficial effects on digestibility, nutritive value, nitrogen balance and rumen fermentation.
... Botanically its recognition was created by Lamarck, as the genus "Azolla" in the year 1893, which has again 2 subgenus, namely Rhizosperma and Euazolla, based upon characters of sporocarp (Sood et al., 2007). The subgenus "Azolla" has five species and Rhizosperma has three species (Raja et al., 2012) as described in the figure 1. ...
... A second WGD (yellow circle) occurred in the Salviniaceae 80 Ma in the Late Cretaceous and resulted in the evolution of Azolla discussed later in this chapter. Carrapiço et al. (2000) divided the genus Azolla into the subgenera Rhizosperma and Azolla (also named Euazolla by Raja et al. in 2012). Species of the subgenus Azolla have three floats, glabrous stems, and arrow-shaped glochidia and are assigned to A. caroliniana, A. filiculoides, A. mexicana, A. microphylla, and A. rubra. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Azolla is the only plant with a coevolving nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterial symbiont (cyanobiont), Nostoc azollae, resulting from whole-genome duplication (WGD) 80 million years ago in Azolla’s immediate ancestor, Parazolla. Additional genes from the WGD resulted in complex biochemical and morphological changes that enabled transmission of the cyanobiont to successive generations of the plant via its spores. The permanent symbiosis resulted in loss, downregulation, or conversion of nonessential genes to pseudogenes in the cyanobiont, changing it from a free-living organism to an obligate symbiont that is dependent on its host for survival. Upregulation of other genes in the cyanobiont increased its atmospheric nitrogen fixation and provision of nitrogen-based products to the plant. As a result, Azolla can double its biomass in less than 2 days free-floating on freshwater and sequester large amounts of atmospheric CO2, giving it the potential to mitigate anthropogenic climate change through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Azolla’s biomass can also provide local, low-cost biofertilizer, feed, biofuel, and a range of products that are urgently needed as our population increases by a billion every 12 years. This chapter focuses on its use as a biofertilizer and feed for animals, poultry, waterfowl, freshwater fish, and crustacea.
... A second WGD (yellow circle) occurred in the Salviniaceae 80 Ma in the Late Cretaceous and resulted in the evolution of Azolla discussed later in this chapter. Carrapiço et al. (2000) divided the genus Azolla into the subgenera Rhizosperma and Azolla (also named Euazolla by Raja et al. in 2012). Species of the subgenus Azolla have three floats, glabrous stems, and arrow-shaped glochidia and are assigned to A. caroliniana, A. filiculoides, A. mexicana, A. microphylla, and A. rubra. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Azolla is the only plant with a coevolving nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterial symbiont (cyanobiont), Nostoc azollae, resulting from whole-genome duplication (WGD) 80 million years ago in Azolla’s immediate ancestor, Parazolla. Additional genes from the WGD resulted in complex biochemical and morphological changes that enabled transmission of the cyanobiont to successive generations of the plant via its spores. The permanent symbiosis resulted in loss, downregulation, or conversion of nonessential genes to pseudogenes in the cyanobiont, changing it from a free-living organism to an obligate symbiont that is dependent on its host for survival. Upregulation of other genes in the cyanobiont increased its atmospheric nitrogen fixation and provision of nitrogen-based products to the plant. As a result, Azolla can double its biomass in less than 2 days free-floating on freshwater and sequester large amounts of atmospheric CO2, giving it the potential to mitigate anthropogenic climate change through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Azolla’s biomass can also provide local, low-cost biofertilizer, feed, biofuel, and a range of products that are urgently needed as our population increases by a billion every 12 years. This chapter focuses on its use as a biofertilizer and feed for animals, poultry, waterfowl, freshwater fish, and crustacea.Keywords Azolla Carbon capture and storageClimate changeFernsNitrogen fixation Nostoc azollae Symbiosis
... Nitrogen fertilization is one of the determining factors yields of grain in rice plants (Chaturvedi, 2005). Azolla would be easily decomposed in paddy fields and supply more N for rice growth (Raja et al., 2012). NUE and recovery of N by rice are very low as 10% and never exceeds 50% (Vlek and Byrnes, 1986). ...
Article
Full-text available
Rice is the staple food for the significant population of Asia. Due to projected population growth in this region, the demand for this food is also predicted to be increased exponentially soon. Nitrogen (N) plays a dominant role in increasing rice yield as it is the most critical yield-limiting nutrient of rice. Chemical N fertilizers which are a major source in supplying N nutrients to rice, have adverse effects on overall soil and environmental health in the long term. The application of free-floating aquatic fern Azolla as a biofertilizer can be an alternative to improve rice yield without degrading the environment. It provides a natural source of many nutrients, especially N, improves the availability of other nutrients, plays a critical role in weed suppression, enhances soil organic matter, and improves efficiency of the inorganic fertilizers while maintaining the suitable soil pH condition for rice growth, which overall contribute to rice yield increment. Therefore, Azolla application has tremendous potential to improve soil health and boost yield sustainability.
... Weed suppression in the rice field by forming a thick mat of Azolla is another advantage of it (Cheng et al., 2010;Janiya and Moody, 1984). The use of azobiofer increases the rice yield by 20%-30% (Raja et al., 2012). Besides, the successful use of azobiofer under paddy cultivation in Asia is now also spreading in the rest of the world like Italy (Bocchi and Malgioglio, 2010) and Africa (Carrapiço et al., 2002). ...
... Weed suppression in the rice field by forming a thick mat of Azolla is another advantage of it (Cheng et al., 2010;Janiya and Moody, 1984). The use of azobiofer increases the rice yield by 20%-30% (Raja et al., 2012). Besides, the successful use of azobiofer under paddy cultivation in Asia is now also spreading in the rest of the world like Italy (Bocchi and Malgioglio, 2010) and Africa (Carrapiço et al., 2002). ...
... Weed suppression in the rice field by forming a thick mat of Azolla is another advantage of it (Cheng et al., 2010;Janiya and Moody, 1984). The use of azobiofer increases the rice yield by 20%-30% (Raja et al., 2012). Besides, the successful use of azobiofer under paddy cultivation in Asia is now also spreading in the rest of the world like Italy (Bocchi and Malgioglio, 2010) and Africa (Carrapiço et al., 2002). ...
