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Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina

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Paula Faulkner at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Paula Faulkner
Bismark Owooh
Bismark Owooh
Bismark Owooh
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Joshua Idassi at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Joshua Idassi
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Agroforestry is a natural resource management system that integrates trees, forages, and livestock. The study reported here was conducted to determine farmers' knowledge about and willingness to adopt agroforestry technologies in North Carolina. The study reported participants were primarily older, male farmers, suggesting the need to attract more females and younger individuals to adopt agroforestry technologies. The increasing number of diversified farm operators presents a new audience for Extension educators to offer programs to improve limited-resource farmers' livelihood. The study recommends Extension training programs and information centers for farmers who need skills and knowledge to manage agroforestry technologies.
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The Journal of Extension The Journal of Extension
Volume 52 Number 5 Article 30
10-1-2014
Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by
Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina
Paula E. Faulkner
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
, pefaulkn@ag.ncat.edu
Bismark Owooh
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
, owoohbismark@gmail.com
Joshua Idassi
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
, joidassi@ag.ncat.edu
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License.
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation
Faulkner, P. E., Owooh, B., & Idassi, J. (2014). Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies
by Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina.
The Journal of Extension, 52
(5), Article 30.
https://doi.org/10.34068/joe.52.05.30
This Research in Brief is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at TigerPrints. It has been
accepted for inclusion in The Journal of Extension by an authorized editor of TigerPrints. For more information,
please contact kokeefe@clemson.edu.
October 2014
Volume 52
Number 5
Article # 5RIB7
Research In Brief
Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by
Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina
Abstract
Agroforestry is a natural resource management system that integrates trees, forages, and livestock. The
study reported here was conducted to determine farmers' knowledge about and willingness to adopt
agroforestry technologies in North Carolina. The study reported participants were primarily older, male
farmers, suggesting the need to attract more females and younger individuals to adopt agroforestry
technologies. The increasing number of diversified farm operators presents a new audience for Extension
educators to offer programs to improve limited-resource farmers' livelihood. The study recommends
Extension training programs and information centers for farmers who need skills and knowledge to
manage agroforestry technologies.
Introduction
Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management system that integrates
trees, forages, and livestock. Compared to single output systems (monoculture), agroforestry systems
have a number of advantages (Cairnes & Garrity, 1999; Dakora & Kenya, 1997). The adoption of
agroforestry is considerably more complex than traditional agriculture because it usually requires
establishing a new input-output mix of annuals, perennials, green manure, fodder, and other
components, combined with new conservation techniques such as contour hedgerows (wind breaks),
alley cropping, and enriched fallows (Amarcher, Ersado, Hyde, & Haynes, 2004). Unlike standard
agriculture, other natural resource management (NRM) practices typically are more knowledge-
intensive than modern agricultural development packages based on the need for improved seeds,
chemicals, and/or mechanical inputs. Therefore, farmer education, experimentation, and modification
are important for agroforestry and natural resources development versus conventional agriculture
(Barrett, Place, & Abdud, 2002).
Few studies have been conducted that examine the benefits of adopting agroforestry technologies;
however, of the studies conducted, it has been found that there are significant benefits for landowners
adopting agroforestry. This premise is supported by Jacobson and Kar, who conducted a similar study
and reported, "A review of the literature on agroforestry Extension adoption in the United States finds
Paula E. Faulkner
Associate Professor
pefaulkn@ag.ncat.edu
Bismark Owooh
Graduate Research
Assistant
owoohbismark@gmail.
com
Joshua Idassi
Natural Resources
Specialist,
Cooperative
Extension
joidassi@ag.ncat.edu
North Carolina
Agricultural and
Technical State
University
Greensboro, North
Carolina
only a few examples" (2013, p.1). It has been found that limited-resource farmers are faced with the
challenge of making their farm business economically viable. If agroforestry technologies can offer
financial gains, efforts should be made to encourage limited-resource farmers to make an investment.
Before implementing any educational program to encourage limited-resource farmers to invest in
agroforestry, it is advisable to first determine farmers' knowledge about agroforestry.