... Botanically its recognition was created by Lamarck, as the genus "Azolla" in the year 1893, which has again 2 subgenus, namely Rhizosperma and Euazolla, based upon characters of sporocarp (Sood et al., 2007). The subgenus "Azolla" has five species and Rhizosperma has three species (Raja et al., 2012) as described in the figure 1. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
India boasts of having the largest agriculture and allied sector across the globe. To supply the requirement for agricultural activities and for quality by-products, people’s need exists to upgrade them by employing new strategies. Because, as world’s population is constantly increasing, the land mass is constantly decreasing. Hence, to produce efficiently in restricted land mass is the need of the hour. Though India has highest agricultural production, it lags behind many other developed countries when it comes to average production because we don’t cater to balanced nutrition and there is less availability of fertile soil and inadequate availability of fodder during draught. There arises a need to find some sustainable and substitute sources so that we can overcome the hindrances in these sectors and achieve a good production. Azolla is no doubt a one stop and easy solution for this problem. It contains all the nutrients, minerals and amino acids (essential) with no adverse effects. And it can be easily grown as well in short period of time. It acts as ideal manure during cultivation and ideal feed supplement for livestock as well. Apart from this, azolla extracts possess a therapeutic potential that helps in prevention of acute and chronic inflammation.
... Weed suppression in the rice field by forming a thick mat of Azolla is another advantage of it (Cheng et al., 2010;Janiya and Moody, 1984). The use of azobiofer increases the rice yield by 20%-30% (Raja et al., 2012). Besides, the successful use of azobiofer under paddy cultivation in Asia is now also spreading in the rest of the world like Italy (Bocchi and Malgioglio, 2010) and Africa (Carrapiço et al., 2002). ...
... The 100% nutrient solution consisting of all nutrients was mixed in distilled water and the pH was maintained at pH 5.5 HNO 3 and NaOH. Fresh and healthy plants after seven days were used for the next stage in this experiment (Raja et al., 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
In this study, two native duckweeds (Lemna minor and Azolla pinnata) were cultivated in Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) to extract nutrients from the effluent. Five grams of A. pinnata and 2 g of L. minor were transferred to 2 L POME (Initial concentrations: 198 mg/L COD, 4.3 mg/L nitrates, pH 9.53, 4 mg/L phosphate, 2.98 mg/L ammonia) with four different dilutions (2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%) under greenhouse conditions. Samples of POME were taken every two days up to 10 days. Growth parameter, phosphate, ammonia, nitrates, pH, and COD were monitored within 10 days to select the most suitable growth medium for both plants. Results showed that 2.5% POME dilution had positive effect on L. minor growth and A. pinnata (wet weight increased by 8.7 g and 9.8 g, respectively), with all plants able to survive until the final day of exposure. The highest removal of ammonia was accomplished in 5% POME dilution by A. pinnata (98%) and L. minor (95.5%). The maximum phosphate removal was obtained in 10% POME dilution with 93.3% removal by A. pinnata and 86.7% by L. minor. Significant COD removal in 15% POME was obtained by L. minor (78%) and A. pinnata (66%). Both plants responded positively to the phytoremediation process, especially for A. pinnata which showed significant decreases in all parameters. The nutrient extraction by both plants from POME showed a positive effect on growth parameter, which has further promising potential to be used as animal feedstock.
... It belongs to genus Azolla, division pteridophyta, family Azollaceae and order Salviniales (Nordiah et al. 2012). Azolla is divided into two subgenera and six species (Raja et al. 2012b). The subgenera Euazolla consists of three megaspore-floats (with septate glochidia) and four species (filiculoides, caroliniana, microphylla and mexicana). ...
Article
Full-text available
Azolla is a free-floating hydrophyte fern grown in temperate and tropical regions. The specialized dorsal leaves of the fern possess cavity that harbors cyanobacteria capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen (N) through biological processes. It is either incorporated into the soil before rice transplanting or grown as an inter-crop with rice crop. Its intercropping also improves efficiency of applied N fertilizer. The recovery of heavy metals from aqueous environment is another key feature of Azolla as bioremediator of flooded soils. In general, Azolla efficiently absorbs heavy metals from aqueous medium containing lower concentrations (< 20 mg/L), however, filiculoides species were found to absorb higher metal content (0.40% Ni) from Ni rich solution (500 mg/L). Biosorption involves biological processes for recovery of metals and hence is considered as eco-friendly and cost-effective procedure to remove contaminants from waste-water. The utilization of Azolla has remained limited in agriculture due to its sensitivity to high temperatures, light intensity, composition of growth medium and difficult production technology. The use of Azolla is beneficial due to its reliance on natural resources and utility for flooded rice production as well as phytoremediation potential in agro-environment.
... It is because the chemical content of Azolla has met the standards of organic fertilizer according to Minister of Agriculture Regulation No. 28 of 2009 [5]. Fertilization recommendations in the ICM concept including the use of N fertilizers must be consistent with the needs of plants and soil N conditions, the P and K contents source of organic N in various forms to increase the growth and production of various kinds of plants while helping to improve physical, chemical, and biological soil fertility [7]. Application of Azolla fresh 5 ton ha-1 on varieties kuroda carrot provided the highest result, better tuber shape, it was the result of tuber conversion from per m2 to hectare, which was 34.09 ton ha-1 [8]. ...
... In a developing country like India where more than 80 percent farmers belong to small and marginal class and most of them cannot manage to pay for expensive chemical fertilizers, the biofertilizers like blue green algae (BGA), Azolla, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Acetobacter and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can make the organic rice production system more worthwhile and decrease the ecological risks caused due to synthetic fertilizers. Among these, Azolla decomposes speedily, thus immediately provide the nitrogen to rice (Raja et al., 2012); and an average yield increase up to 1.4-1.5 t ha -1 could be achieved by effective Azolla inoculation (Mian 2002;Ciss and Vlek 2003). Similarly, Herbaspirillum is an endophytic diazotroph, which colonizes in rice roots ( Baldani et al. 1986), and can fix 31-54 percent of total rice plant nitrogen requirement under gnotobiotic conditions ( Baldani et al., 2000). ...
Chapter
Agriculture in everyday life is very important because it is the source of living and is the backbone of the economic system of a given country. It is the sector which demands a lot of water for irrigation. Two parameters such as carbon and water play an important role in agriculture. Carbon, fourth most abundant element in the universe and its cycle is a fundamental part of life on earth. Carbon drives photosynthesis, forms the backbone of major nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats), and provides the source of energy that drove the industrial revolution. The carbon stored in the soil is a component of soil organic matter; soil organic carbon is the basis of soil fertility. It releases nutrients for plant growth, promotes the structure, biological and physical health of soil, and is a buffer against harmful substances. The imbalance of carbon contributes to the greenhouse effect by trapping heat inside our atmosphere.