Purpose and Objectives
The continual awareness of limited-resource farmers to the growing industry of agroforestry
technology and how the industry affects the community is vital to the future of North Carolina's
agroforestry growth and the improved viability of limited-resource small farmers. The positive view of
agroforestry technology will not only benefit the livelihood of limited-resource farmers, but also
enhance environmental conservation. Because few studies have been conducted on the awareness of
limited-resource farmers to the growing industry of agroforestry technology and how the industry
impacts the community, the objectives were to:
1. Assess if limited-resource farmers in North Carolina understand and believe agroforestry is a
business opportunity with the potential to increase their farm income and enhance environmental
conservation; and
2. Identify factors that influence limited-resource farmer's decisions to adopt agroforestry technologies.
The following research questions guided the study reported here.
1. What knowledge do limited-resource farmers possess about agroforestry technologies?
2. What benefits do limited-resource farmers perceive as beneficial for adopting agroforestry
technologies?
3. What barriers do limited-resource farmers report for adopting agroforestry technologies?
4. What willingness do limited-resource farmers report for investing in agroforestry technologies?
The framework of the study supports Rogers' Diffusion Process, which defines diffusion as "the process
in which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a
social system." There are four key elements that make up this definition. These interacting factors
include innovation, communication, time, and social system. Diffusion of innovation includes both
spontaneous spread of new ideas and a planned method of propagating a new idea (Rogers, 2005, p.
6). Rogers says that it is not an all-encompassing theory, but rather a culmination of several
theoretical perspectives, all of which relate to the concept of diffusion. These processes involve the
innovation-decision process, the individual innovativeness, and the rate of adoption of an innovation.
Methods
Research In Brief
Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina
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©2014 Extension Journal Inc.
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All limited-resource farmers with prior engagement with Extension educators specializing in Forestry
Services were identified to participate in the study. They were mailed a letter of introduction inviting
them to participate in the study. The study was comprised of 150 limited-resource farmers listed in
the North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University's Cooperative Extension directory of
small farmers. Experts in the field of agroforestry reviewed the surveys to ensure content validity. The
survey instrument consisting of three sections was mailed to 150 limited resource farmers. Section
one of the survey instrument included close-ended questions that collected limited-resource farmer
demographic data and their awareness of agroforestry technologies. Section two included seven 5-
point Likert-style items to assess the benefits limited-resource farmers believed they would receive
from adopting agroforestry technologies. Section three included six 5-point Likert-style items to
assess the limited-resource farmers' perceived barriers to adopting agroforestry technologies as well
as their willingness to adopt agroforestry technologies.
Multiple mailings were used to give participants the opportunity to report their views on the topic
(Dillman, 2000). Data collection was conducted in three stages that lasted 6 weeks. Letters of
introduction, questionnaires, and prepaid return addressed envelopes were mailed on June 8, 2012 to
the 150 limited-resource farmers. The letter of introduction requested the questionnaires be
completed and returned within 2 weeks of receipt. The letter also stressed that the strictest
confidentiality would be upheld during the study. Two weeks after the first mailing, 7(4.46%) of the
participants responded. On June 25, 2012, a second mailing was made to all non-respondent 143
farmers stressing the importance of their participation in the study. As a result, 51 (37.7%) additional
surveys were received. On July 6, 2012, a third and final mailing was sent to all 92 non-respondent
farmers, and 34 farmers (37.00%) returned their surveys. Data collection ended on July 20, 2012.
Out of 150 farmers, 92 returned their surveys, giving a final response rate of 61.30%.
The SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, v 20) was used to analyze the data. Descriptive and
inferential statistics included frequency distributions, percentages, means, standard deviations, and
chi square. According to Babbie (1990), the results from a descriptive study can be used to create or
further develop knowledge about a given situation, thus paving the way for future studies to be
conducted. Such information would be helpful to Extension educators and policy makers because it will
aid with assessing the need for implementing pragmatic steps and programs to encourage limited
resource farmers to participate in educational programs and make informed decisions regarding the
adoption of agroforestry technologies.
Results and Discussion
Profile of Limited-Resource Farmers
Table 1 details the profile of the limited resource farmers. Due to missing data, none of the variables
were equal to 92. More than half (n=64; 73%) of the participants were male. Most farmers were age
40-49 (n=52; 61%). Seventy-three (85.9%) reported farming as their primary occupation. There was
a moderate correlation between age and occupation (Phi = .59, p <.01; Fisher's Exact Test =26.46).