... The dorsal lobe is green or purple in colour and has a central cavity which houses the symbiotic Anabaena azollae. The ventral lobe is relatively thin and always remains partially submerged in water and provides buoyancy (Raja et al. 2012). The symbiont liberates a substantial amount of biologically fixed nitrogen as ammonia which is absorbed by the host through branched hairs present in the cavity and unbranched hairs transport fixed carbon from host to the Cyanobiont (Peters et al. 1980). ...
... In a developing country like India where more than 80 percent farmers belong to small and marginal class and most of them cannot manage to pay for expensive chemical fertilizers, the biofertilizers like blue green algae (BGA), Azolla, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Acetobacter and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can make the organic rice production system more worthwhile and decrease the ecological risks caused due to synthetic fertilizers. Among these, Azolla decomposes speedily, thus immediately provide the nitrogen to rice (Raja et al., 2012); and an average yield increase up to 1.4-1.5 t ha -1 could be achieved by effective Azolla inoculation (Mian 2002;Ciss and Vlek 2003). Similarly, Herbaspirillum is an endophytic diazotroph, which colonizes in rice roots (Baldani et al. 1986), and can fix 31-54 percent of total rice plant nitrogen requirement under gnotobiotic conditions (Baldani et al., 2000). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Organic agriculture is still in its embryonic stage in most of the developing countries. Presently, organic produce as well as organic rice is in enormous demand owing to its potential to get top price in the global market. The significant yield gap between conventional and organic rice production system is one of the major reasons that hamper its large-scale adaptation between farmers. Amongst the several yield restrictive factors, suboptimal nutrient input (primarily nitrogen), non-availability of organic resources, lack of low-input reactive variabilities, sever crop weed competition and insect and diseases damage employ major impact on most of the rice growing areas. An enhanced thoughtful about organic rice production involving plant nutrient deficiency, soil nutrient dynamics, soil-plant-microbes interaction and pest dynamics is essential to adequately addressing the above issues. Application of different organic nutrient sources as well as the split application of fast mineralizable nutrient-rich manures (vermicompost, poultry manure), green manures and bio-fertilizers may supply optimal nutrients in organic rice system. As well as, development and growing of rice varieties which have response to organic nutrient inputs, resistance to diseases, insects and capacity to compete with weeds can support in curtail the hazard of crop failure. Additionally, high emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in organic rice field deserves greater attention in view of ecological sustainability. We emphasize the insistence for arrangement of current agricultural procedures with organic rice production to improve both the system productivity and the produce quality along with successfully avoiding the risks related with in discriminate use of chemicals in agriculture. Keyword: emission, methane, nutrient management, organic rice, insect-pest
... It has, therefore, become necessary to look for alternative renewable resources to meet at least a part of the N demand of rice crops. Nfixing blue-green algae (BGA) or cyanobacteria and Azolla, have been shown to be the most important in maintaining and improving the productivity of rice fields (Raja et al., 2012). Azolla is a free-floating water fern that floats in the water and fixes atmospheric nitrogen because of its association with the nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena. ...
Article
Full-text available
A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2017-18 to investigate the effect of nitrogen application through urea and azolla on growth, yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and temporal soil phosphorus availability with six treatments viz., control (T1), Azolla incorporation @ 16000 kg ha-1 (T2), 30 kg N ha 1through urea(T3), 60 kg N ha 1through urea(T4), 30 kg N ha 1through urea+ Azolla incorporation @ 16000 kg ha-1 (T5) and 60 kg N ha 1through urea with Azolla incorporation @ 16000 kg ha-1(T6) . The experiment was laid out in RBD and replicated four times. The experimental soil was having pH 5.1, SOC 1.75 per cent, available N, P and K as 288.62, 17.23and 201.46kg ha-1, respectively. The experimental results revealed that the application of 60 kg N ha 1 through urea along with azolla incorporation @ 16000 kg ha-1 (T6) recorded highest plant height (118.67 cm) at 90 DAT of rice which is significantly superior over control (98.17 cm) with 17.27 per cent increase. Similarly, 60 kg N ha 1 through urea with azolla incorporation @ 16000 kg ha-1 produced highest grain and straw yield i.e. 4.2 t ha-1 and 7.68 t ha-1 followed by T5 and T4. Further, it was observed that the grain yield obtained in T2 was statistically at par with T3. The grain and straw yield obtained in T4 was also found statistically at par with the values obtained in T5. Key words: Azolla incorporation, chemical fertilizers, integrated nutrient management, rice, yield, acidic soil.
... poisson, canards, bétail, volaille, etc. afin de réduire le coût de l'alimentation(Hassan et al., 2009 ;Raja et al., 2012). Les co-produits d'abattoir (sang, poumons, intestins) de même que ceux de la pêche (têtes, viscères, arêtes, queues, la volaille. ...
Article
Full-text available
La présente étude s’est intéressée à la comparaison des performances zootechniques et économiques des porcs nourris avec des aliments commerciaux et des aliments non conventionnels. Au total, 90 porcelets métis (race locale X Large white) âgés de 60 à 90 jours dont 45 mâles castrés et 45 femelles, ont été répartis en 15 lots de 6 animaux, à raison de 3 loges de 6 porcelets par traitement alimentaire. Chaque lot a été nourri à volonté avec un aliment commercial et quatre aliments contenant différents taux de Azolla, Moringa, son de riz, viscères de poulet Cobb 500 et de poisson Oreochromis niloticus. Une différence significative (P < 0,05) a été notée entre les gains moyens quotidiens (GMQ). Après 90 jours d’expérimentation, les GMQ étaient de 197g/j pour les porcs du lot à aliment commercial et de 63 à 101g/j pour ceux soumis aux aliments à base de ressources non conventionnelles. Il ressort des calculs économiques que le coût alimentaire (Ca) par kg de gain de poids (GP) était plus faible pour l’aliment non conventionnel (716 FCFA/kg GP) par rapport à l’aliment commercial (830 FCFA/kg GP). Il est donc possible d’utiliser ces ressources non conventionnelles pour nourrir de façon efficiente des porcs dans un système intégré d’exploitations familiales tout en rendant l’environnement sain.
... The morphological characteristics of each sex have been described by Speidel (1984), Goater (1986), and Speidel (2005). Azolla Lamarck is a genus of aquatic ferns and small-leaved floating plants divided into two subgenera: Euazolla, containing five species, and Rhizosperma with two species (Raja et al. 2012). Different species of Azolla provide various benefits such as organic nitrogen source, soil improvement and nutrient availability, weed suppression, food source for livestock, chickens, ducks and fishes (Anonymous 1987;Ferentinos et al. 2002). ...
Article
Full-text available
Water ferns (Azolla spp., Azollaceae) are reported for the first time as host plants for the larvae of the small China-mark moth Cataclysta lemnata (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae: Acentropinae) in rice fields and waterways of northern Iran. Cataclysta lemnata is a semi-aquatic species that has been recorded to feed on Lemnaceae and a few other aquatic plants. However, it has not been reported before on Azolla spp. Larvae use water fern as food source and shelter and, at high population density in the laboratory, they completely wiped water fern from the water surface. Feeding was confirmed after rearing more than eight continual generations of C. lemnata on water fern in the laboratory. Adults obtained this way are darker and have darker fuscous markings in both sexes compared with specimens previously reported and the pattern remains unchanged after several generations.
... Weed suppression in the rice field by forming a thick mat of Azolla is another advantage of it (Cheng et al., 2010;Janiya and Moody, 1984). The use of azobiofer increases the rice yield by 20%-30% (Raja et al., 2012). Besides, the successful use of azobiofer under paddy cultivation in Asia is now also spreading in the rest of the world like Italy (Bocchi and Malgioglio, 2010) and Africa (Carrapiço et al., 2002). ...
Article
Full-text available
The draft genome sequence of an amylase-, protease-, lipase-, oxidase-, and catalase-producing Gram-negative bacillus (Aeromonas sp. MDS8 strain MCC2167) with the ability to produce ammonia during 16 h of growth at 37°C, isolated from dairy sludge, with a size of 4,841,753 bp and a G+C content of 63.1%, is reported here.
... Concerning biofertilizers, a wide range exists including blue green algae (BGA), Azolla, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Acetobacter and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSMs), which can be used for N or P nutrition in organic rice production system. Among these, Azolla decomposes rapidly, thus instantly providing N to rice (Raja et al. 2012); and an average increase in rice yield up to 1.4-1.5 t ha −1 could be achieved through effective inoculation of Azolla (Mian 2002;Ciss and Vlek 2003). Similarly, Herbaspirillum is an endophytic diazotroph, which colonizes in rice roots (Baldani et al. 1986), and can fix 31-54% of total rice plant Ndfa under gnotobiotic conditions (Baldani et al. ...
Article
Full-text available
Organic farming is rapidly gaining recognition worldwide as a promising means to offer healthier food and to ensure environmental sustainability. Currently, organic produce including organic rice is in huge demand owing to its potential to fetch premium price in the global market. Despite the fact that rice performs well under organic production system, a set of constraints including nitrogen stress at critical growth stages, unavailability of rapidly mineralizable organic amendments, lack of appropriate varieties and intense crop–weed competition pose major challenges to realize the potential yield. Use of diverse organic nutrient sources including the split application of fast mineralizable nutrient-rich manures (vermicompost, poultry manure), green manures and bio-fertilizers can supply optimum nutrients in organic rice system. In parallel, development and deployment of rice varieties having response to organic nutrient inputs, resistance to diseases/insects and ability to compete with weeds can help minimize the risk of crop failure. Further, higher emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in organic rice field deserves greater attention in view of environmental sustainability. Strategic water management and selection of appropriate organic amendments could help address this issue. However, a substantial research gap still exists demanding a deeper understanding of the organic rice system in order to register higher yield gains. This review article outlines the latest advances in organic rice production system with an emphasis on nutrient supply and ensuing dynamics, the outflow of GHGs, pest dynamics, produce quality and key attributes of rice cultivars for organic cultivation. We underscore the urgency for alignment of modern agricultural techniques with organic rice production to improve both the system productivity and the produce quality along with effectively avoiding the risks associated with in discriminate use of chemicals in agriculture.
... Some other authors use the taxonomic "section" level instead of subgenus (e.g. Saunders and Fowler, 1992 (Raja et al., 2012). According to Kannaiyan and Kumar (2006), Azolla species distribution corresponds to fresh water ecosystems of temperate and tropical regions all over the world (Fig. 1). ...
Article
Full-text available
The genus Azolla forms a group of small-leafed, floating aquatic ferns native to the tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate regions of Africa, Asia, and America. For several decades, these ferns have been utilized for various purposes: e.g. as green manure, feed for animals, but also for the removal of different metals (e.g. Hg, Pb, Cr and Cd) through wastewater treatment or for elimination of nitrogenous compounds from surface water. Notwithstanding, these many advantages of Azolla, it has invaded many natural habitats, thus becoming an obnoxious weed. Azolla can grow quickly with a doubling time of only 2-5 days and form very dense mats in favourable habitats, causing many difficulties for boat transport, water animals and native plant species and becoming a source of eutrophication. The present paper gives an overview of some important ecological factors affecting Azolla’s growth over the past few decades. Moreover, for the most ecological variables discussed in this study, the authors refer to their recent publications for the habitat requirements of Azolla in Anzali wetland. Water availability is the key factor for its growth. Growth is further promoted by optimal light intensity (15-18 Klux), temperature (18°- 28°C) and relative humidity (55-83%). Wind and turbulent water can fragment and kill Azolla. The importance of both macro (e.g. phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium) and micronutrients (e.g. molybdenum, cobalt and etc.) has also been confirmed from literature. Various types of insects (e.g. caterpillars), bacteria, fungi and viruses can affect Azolla growth. As a conclusion, understanding the habitat requirements of Azolla is very helpful for managing this aquatic fern, also for decision making in the context of wetland restoration and conservation management.
... Besides its enhancing effect on rice, they have been found to increase fish production by 30% and also used for feeding sheep, goats, pigs and rabbits. Apart from adding nitrogen in the soil they also provides the carbon source and favourable environment for the growth and development of the soil microbes further enhancing soil fertility and crop yield [19]. Hence, maintenance of Azolla in the crop field could be beneficial for sustainable development, but the application of herbicides in rice fields also affects this non-target organism (Azolla) along with the target organisms. ...