Almost half of the participants reported having incomes between $30,000-$49,999 (n=42; 46%), with
fewer (n=6; 6.6%) reporting having incomes in the range of $75,000 and greater. Educationally,
almost one half (n=40; 45%) of the farmers reported earning a college degree, while 22 (24.75%)
Research In Brief
Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina
JOE 52(4)
©2014 Extension Journal Inc.
2
reported completing some college, and 13 (14.6%) reported earning a high school diploma.
Table 1.
Profile of Limited-Resource Farmers
Variables f %
Gender
Male 64 72.70
Female 24 27.30
88 100.00
Age
30-39 11 13
40-49 52 61.20
50-59 8 9.40
60 and over 14 16.40
85 100.00
Primary Occupation
Farmer 73 85.90
Retired 12 14.10
85 100.00
Household Income
Less than $10,000 6 6.60
Between $10,001-$29,999 13 14.60
Between $30,000-$49,999 42 46.20
Between $50,000-$74,999 24 26.00
Between $75,000-$110,000 3 3.30
More than $110,000 3 3.30
91 100.00
Education
Some high school 6 6.67
Completed high school 13 14.44
Technical certification 5 5.56
Research In Brief
Assessment of the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies by Limited-Resource Farmers in North Carolina
JOE 52(4)
©2014 Extension Journal Inc.
3
Some college 22 24.44
College graduate 40 44.44
A graduate degree 4 4.44
90 100.00
Note: Percent return based upon ninety-two; due to missing values none of the
variables have a sample size equal to 92.
Participants were asked to report their awareness of agroforestry technologies. Most reported a
minimum to moderate level of awareness, including windbreaks/shelterbelts (M=2.66), alley cropping
(M=2.65), forest riparian buffer (M=2.47), forest farming (M=2.30), and non-timber forest farming
(M=2.26), with crop tree management (M=1.97) reported as the lowest level of awareness (Table 2).
Table 2.
Awareness of Agroforestry Technologies reported by Limited-Resource Farmers (n
= 92)
Technology Mean1 SD
Windbreaks/Shelterbelts 2.66 .81
Alley cropping 2.65 .89
Forest Riparian buffer 2.47 .82
Forest farming 2.30 .85
Non-timber forest farming 2.26 .75
Crop tree management 1.97 .82
1Scale: 1=not aware, 2=minimum level of awareness, 3=moderate level of
awareness, 4= maximum level of awareness
Benefits of Adopting Agroforestry Technologies
Participants were asked to report on the perceived benefits of adopting agroforestry technologies.
Table 3 provides participants' responses. Overall, all agroforestry technologies were reported as
important. Improves water quality (M=4.30) and protect soils (M=4.29) were reported as the most
important, followed by improves wildlife habitat (M=4.23), increases biodiversity (M=4.22), provides
shade for livestock (M=4.14), and increases financial security (M=4.11). The least beneficial was
diversifies production (M=3.95) (Table 3).
Table 3.
Benefits of Adopting Agroforestry Technologies Reported by Limited Resources
Farmers (n = 92)
Benefit Mean1SD
Improves water quality 4.30 .80
Protects soil 4.29 .80
Improves wildlife habitat 4.23 .92
Increases biodiversity 4.22 .77
Provides shade for livestock 4.14 .85
Increase financial security 4.11 .85
Diversifies production 3.95 1.01
1Scale: 1=least important, 2=slightly important, 3=moderately important,
4=important, 5= very important
Barriers to the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies
When asked to report the barriers to adopting of agroforestry technologies, the respondents reported
that insufficient land was the most important barrier (M=2.04). This is followed by trees use too much
water, (M= 2.22), lack of demonstration sites (M=2.25), lack of technical assistance (M=2.28), lack of
seedlings (M=2.29), no market for agroforestry products (M=2.29), not familiar with technology
(M=2.30), lack of information on agroforestry (M=2.44), and does not seem profitable (M=2.46).
Table 4.