Article
The present study assessed the comparative responses of two agronomic species of Azolla (A.microphylla and A. pinnata) exposed to man-made and natural stressors by evaluating biomass accumulation, pigments (chlorophyll a and b and carotenoid contents), photosynthetic activity and nitrogen metabolism. The study was carried out in field where two species of Azolla were cultured and treated with various concentrations (5, 10 and 20 μg ml− 1) of herbicide; pretilachlor [2-chloro-2,6-diethyl-N-(2-propoxyethyl) acetanilide] and enhanced levels (UV-B1: ambient + 2.2 kJ m− 2 day− 1 and UV-B2: ambient + 4.4 kJ m− 2 day− 1) of UV-B, alone as well as in combination. Biomass accumulation, photosynthetic pigments; chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids, photosynthetic oxygen yield and photosynthetic electron transport activities i.e. photosystem II (PS II) and photosystem I (PS I) in both the species declined with the increasing doses of pretilachlor and UV-B radiation, which further declined when applied in combination. The lower doses (5 and 10 μg ml− 1) of pretilachlor and UV-B (UV-B1 and UV-B2) alone, damaged mainly the oxidation side of PS II, whereas higher dose (20 μg ml− 1) of pretilachlor alone and in combination with UV-B1 and UV-B2 caused damage to PS II reaction centre and beyond this towards the reduction side. A significant enhancement in respiration was also noticed in fronds of both the Azolla species following pretilachlor and UV-B treatment, hence indicating strong damaging effect. The nitrate assimilating enzymes – nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase and ammonium assimilating enzymes – glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase were also severely affected when treated either with pretilachlor and/or UV-B while glutamate dehydrogenase exhibited a stimulatory response. The study suggests that both the species of Azolla showed considerable damage under pretilachlor and UV-B treatments alone, however, in combination the effect was more intense. Further, in comparison to A. pinnata, A. microphylla exhibited greater resistance against tested doses of both the stresses, either alone or in combination.
... poisson, canards, bétail, volaille, etc. afin de réduire le coût de l'alimentation(Hassan et al., 2009 ;Raja et al., 2012). Les co-produits d'abattoir (sang, poumons, intestins) de même que ceux de la pêche (têtes, viscères, arêtes, queues, la volaille. ...
Article
Full-text available
La présente étude s’est intéressée à la comparaison des performances zootechniques et économiques des porcs nourris avec des aliments commerciaux et des aliments non conventionnels. Au total, 90 porcelets métis (race locale X Large white) âgés de 60 à 90 jours dont 45 mâles castrés et 45 femelles, ont été répartis en 15 lots de 6 animaux, à raison de 3 loges de 6 porcelets par traitement alimentaire. Chaque lot a été nourri à volonté avec un aliment commercial et quatre aliments contenant différents taux de Azolla, Moringa, son de riz, viscères de poulet Cobb 500 et de poisson Oreochromis niloticus. Une différence significative (P < 0,05) a été notée entre les gains moyens quotidiens (GMQ). Après 90 jours d’expérimentation, les GMQ étaient de 197g/j pour les porcs du lot à aliment commercial et de 63 à 101g/j pour ceux soumis aux aliments à base de ressources non conventionnelles. Il ressort des calculs économiques que le coût alimentaire (Ca) par kg de gain de poids (GP) était plus faible pour l’aliment non conventionnel (716 FCFA/kg GP) par rapport à l’aliment commercial (830 FCFA/kg GP). Il est donc possible d’utiliser ces ressources non conventionnelles pour nourrir de façon efficiente des porcs dans un système intégré d’exploitations familiales tout en rendant l’environnement sain.© 2015 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved.Mots clés: Aliment, performance, porcs, rentabilité économiqueEnglish AbstractThe present study was focused on the comparison of zootechnic and economic performance of pigs nourished with commercial and non-conventional feed. In total, 90 crossbred piglets (Landrace x Large white) aged 60 to 90 days with 45 castrated males and 45 females, were divided into 15 groups of 6 animals at the rate of 3 lodges of 6 piglets per treatment. Each batch was fed ad libitum with commercial feed and four feed containing different levels of Azolla, Moringa, rice bran, chicken Cobb 500 and fish Oreochromis niloticus viscera. A significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed between Average Daily Gain (ADG). After 90 days of experimentation, the ADG were 197 g / day for pigs nourished with commercial feed and 63 to 101 g / day for those subjected to feed made from unconventional resources. It emerges from the economic calculations that the feed cost (Ca) per kg of Weight Gain (WG) was lower for non-conventional feed (716 FCFA / kg WG) than the commercial feed one (830 FCFA / kg WG). It is therefore possible to use these unconventional resources efficiently to feed pigs in an integrated system of family farms while making healthy environment.© 2015 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved.
Article
Full-text available
This review article set out the results of studies on the use of non-conventional feed resources in animal feed, in terms of description, composition and agronomic interest. In the search of information about the non-conventional feed resources several published scientific works were consulted and their synthesis was made. The review of research results revealed the use of non-conventional feed resources as an alternative to the high cost of conventional resources which are mostly imported by tropical countries. Works addressing the use of non-conventional feed resources and particularly Azolla spp, Moringa oleifera, rice bran, chicken viscera and fish by product in the diet of animals are reviewed. Their standardization would make them applicable in rural areas. These feed resources could be an alternative choice against the increasingly high cost of conventional feed used in animal production
Chapter
Full-text available
Climate data analysis is a complex and multifaceted field that requires advanced statistical methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of the patterns and trends in our planet's climate system. As climate change continues to be a pressing global issue, the need for advanced statistical analysis of climatic data has become more critical than ever. Climate change has a significant impact on food production both in terms of quantity and quality. Crop yields are expected to decline in the future due to changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency, and severity of extreme weather events, and rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can also lead to changes in the distribution of pests and diseases, which can further impact crop yields. These effects can lead to food insecurity, particularly in developing countries, where food production is already a major challenge. So, it is important to account forthese changes statistically. Advanced statistical analysis techniques, such as machine learning techniques are increasingly being used to identify and quantify the relationships between different climate variables, such as temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric composition. These methods can help researchers to better understand the mechanisms driving climate change, predict future changes with greater accuracy, and develop effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to its impacts. Thus, advanced statistical analysis is a vital tool for climate data analysis, enabling researchers to gain deeper insights into the intricacies of the climate system, improve predictions of future changes, and develop effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Chapter
Full-text available
Natural disasters caused by weather are causing more disruption in both wealthy and developing countries. India's economy, which is predominately agricultural in nature, is entirely dependent on the whims of the weather, especially extreme weather phenomena like hailstorms. The extent of the damage appears to depend on the strength, length, and size of the hailstones that the storms create. Hailstorm is a localized natural disaster that causes significant crop damage. The resulting losses total hundreds of millions of dollars per year. While hailstones as large as 0.75 kilograms have been seen, even much smaller hail may obliterate crops, tearing maize and other plants into ribbons in a matter of seconds. Depending on the up thrust within the cloud where hail generation occurs, hail can occasionally be very massive, measuring 50 mm or more. Hailstorms and cumulonimbus clouds are often related. Yield losses, as a result of severe weather events such as flooding, frost, hail, storms, severe rain, and winter-related damage. Typically, insurance coverage only extends to hail-related damage. Claims ratio information enables more obvious conclusions about hailstorm occurrences. Damages to both field crops and horticulture crops total these statistics. The nation needs a strong RADAR network to predict the occurrence of hailstorms across larger areas. This research will help numerous organizations implement policies and aid programs for sustainable development, particularly in rural economies like India.