Barriers of Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies Reported by Limited Resource
Farmers (n = 92)
Barrier Mean1SD
Does not seem profitable 2.46 1.50
Lack of information on agroforestry 2.44 1.44
Not familiar with the technology 2.30 1.56
No market for agro forestry products 2.29 1.51
Lack of seedlings 2.29 1.47
Lack of technical assistance 2.28 1.48
Lack of demonstration sites 2.25 1.52
Trees used much water 2.22 1.41
Insufficient land 2.04 1.32
1Scale: 1=most important barrier, 2=important barrier, 3=less important
barrier, 4 =least important barrier, 5=not a barrier
Willingness to Establish Agroforestry Technologies
The respondents were asked about their willingness to establish agroforestry technologies (Table 5).
They reported that their unwillingness was based on the fact that they have to rely on family members
for labor and capital (M=1.88) and for paying out of pocket (M=1.85). However, the farmers reported
being slightly more willing to enroll in a cost-sharing program (M=2.68) and take out a loan
(M=2.51).
Table 5.
Willingness to Establish Agroforestry Technologies Reported by Limited-Resource
Farmers (n=92)
Action Mean1 SD
Enrolling in a cost-sharing program 2.68 1.48
Taking out a loan 2.51 1.42
Paying out of pocket 1.85 .41
Relying on family members for labor/capital 1.88 1.40
1Scale: 1=very unlikely, 2=unlikely, 3= neither likely nor unlikely, 4=likely,
5=very likely
Conclusions and Recommendations
It was concluded that participants were primarily male and older adults, suggesting the need to attract
more females and younger individuals to adopt agroforestry technologies. An increase in female
farmers would provide Extension educators the opportunity to offer educational programs to this
population emphasizing to them the benefits of adopting agroforestry technologies for economic gains.
The increasing number of diversified farm operators presents a new audience for Extension educators
and administration, and the need to offer programs according to specific educational needs. The study
reported here found that, as more farmers age, fewer individuals farm. This is important to note,
because the agroforestry industry is threatened when individuals are less likely to adopt new
technological innovations (Keil, Beranek, & Konsynski, 2005).
Furthermore, the study concludes that there is a lack of willingness by farmers for investing in
agroforestry as a business opportunity due to having to pay out of pocket for items and the need to
rely on family members for labor and capital. To address the lack of willingness, farmers could be
educated during trainings on how to apply for soft loans and participate during on-farm
demonstrations about agroforestry technologies. As it relates to finances being a barrier for farmers
adopting agroforestry technologies, the findings support a study conducted by Sullivan, Huke, and Fox
(1992). They found that many of the participants' concerns with adopting agroforestry technologies
were related to costs.
The study augments the idea of Jacobson and Kar (2013), who conducted a study to learn about
agroforestry Extension programs throughout the United States. They found that there were quite a
few issues related to lack of familiarity, complexity, and the time-consuming nature of many
agroforestry technologies. Additionally, they reported that more local studies on taking stock of what
is out there, doing market development assessments for agroforestry products, and more training on
agroforestry technologies would better equip the Extension professionals to ensure widespread
adoption of agroforestry practices. Again, the study supports the findings of Jacobson and Kar (2013),
who concluded that other major barriers to increasing the knowledge of agroforestry technologies
have to do with lack of outreach, training, and demonstrations of agroforestry in action. The study
also revealed that overall most respondents felt that agroforestry technologies have the potential to
benefit their farming operations.
The study reported here has produced information related to the adoption of agroforestry technologies
by limited-resource farmers and revealed prospects for conducting future research. The following
recommendations are suggested.
1. Limited-resource farmers should be provided with training programs focusing on needed skills and
knowledge to manage agroforestry technologies;
2. Information centers that are readily accessible for farmers with up-to-date information be provided
to various counties in the region to cater to the farmers as a whole;
3. Cost sharing programs such as Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) that promote the
adoption of agroforestry technologies should be encouraged for farmers to help their business and
conservation practices.
References
Amarcher, G. S., Ersado, L., Hyde, W. F., & Haynes, A. (2004). Tree planting in Tigray, Ethiopia: The
importance of disease and water micro dams. Agroforestry Systems, 60(3), 211-225.
Babbie, E. (1990). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Lear.
Barrett, C. B., Place, F., & Abdud, A. A. (2002). Natural resources management in African agriculture:
Understanding and improving current practice. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI.
Cairnes, M. A., & Garrity, D. P. (1999). Improving shifting cultivation in Southeast on indigenous fallow
management strategies. Agroforestry Systems, 4(1), 37-48.