Article
Full-text available
Livestock plays a significant role in the livelihood enhancement of the people, especially in rural areas. The requirement for dietary protein for people from the animal sources is expected to increase. However, due to problems of feed shortages and high costs of feed the livestock sector and its contribution to the country’s economy are threatened in many countries. To address this problem, exploration of alternative sources of cheap feed resources is imperative. Azolla is one of the cheapest feed resources grown in water bodies, mainly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. There are various species of Azolla used as a feed source for livestock. Azolla filiculoides, Azolla pinnata and Azolla microphylla are the main species of Azolla that contribute to livestock feed. Nutritionally, Azolla is a good source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. It is commonly used for feeding poultry, sheep, and goats, and dairy cattle. Azolla is used as a supplementary feed with other feed resources to increase feed intake, growth, egg production, and milk yield, as proven by many researches. Besides animal feeding, Azolla is also used for soil fertility improvement, bioremediation, compost making, and biogas production. Therefore, the production and utilization of Azolla in an appropriate, way particularly in wetland areas will contribute to improving livestock nutrition and productivity.
Chapter
Agroecological typologies are indispensable for sustainable agricultural production. In recent years, agroecology has gained worldwide attention as a new holistic farming model, based on its principles. Many farmers and stakeholders in the global farming business face several obstacles when trying to switch to agroecology, such as a lack of a structured theoretical knowledge base, supportive regulations, and necessary technical equipment. To overcome the aforementioned challenges and accelerate the transition, a long-term vision backed up with indigenous knowledge as well as a joint financial effort by the states is needed. This chapter comprehensively documents existing rice agroecological typologies. We reviewed published papers on rice cropping systems, including articles, theses, reports, journal papers, and other relevant publications. Our findings consolidate a broad range of well-defined effective evidence of agroecological typologies for adoption within the rice farming communities. They include integrated rice–animal farming, the system of rice intensification, organic manure, crop rotation systems, rice polycultures, and pest management. Prior to upscaling, it is necessary to evaluate the typologies on a site-specific basis in rice growing regions, as agroecology emphasizes the importance of tailoring practices to individual sites in order to achieve optimal results. This chapter is relevant not only to food system actors but also to researchers and social activists.
Article
Full-text available
The study aimed to use two culture algal Spirulina platensis, Anabaena azollae, Azolla pinnata and Pleurotus columbinus besides olive mill waste in controlling root knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica in banana was monitored under both laboratory and commercial greenhouse conditions. Laboratory experiment revealed that high juvenile mortality percentage occurred during all the exposure periods of all treatments, the best results were after 72 hr exposure. Spirulina platensis followed by Anabaena azollae, Azolla pinnata, Pleurotus columbinus and olive watery extract significantly increased juveniles mortality up to 70%after 72h at the highest concentration of 1:10 (85.2, 81.4, 79.9, 73.5, 71.7 and 70.1%, respectively). In the productivity greenhouse experiment, the combination of culture filtrates of Spirulina platensis, Anabaena azollae, Azolla pinnata, Pleurotus columbinus and olive mill waste water achieved the highest reduction in the number of total nematodes in both soil and roots, also in numbers of galls. In addition, all combinations significantly increased the crop yield of banana plants comparing with the individual treatment and the control. The combined treatments significantly enhanced the CO 2 evolution, dehydrogenase and nitrogenase activities over the control. It could be recommended that application of biological control agents against root knot nematode in banana is preferable to reduce the chemical nematicides inputs.
Article
Full-text available
Agriculture is the greatest resource that supports life on earth. The rapidly growing human population has globally escalated the demand for agricultural products including; food, fodder, medicines, and biofuels, but their supply has been limited. This has been attributed to the gradually declining quality and quantity of natural resources. The agricultural sector in Uganda has suffered from the effects of land-use shift as one of the major challenges contributing to land degradation. This has been aggravated by poor soil management practices leading to low soil productivity. The global campaign to adopt fertilizer use has generated significant outcomes in boosting production but with severe consequences of environmental pollution from the bulky fertilizers used. This review paper seeks to identify bottlenecks in the line of agricultural production and environmental sanitation in Uganda, with a proposed alternative of using well-processed organic fertilizers from biomass and nano-fertilizers postulated to eliminate fertilizer bulk. The paper further highlights Azolla as one of the high biomass plants with potential agricultural benefits when used as an organic fertilizer. The literature search for this review paper was based on the information published on the web of science and extracts from interviews. All authors recommended the adoption of safer organic and nano-fertilizer technologies as the alternative solution to improving soil productivity while promoting environmental sanitation in Uganda.
Article
Full-text available
El helecho Azolla filiculoides habita en lagunas del valle de Cochabamba, pero no se ha reportado su uso en el ámbito agropecuario de tal contexto; tampoco se ha mencionado el uso de estiércol de cuy (Cavia porcellus) en su cultivo, siendo necesario para evaluar su inclusión en sistemas de producción de cuyes. Por tanto, se evaluó el rendimiento y valor nutricional de Azolla fertilizada con estiércol de cuy en el municipio de Arbieto, departamento de Cochabamba utilizando tres ensayos: 1) primer ensayo (preexperimental); se sembró 4 kg de Azolla en un estanque de 4 m2 de superficie y 0.5 m de profundidad fertilizado con 2 142 g de estiércol; 2) segundo ensayo (experimental, diseño completamente aleatorizado); se compararon dos tratamientos con estiércol dosificado a razón de 857 g (T2), 571 g (T1) y un control sin estiércol (T0) en estanques de 2 m2 de superficie y 0.4 m de profundidad; y 3) tercer y último ensayo (preexperimental); se obtuvo el valor nutricional de Azolla fertilizada con 857 g de estiércol. Los resultados fueron: 1) primer ensayo; rendimiento de 87.12 g m-2 día (IC95 % 35.90–138.35) de biomasa de Azolla; 2) segundo ensayo; rendimientos obtenidos de T2=64.19 g m-2 día (IC95 % 41.21–87.17), T1=56.67 g m-2 día(IC95 % 45.10–68.24) y T0=24.98 g/m2/día (IC95 % 22.30–27.67), hallando diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los tres grupos en comparación (P=0.0008), pero no entre los tratamientos con estiércol (T1 y T2); 3) tercer ensayo; valor nutricional en materia seca (6.64 %), proteína (21.08 %), fibra (14.31 %), carbohidratos(43.67 %), cenizas (20.03 %), grasa (1.2 %) y valor energético (18.04 kcal g-1). Estos parámetros manifiestan que puede utilizarse el estiércol de cuy como fertilizante para la producción de Azolla en el municipio de Arbieto del departamento de Cochabamba.