Dakora, F.D., & Keya, S.O. (1997). Contribution of legume nitrogen fixation to sustainable agriculture
in Sub-Saharan Africa. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 29(5), 809-817.
Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method. New York: John & Sons
Wiley.
Jacobson, M., & Kar, S. (2013). Extent of agroforestry extension programs in the United States.
Journal of Extension [On-line] 51(4) 4RIB4. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2013august/rb4.php
Keil, M., Beranek, P. M., & Konsynski, B. R. (2005). Usefulness and ease of use field study evidence
regarding task considerations. Decision Support Systems, 13(1), 75-91.
Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. (4 ed.) New York: NY: The Free Press Technology.
Sullivan, G. M., Huke, S. M., & Fox, J. M. (1992). Financial and economic analyses of agroforestry
systems. Retrieved from: http://www.unl.edu/nac/inside agroforestry/20001fall winter.pdf
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... States and Canada, agroforestry is in an active phase of development and, since 2010, has emerged over the past decade as both a science and a defined set of practices, shaped and tailored to address urgent land use sustainability issues. Agroforestry completed the definition phase by the turn of the 21st century and is currently in a period of rapid scientific development (Nair, 2007;Feliciano et al., 2018Garrett et al., 2020), outreach (Shelton et al., 2005;Gold et al., 2004;USDA, 2015;Elevitch et al., 2018) and farm-level application (Faulkner et al., 2014;Rios-Diaz et al., 2018;Van Noordwijk, 2019). ...
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... Agroforestry selection has been shockingly short, seeing the all-around reported advantages (Trozzo et al. 2014). Obstructions have incorporated the cost of foundation, landowner's absence of involvement in trees (Faulkner et al. 2014), and the time and information needed for the executives. Numerous ranchers find out about new horticultural practices through expansion faculty or agrarian item vendors, and these experts ordinarily don't have preparing or experience with agroforestry (Current et. ...
Agroforestry in Organic Farming
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2021
Agroforestry, the word begat in mid-seventies, has made its place by and large the created and furthermore the non-industrial nations of the planet and is presently perceived as a vital way to deal with ensuring food security and recreation tough rustic conditions. Agroforestry applies to non-public horticultural and woods grounds and networks that conjointly embrace incredibly erodible, flood-inclined, financially peripheral and naturally touchy terrains. The regular situation is horticultural, any place trees are other to make wanted benefits. Agroforestry licenses for the broadening of homestead exercises and utilizes ecological assets. Because of an ascent inside the number of inhabitants in human and cows, there's expanding request of food likewise as grub, essentially in agricultural nations like India. Up until now, there's no strategy that manages points of interest in agroforestry in India. In any case, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has been talking about on the extent of getting a National Agroforestry Policy in relevant stages. Notwithstanding, developing an arrangement needs shrewd and dependable datasets from entirely unexpected corners of the country on the point matter.
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Agroforestry: An Eco-friendly Strategy for Reducing and Adapting to Climate Change
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
The significant rise in the release of greenhouse gases, primarily CO2, CH4, and N2O, over some time due to human activities, including agriculture, is intensifying climate change. This poses a threat to ecosystems and livelihood security, which has garnered global attention toward the role of agroforestry (AF). The primary cause of the rise in carbon dioxide concentration is the burning of fossil fuels. A research study discovered a positive correlation between CO2 concentration and temperature. As CO2 levels continue to climb, they will trap more heat, leading to elevated temperatures. To maintain a balanced heat budget, it is crucial to stabilize CO2 concentration. AF emerges as a viable approach to achieve this, as it absorbs carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, storing it in biomass and soil. The Kyoto Protocol’s recommended sustainable land use strategy is essential to reducing the effects of climate change. AF shows promise in carbon sequestration within biomass and the utilization of diverse resources. Additionally, it aids in curbing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting livelihoods, and offering partial solutions for conserving biodiversity. AF has the potential to enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers, contributing to poverty reduction and boosting productivity on their farms. Presently, AF stands as a relevant and effective land use system for improving agricultural crop yields. With so many benefits, AF can be seen as a comprehensive response to environmental changes because of its capacity to provide a variety of ecosystem services. It combats soil erosion, enhances water infiltration, and mitigates the adverse effects of extreme weather events. Moreover, AF practices diversify income sources for farmers, increasing their resilience against climate-induced crop failure or livestock loss. Tree-derived products can also serve as energy sources. Furthermore, increased tree coverage offers mitigation benefits by acting as a carbon sink on land.