Chapter
Rice is a staple food of more than half of the world’s population; more than 3.5 billion inhabitants depend on rice for obtaining 20% of their daily calorie intake. Nitrogen is the most important for crop growth and yield potential. Indeed, nitrogen is essential to stimulate tillering, leaf growth, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis. Significant achievements have recently been observed at the molecular level in nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency in plants. In this chapter we will discuss the following issue: (i) definition of both nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency, (ii) genes responsible for nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency, (iii) best ways for improving water and nutrient use efficiency in rice, and (iv) optimizing nitrogen options for improving water and nitrogen use efficiency of rice under different water regimes.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Tatlı su eğreltisi olan Azolla serbest yüzen yapraklı su bitkilerindendir. Genellikle tropikal ve ılıman bölgelerdeki sulak alanlarda gelişir. Azolla, azotu sabitleyen mavi-yeşil alg Anabaena azollae Strasburger ile simbiyotik ilişkisinden dolayı eskiden beri ilgi çekici olmuştur. Tarımsal aktivitelerde biyogübre olarak kullanılmaktadır. Aynı zamanda suyu temizlemesi, biyokütle enerjisi olarak kullanımı gibi çeşitli fonksiyonlarından dolayı "yeşil altın madeni" olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Türkiye'de Azolla filiculoides Lamarck "kızıl eğrelti" olarak adlandırılır. Su eğreltisi güçlü güneş ışığına maruz kaldığında kırmızı renk alır. Yeşil olan yaprakları yüksek ışık, düşük sıcaklık ve olumsuz çevresel koşullarda antosiyanin sentezinin teşvik edilmesiyle kırmızıya döner. Bu türün son yıllarda Yeşilırmak Deltasındaki Miliç kıyı sulak alanında ve sığ göllerdeki aşırı yayılımı dikkat çekicidir. Uygun koşullar altında bir-iki haftada biyokütlesini ikiye katlama potansiyeline sahiptir. İstilacı bir su bitkisi olan A. filiculoides türünün ilkbahar ortalarında başlayan aşırı çoğalması sucul ekosistemdeki ekolojik yapıyı olumsuz etkilemektedir. Bu çalışmada, kızıl eğreltinin genel özellikleri, biyolojisi, ekolojisi, ekonomik ve ekolojik yararları-zararları ve mücadele yöntemleri hakkında bilgi verilmektedir. Aynı zamanda, Miliç kıyı sulak alanında yoğun popülasyon oluşturan kızıl eğreltinin ülkemizdeki varlığı ve yayılımı kayıt altına alınmaktadır. Abstract Azolla that is a freshwater fern is free-floating water plants. It generally develops in wetlands of tropical and temperate regions. Azolla has been interesting because of symbiotic relationship with Anabaena azollae Strasburger which is one of the blue-green algae and nitrogen stabilizer. It is used as a biofertilizer in agricultural activities. It is also referred to as "green gold mine" due to its various functions such as water purification, biomass energy. Azolla filiculoides Lamarck is called as "red fern" in Turkey. The water fern gets red color when it exposed to strong sunlight. Green leaves of the plant turn red by promoting anthocyanin under high light, low temperature and negative environmental conditions. In recent years, this species is remarkable its excessive spread in the coastal wetland and skallow lakes where the Miliç coastal wetlands is linked in Yeşilırmak Delta. It has the potential to double the biomass in one to weeks under favorable conditions. A. filiculoides which is an invasive species beings to overgrow under the spring conditions and adversely affect the ecological structure of the aquatic ecosystem. In this research, general characteristics, biology, ecology, economic and ecological benefits-harms and methods of combat of red ferns are given. At the same time, the presence and distribution in our country of the red ferns which constitutes an intensive population on the coastal wetland linked with the Miliç River are recorded.
Book
Full-text available
The science of plant-microbes interaction (PMI) plays a major role in agriculture especially in the field of crop production and protection by beneficial plant growth promotion microorganism (PGPM). This book is the study of PGP microbes and the fundamental aspects of microorganisms and their direct and indirect relationship to agriculture and plant growth promotion. The book begins with some basic information on Plant - microbial associations help in growth promotion and protection including methods of study and classification. It then goes on to describe their utilization and effects in agriculture as growth promoters and biofertilizer. This book deals with the various aspects of soil nutrient management and agricultural microbiology. Special attention is given to the plant growth-promoting micro-organisms in the soil, their interactions, and roles. A major discussion on soil AMF and their effect on plants and bioinformatics tools-application in PMI are also given. Thus in a broad sense, the book will be useful to the students and researchers of Agricultural Microbiology. Globally we need to improve the production and protection of crops through modern biotechnological tools and techniques. Chapter 1. Plant-endophytic bacterial associations help in plant growth promotion and protection against the fungal pathogens Ei Mon Myo, Divya Jain, Debasis Mitra, P. Panneerselvam, Snežana Anđelković, Ansuman Senapati, A. N. Ganeshamurthy, Rittick Mondal, Bhaswatimayee Mahakur and Navendra Uniyal Chapter 2. Beneficial soil bacteria and fungi helps in plant growth promotion Rittick Mondal, Divya Jain, Ei Mon Myo, Debasis Mitra, Navendra Uniyal Vaishali Tyagi and Prabhakar Semwal Chapter 3. Influence of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on plant growth promotion and nutrient managnment Debasis Mitra, Rittick Mondal, Divya Jain, Tanja Vasić, Komal Sharma, Bahman Khoshru, P Panneerselvam, AN Ganeshamurthy, Ei Mon Myo, Bhaswatimayee Mahakur and A Senapati Chapter 4. Actinomycetes - Basics and beneficial role in agriculture Priya Choudhary, Divya Jain, Bhaswatimayee Mahakur and Debasis Mitra Chapter 5. Bioinformatics application and advancement: plant microbes interaction Snežana Anđelković, Devvret Verma, Tanja Vasić, and Debasis Mitra Chapter 6. Application and useful impact of bio - inoculants in agriculture Bahman Khoshru Chapter 7. Biofertilizers : A sustainable approach for plant and soil health Priya Choudhary , Divya Jain, Kumar Anand and Debasis Mitra https://www.amazon.in/Microbial-Resources-Sustainable-Agriculture-Debasis/dp/6139836085
Article
Full-text available
The increase in costs and demand of protein from conventional resource necessitates fish farmers and hatcheries manager to incorporate cheap and locally available ingredients in fish diets. Among protein plant sources, Azolla seems to be good replacer of protein from expensive sources such as fish meal and fish oil depending on feeding habits of the fish species. It contains high crude protein content (13% to 30%) and essential amino acid (EAA) composition (rich in lysine) than most green forage crops and other aquatic macrophytes. A review was conducted on significance of Azolla meal as a protein plant source in finfish culture, mostly focus was on Tilapia species and family Cyprinidae. About 30 published online journal papers, from Research gate and Google scholar in aquaculture nutrition were reviewed. Among reviewed papers revealed that, the dietary Azolla supplementation at certain level have a positive effect on feed utilization and protein conversion ratio, mobilization and utilization of glycogenic amino acids, and growth performance. Therefore, this review suggests that, 10-45% Azolla inclusion level can be incorporated in the diet for Tilapia species, except for T. zillii which requires more than 40% protein contents. While in fish belong to the family Cyprinidae, the inclusion level should be 10-50% for Rohu, and 10-25% for the rest of family members, except Labeo fimbriatus which didn’t shows any effect up to 40% Azolla inclusion level in a diet.