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Determinants of Commercial Tree Growing Among Smallholder Farmers in Nandi County, Kenya
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
Commercial Forestry sector contributes more than $600 billion to the global economy each year. Farm forestry is expected to contribute immensely to meeting materials needs for this sector and also provide ecosystem services. To support the tree growing by farmers, it is essential to understand the factors that influence commercial tree growing. The findings of a study to assess the current state of on-farm tree planting and the key variables influencing adoption of commercial tree growing on farms are reported in this paper. Cross sectional data on commercial tree growing was collected from two hundred and eighteen (218) households. Using semi-structured questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions, these households were systematically and randomly sampled from a population of 3633 farming households practicing agroforestry. Descriptive statistics, logit and binary logistic regression models, and qualitative analysis were applied. The findings show that socioeconomic factors such as age, education level, and income have a strong influence on commercial tree planting among small holder farmers in Nandi County. Older farmers are more likely than younger farmers to participate in commercial forestry as farmers because their employment opportunities are limited. Farmers with a high level of education are also more likely to practice commercial forestry because they have access to information and training. Farmers with a high off-farm income are more likely to grow commercial trees as a long-term return investment than farmers who rely entirely on their farms. According to the study, the majority of farmers preferred commercially planting exotic tree species, with 70.2 % planting Cupressus lusitanica and 69.7 % planting Eucalyptus saligna. The study recommends that farmers should be educated on species site matching, according to the study, because they were found planting Eucalyptus species even in riparian areas. In conclusion, farmers of various ages can be encouraged to use commercial tree farming and good management practices to generate more income
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Farm-Forestry, Smallholder Farms and Policy Support – The Way Ahead
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Farm forestry, interchangeably used for the term agroforestry, encompasses growing trees and/or shrubs on farms, mainly to support agricultural production and supplement farm income on smallholder farms. This, as a bonus, also provides for ecosystem services viz., protection of soil and water resources, biodiversity enhancement, carbon sequestration, and improvement in landscape values to the farm holding. In Indian context, this encompasses raising trees mainly on bunds or field boundaries on small holdings or sometimes intercropped in an agroforestry type configuration, if holding size is bigger. The techno-economic viability of this system has been extensively assessed and wide adoption, therefore, warrants a conducive policy support at local and community level. Governments have framed enabling policies towards this goal; however, desired outcome is still awaited. This study attempts to map out the present development and suggest the measures required at local and community level to make the government policies more fruitful. Policies framed at macro level need recalibration to suit local and community specific requirements in the changing climatic conditions for wider adoption and sustenance.
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Extent of Agroforestry Extension Programs in the United States
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2013
An email survey of Extension professionals across the United States was carried out in 2011 to learn about agroforestry Extension programs. The most common agroforestry practices were riparian buffers, windbreaks, and forest farming. Programs provided some degree of effectiveness and success, but numerous obstacles to more widespread adoption were noted. Critical factors include an appreciation of interest in agroforestry, availability of markets and resources such as personnel and funding, having a dedicated program within each state, and having an active schedule of trainings, demonstrations, and other educational opportunities. Extension is in a unique position to facilitate promotion of agroforestry.
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Usefulness and ease of use: Field study evidence regarding task considerations
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1995
  • DECIS SUPPORT SYST
Usefulness and ease of use (EOU) are both believed to be important factors in determining the acceptance and use of information systems. Yet, confusion exists regarding the relationship between these two constructs and the relative importance of each in relation to use. Usefulness is seen as a function of task/tool fit, while EOU is viewed as a task-independent construct reflecting intrinsic properties of the user interface. This paper presents the results of a field study illustrating the hazards of focusing on EOU and overlooking usefulness. Based on the study, the authors suggest that perceived EOU may be a function of task/tool fit.