Article
Full-text available
This paper is the first in a series reporting a study on the effects of different concentrations of insecticide, Endosulfan (0-600ppm) was premeditated on 5th day after insecticide exposure with respect to growth rate, pigment composition and photosynthetic activity of Azolla microphylla under laboratory conditions which become non-target organism in the rice fields. Endosulfan inhibited the relative growth rate, pigment content and photosynthetic O2 evolution. Phycocyanin was main target followed by carotenoid and total chlorophyll. Significant increase in pigment, flavonoid and Anthocyanin was noticed after six days of treatment. In contrast to the photosynthetic activity, the rate of respiration in Azolla microphylla was increased significantly. Our results show that Endosulfan at normally recommended field rates and intervals are seldom deleterious to the beneficial and Eco friendly Azolla microphylla and their activities and thus in turn suppress plant growth and development. Phytotoxity of Azolla microphylla can be minimized by restrictions on application, timing, method and rate of application.
Article
Full-text available
Objectif : Le présent article de revue fait état des études relatives aux utilisations des ressources alimentaires non conventionnelles utilisées en alimentation animale. Il met l’accent sur la description, la composition et les intérêts agronomiques de ces dernières.Méthodologie et Résultats : Dans la recherche des informations sur les ressources alimentaires non conventionnelles plusieurs travaux scientifiques publiés ont été consultés et leur synthèse a été faite. L’examen des résultats de recherche a révélé l’utilisation des ressources alimentaires non conventionnelles comme une alternative face aux coûts élevés des ressources conventionnelles qui sont pour la plupart importées vers les pays tropicaux. Les travaux traitant de l’utilisation des ressources alimentaires nonconventionnelles et particulièrement de Azolla Spp, Moringa oleifera, son de riz, viscères de poulet et de poisson dans l’alimentation des animaux sont parcourusConclusion et application des résultats: Leur standardisation permettrait de les rendre applicables en milieu paysan. Ces ressources pourraient ainsi constituer une alternative de choix face aux coûts des aliments conventionnels utilisés en production animale.Mots-clés : alimentation animale, Azolla spp, Moringa oleifera, son de riz, viscères poulet ou poisson
Article
Full-text available
Reducing the use of the chemical pollutants become necessary for save environment. Cotton is a crop needs extensive use of fertilizers during growing and a lot of chemical during processing. Thus, alternative sources of non chemical fertilizers in addition to, use less chemical in bleaching and dyeing is veiy important to cotton producer and manufacturer. Our study was performed at Cotton Res. Inst., Agric. Res. Center, Egypt, during 2011 and 2012 seasons to study the effect of using cyanobacteria strain (Spirulina platensis) (.Azolla pinnata) as biofertilizers and Humic acid as an organic fertilizer on the technological properties of the colored cotton. Split plot design with three replicates was used in this study. The cotton Type (T) was occupied the main plot as a main factor with two levels (green cotton, brown cotton), while; the fertilizers treatments (F) were distributed randomly in the sub plots. The effect of all factors under study and their interaction were significant for all characters under study except for the effect of the main factor and the interaction on the soil biological characters, the effect of the sub main factor and the interaction on fiber upper half mean (mm), fiber elongation%, the effect of all factors and their interaction on fiber uniformity index and the effect of the interaction on the color parameters on both years. The green cotton surpassed the brown cotton on fiber upper half mean (mm), fiber strength (g/tex), fiber maturity ratio and fiber color strength (K/S). On the other hand, the brown cotton exhibited the highest value for micronaire value, fiber fineness (millitex), fiber elongation (%), fiber yellowness/blueness% (b*) and fiber redness/greenness% (a*). The treatment Spirulina platensis suspenslon+,4zolla pinnata suspension+Humic acid (F4) generally enhanced all the fiber characters (except upper half mean) as well as, the soil biological activity in terms of increasing the total bacterial, total cyanobacterial counts, CO2 evolution. On the contrary, the treatment containing spirulina platensis suspension only (F2) was the least one. So, it is save for environment to fertilize the colored cotton with bio-organic fertilizers, which enhanced the soil activates without affecting its fiber properties.
Article
Full-text available
Abstract Azolla is a floating fern that floats in the freshwater which contains a permanent endosymbiotic community of a heterosist-forming filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena azollae living in the dorsal lobe cavity of the fronds. Symbiosis between Azolla–Anabaena is a great importance due to the use of plant as biofertilizer. Use in agriculture as well as animal feed, production of biogas, control of weeds and mosquitoes, and is also used in bioremediation studies. In this review presented an overview of the morphology of the symbiosis, taxonomy, life cycle and the use of Azolla in agriculture and biotechnology. Özet Tatlı su yüzeyinde yaşayan bir eğrelti olan Azolla, dorsal yaprak loblarında azot fikse eden, heterosist oluşturan kalıtımsal ortağı Anabaena azollae isimli filamentli bir siyanobakteri içermektedir. Azolla–Anabaena arasındaki simbiyotik ilişki bitkinin biyogübre olarak kullanılması nedeniyle büyük önem taşımaktadır. Tarımda kullanımının yanısıra hayvan yeminde, biyogaz üretiminde, yabani otların ve sivrisineklerin kontrolünde ve biyoremediasyon çalışmalarında kullanılmaktadır. Bu derlemede simbiyotik birlikteliğin morfolojisi, taksonomisi, yaşam döngüsü, Azolla’nın tarımda ve biyoteknolojide kullanımı hakkında genel bir bakış sunulmuştur.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.