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Tree planting in Tigray, Ethiopia: The importance of human disease and water microdams
Article
  • May 2004
We examine the decision to plant trees and level of tree planting for two sites, public microdam areas and household agricultural land, and two species groups in Tigray, Ethiopia. Both sites are not perfect substitutes, as they vary with respect to distance from the household and tenure security. The role of permanent pooled water irrigation microdams to tree planting is important but unknown, because water borne diseases, which may influence household income and productivity, are thought to be enhanced by the dams. We find both disease and microdams to be important predictors to tree planting. Disease seems more important in determining whether households plant at all, and less important in the level of planting for those that do plant. For example, disease increases the probability of planting both eucalyptus and other species groups on household-own land, but households suffering from malaria plant higher-cost eucalyptus trees with lower probability at both sites, while planting of other lower-cost species increases at dam sites where other villagers can monitor the trees. We also establish a connection between planting and agricultural residues, finding a strong substitution effect on own-land. Microdam access and age are also important. Households living nearer to dam sites will plant both species groups there with higher probabilities, but the decision to plant on agricultural own-land is not affected. For older dams with more developed irrigation, households are more likely to grow crops rather than plant trees on their own land, but they plant more trees at the dam sites.
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Improving shifting cultivation in Southeast Asia by building on indigenous fallow management strategies
Article
  • Dec 1999
Shifting cultivation continues as the economic mainstay of upland communities in many countries in Southeast Asia. However, the conditions that historically underpinned the sustainability of rotations with long fallows have largely vanished. The imperative to evolve more permanent forms of land use has been exacerbated by rapid population growth, gazettement of remnant wildlands into protected areas, and state policies to sedentarize agriculture and discourage the use of fallows and fire. There are many compelling examples where shifting cultivators have successfully managed local resources to solve local problems. Technical approaches to stabilizing and improving productivity of shifting cultivation systems have not been notably successful. Farmer rejection of researcher-driven solutions has led to greater recognition of farmer constraints. This experience underlined the need for participatory, on-farm research approaches to identify solutions. The challenge is to document and evaluate indigenous strategies for intensification of shifting cultivation through a process of research and development. This process involves identification of promising indigenous practices, characterization of the practices, validation of the utility of the practice for other communities, extrapolation to other locations, verification with key farmers, and wide-scale extension.
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Contribution of legume nitrogen fixation to sustainable agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa
Article
  • May 1997
  • SOIL BIOL BIOCHEM
Grain legumes fix about 15–210 kg N ha−1 seasonally in Africa, and therefore feature prominently in the cropping systems of traditional farmers. However, increased exploitation of this biological N is constrained by various environmental and nutritional factors, including the cropping patterns used. An evaluation of traditional cropping systems in Africa shows that crop rotation involving legume and cereal monocultures is by far more sustainable than intercropping, the most dominant cultural practice in the continent. Tree legumes also fix about 43–581 kg N ha−1 y−1, making their leaf prunings an important component of sustainability in agroforestry and alley cropping systems. In a single year, the prunings of Sesbania sesban can provide up to a hectare of cereal crop, up to 448 kg N, 31.4 kg P, 125 kg K, 114 kg Ca and 27.3 kg Mg, thus making the foliage of this legume the “ideal” fertilizer. Clearly, achieving sustainable yields in Sub-Saharan Africa would require a deeper understanding of how fixed N in legume residues is managed in the soil environment, in addition to expanding the use of neglected African food legumes, which exhibit considerable drought resistance and nitrate tolerance. In Africa, where soil moisture often limits yields, research on neglected, symbiotic native legumes with NO3− and drought-tolerant traits would constitute a sound basis for increased sustainable production.
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Tree planting in Tigray, Ethiopia: The importance of disease and water micro dams
  • Jan 2004
  • AGROFOREST SYST
  • 211-225
  • G S Amarcher
  • L Ersado
  • W F Hyde
  • A Haynes
Amarcher, G. S., Ersado, L., Hyde, W. F., & Haynes, A. (2004). Tree planting in Tigray, Ethiopia: The importance of disease and water micro dams. Agroforestry Systems, 60(3), 211-225.
Natural resources management in African agriculture: Understanding and improving current practice
  • Jan 2002
  • C B Barrett
  • F Place
  • A A Abdud
Barrett, C. B., Place, F., & Abdud, A. A. (2002). Natural resources management in African agriculture: Understanding and improving current practice. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI.