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Abstract
Cognition underlies all our behaviour including survival behaviour. Yet, when life is threatened, cognitive function becomes impaired. This article examines current research into the role of working memory and executive function in survival situations and attempts to shed light on why so many people in survival situations perish unnecessarily. It also seeks to remove the term 'will-to-live' as an outdated concept that hampers our further understanding of human behaviour in extremis.
... In terms of survival psychology, the first-stage phenomenon is referred to as psychogenic death, whereby "a biological process takes place as in natural death, but it is triggered at a premature stage in the person's life when they are under duress (Leach 2011)." Survival psychology has mostly focused on the reasons why people survive while others do not; however, this does not describe the entire panorama. ...
... Survival psychology has mostly focused on the reasons why people survive while others do not; however, this does not describe the entire panorama. Fig. 1 Action effects on stakeholder satisfaction and crisis stages Source: Author's elaboration Therefore, Leach (2011) posits that the better question is "why so many people die when there is no need"; in other words, if the variables are the same, then why is it that so many people do not survive? ...
... According to Leach (1994), survival behavior consists of four major phases, these being: "pre-impact, impact, recovery, rescue and post-trauma". Survivability is considered a functioning "new normal" which requires a socially responsible approach to crisis management of all phases experienced in survival behavior toward transitioning from survival mode. ...
This paper analyzes the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) as a factor of innovation in the Coffee Pluma geographical region in Oaxaca, Mexico, a vital tool to solve the problem of the actual crisis in the chain and for the new context of business and markets in the post-COVID 19 era due to the need for new marketing methods. Two case studies are presented under the Global Value Chain (GVC) methodology proposed by Gereffi et al. (1994, 2005, 2018) with a contribution from the conceptual framework of Geographical Indications (GI) used by Belletti et al. (2017) to analyze the PDO as an innovation. The first are small-size producers and the second are medium-size producers, both considered as small companies by the number of people employed. Even on a small scale, the coffee sector, through the appellation of origin, has the potential to generate economic benefits in the place of origin by promoting the development of two other economic sectors such as tourism and retail marketing. Likewise, it gives a comprehensive answer considering the business economic field and incorporating, as required by the current reality, other capitals such as social, cultural and environmental. The aim of this chapter is to evaluate the benefits that coffee sector, will obtain and generate through this sectorial and territorial development tool, considering that the G.I. emerges as an option to improve production by acquiring the exclusivity of producing coffee within that region to achieve sustainable development faced with the new reality.
... In terms of survival psychology, the first-stage phenomenon is referred to as psychogenic death, whereby "a biological process takes place as in natural death, but it is triggered at a premature stage in the person's life when they are under duress (Leach 2011)." Survival psychology has mostly focused on the reasons why people survive while others do not; however, this does not describe the entire panorama. ...
... Survival psychology has mostly focused on the reasons why people survive while others do not; however, this does not describe the entire panorama. Fig. 1 Action effects on stakeholder satisfaction and crisis stages Source: Author's elaboration Therefore, Leach (2011) posits that the better question is "why so many people die when there is no need"; in other words, if the variables are the same, then why is it that so many people do not survive? ...
... According to Leach (1994), survival behavior consists of four major phases, these being: "pre-impact, impact, recovery, rescue and post-trauma". Survivability is considered a functioning "new normal" which requires a socially responsible approach to crisis management of all phases experienced in survival behavior toward transitioning from survival mode. ...
In the last decades, organizations have generated and exploited the data product of their operational activity using technological tools to support executives in decision-making, seeking to incorporate economic and social benefits. A key factor today to increase the competitiveness of service providers is taking advantage of the exponential increase in Internet purchases that has been further enhanced by the COVID-19 pandemic. The use of social networks as a means of reference and knowledge of recommendations based on the experience of other users, as well as the use of mobile applications, have contributed to exponentially exploding e-commerce and making it increasingly profitable for companies. This document analyzes the data obtained from various sources, in order to determine the behaviors and preferences related to medical tourism. The study seeks to determine which are the main factors that allow predicting consumption habits and leading the various options for socially responsible medical tourism through the use of advanced analytical and artificial intelligence tools, in order to identify the most attractive alternatives to benefit consumers in an adverse environment like the one the world is facing because of the global pandemic caused by COVID-19, which represents a significant challenge for most industries, but also generates new opportunities with significant benefits for those who know how to take advantage of them.
... In such a trauma-laden environment, those who continue to live can be recognised as survivors who continue to adopt and adapt to the ever-challenging environment (Cairney, 2014;Cyrulnik, 2011;Leach, 2011;Siebert, 2005). Within the survival framework, survival behaviour has two distinct types, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic (Leach, 2011). ...
... In such a trauma-laden environment, those who continue to live can be recognised as survivors who continue to adopt and adapt to the ever-challenging environment (Cairney, 2014;Cyrulnik, 2011;Leach, 2011;Siebert, 2005). Within the survival framework, survival behaviour has two distinct types, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic (Leach, 2011). The former is maintained by the day-to-day routine behaviour within the normal environment. ...
... Whether the danger is expected or otherwise, the immediate result of a catastrophe overwhelms the sensory overload as the brain is flooded with sights, sounds, touches, smells and tastes (Leach, 1994). Victims of danger are surrounded by information they can neither process nor comprehend that subsequently causes them to become confused and numb and thus suffer from cognitive dysfunction (Leach, 2011). This period is relatively uncontrollable, and very little can be done in terms of general survival strategies (Fogo, 2017). ...
After experiencing the American war in Iraq as a machine gunner in the U.S. Army, Kevin Powers deliberates on war and the risks surrounding the lives of all those involved in his debut novel, The Yellow Birds. This paper aims to uncover the survival psychology that underlies the behaviour of the two main characters in the novel, Private John Bartle and Private Daniel Murphy as well as other minor characters. Survival psychology expounds unpredictable and threatening situations where people's lives are at stake. They either choose to fight, flight or freeze in reaction to these horrible experiences, that is, they either take action, surrender or eventually die. In the context of war, soldiers frequently face such deadly situations. The reactions of the characters to the circumstances of war and their success and/or failure to cope with its dangers are indicative of their survival mechanism. The novel is examined according to the three major periods of impact in survival psychology, specifically, pre-impact, impact and post-impact periods. Bartle overcomes the psychological consequences of his war experience years after leaving the army, but Murphy loses his faculties in the chasms of war and consequently dies. The psychological survival of those who overcome these risks physically is not guaranteed. Such terrifying experiences of death may make these people vulnerable and exposed to psychological repercussions such as psychosis.
... The suffered people from a disaster (around 65-80%) will act in a hesitant manner and will be shocked and confused. Other victims of the disaster (10-15%) will show severe inadequate adaption behaviour, which consists of paralyzing, confusion, panic, crying and anxiety (Leach, 1994). ABC News (2012) reported the observation of such behaviour of people on the Costa Concordia ship, such as running pointlessly in different directions or standing inactively. ...
... Therefore, some of such behaviours can also probably be simulated in an agent-based model for building a more accurate model. Vorst (2015) modelled the "Human Factor" using the dynamic disaster model from Leach (1994). The "Human Factor" describes the human behaviour during an emergency situation. ...
... Vorst (2015) describes the psychological factor of stress to the time taken in the evacuation, where women feel higher stress and therefore, take 20% longer time to take action for evacuation. Moreover, Vorst (2015) quantified the human behaviour on not taking action for evacuation stated by Leach (1994), where he considers a percentage of humans who effuse to take action on evacuation during and before the flood event. ...
... Physical and psychological stresses have a considerable bearing on the outcome in a survival situation (Buck, 2015;Brieva, et al., 2005;Leach, 2011;Tipton, 1989). In-water-based scenarios it is no different. ...
... While previously stated there are initial survival benefits, over time, especially if rescue or self-rescue does not occur, they can be, and often are, physically debilitating and fatal (FEMA (2015)), Turner & Engle, 1989). One key element of stress is the rapid loss of strength and energy over time (Leach, 2011). Good judgement and the ability to make correct lifesaving decisions are another. ...
... How could that be? It is a known phenomenon called "do-nothing-sickness" (Leach, 2011). In our everyday lives, we are used to structure and purpose, and most people are very sensitive to changes in this pattern (Leach, 2016). ...
... Under such extreme conditions, it is essential to structure the days and take some sort of control of what they are going through (Maundalexis: Mounsalexis, McKneely, Fitzpatrick & Scheffer, 2011). There is a biological process to this phenomenon that I will not elaborate on, but the point is that, under extreme mental and physical strain, many people experience cognitive paralysis, in which lack of action becomes their undoing (Leach, 2011). This makes it very important to have skilled and trained leaders that can trigger people's motivation and the will to do what it takes to survive, to establish routines, activities and systems to prevent people who actually have a chance of survival from perishing unnecessarily, due to cognitive paralysis. ...
... How could that be? It is a known phenomenon called "do-nothing-sickness" (Leach, 2011). In our everyday lives, we are used to structure and purpose, and most people are very sensitive to changes in this pattern (Leach, 2016). ...
... Under such extreme conditions, it is essential to structure the days and take some sort of control of what they are going through (Maundalexis: Mounsalexis, McKneely, Fitzpatrick & Scheffer, 2011). There is a biological process to this phenomenon that I will not elaborate on, but the point is that, under extreme mental and physical strain, many people experience cognitive paralysis, in which lack of action becomes their undoing (Leach, 2011). This makes it very important to have skilled and trained leaders that can trigger people's motivation and the will to do what it takes to survive, to establish routines, activities and systems to prevent people who actually have a chance of survival from perishing unnecessarily, due to cognitive paralysis. ...
Executive Summary
The SARex3 exercise was conducted in May, 2018 in Fjortendejuli Bukta, North of Ny-Ålesund. Significant players within the industry was present, including flag state, vessel operators, vessel owners, equipment suppliers, emergency response providers and academia.
The first part of the exercise assessed the mechanisms associated with survival during an evacuation to shore. Compared with the findings from the SARex1 and SARex2 it was evident that there was a significant improvement of the survival rate when evacuating onto the shore, compared with a prolonged stay in a survival crafts.
The participants were supplied with a water ration of 1 liter per person per day, which proved insufficient in a 5-day survival perspective.
The project was also to assess the functionality provided by the different PSK (personal survival kits) and GSK (group survival kits) provided. This proved to be an impossible task due to great variations with regards to activity levels conducted by the individual participants to compensate for a heat loss caused by lack of insulating abilities in the equipment. It is of importance that IMO defines a level of heat loss that is regarded as acceptable for the human body to maintain for the expected time to rescue, a minimum of 5 days. Based on a predefined heat loss figure, equipment and combinations of equipment can be assessed in a transparent way. Utilizing this methodology also opens up for approval of alternative solutions.
During SARex3 phase 2 of SARex3 about 50 casualties were to be evacuated from a remote beach onto the vessel Polarsyssel (owned by the Governor of Svalbard). The operation was led by representatives from the Governor of Svalbard and was executed by Røde Kors (Red Cross), Longyearbyen. The additional challenges represented by a large number of casualties should be addressed in the Operational Assessment (as defined in the IMO Polar Code) for vessel of relevance. The additional challenges should further be mitigated to maintain a reasonable risk profile, as time is a critical element in a survival situation in cold climate. Triage, transportation and treatment of a large number of casualties takes time, and requires a significant effort by the emergency response providers in addition to imposes additional strain on equipment, communication systems and the human element.
During SARex3 phase 3 Maritime Broadband Radios were tested. A remote relay station was erected at Enjabalstranda. The signals were beamed from the exercise area, via the relay station, to Ny Ålesund, and further transmitted to Longyearbyen and Oslo. The system proved reliable and live video feeds that were watched in Oslo in real time and live news updates were sent on the national tv-channel TV2. Representatives from Sysselmannen tested a software for increasing common operational picture between the different emergency response providers.
The MBR system proved reliable, but significant technical expertise was needed to initiate the system. As most “line of sight” systems it is necessary with base stations, connecting the data feed onto commonly utilized communication carriers like the internet. It is important to acknowledge the reduction in bandwidth (50%) for each relay station needed. This reduces the effective bandwidth provided by the system.
... An overview of emergencies that may affect the transportation system is provided in Table 1.1. Although many structural characteristics may be used to classify disasters causing emergencies (Leach, 1994), this thesis focuses on the impacts on the transportation system, and thus we will classify emergencies here according to their types of impact on transportation supply and demand, that are discussed further below. ...
... 3. In the evacuation state the individual either evacuates or seeks shelter. Obviously, this third state is only relevant when imminent danger is present, as well as acknowledged and acted upon (Leach, 1994;Vorst, 2010), which, for example, Dixit et al. (2012b) incorporate by modelling risk attitudes. Besides this choice on whether and when to engage in evacuations, which can be captured with e.g. a sequential binary logit model, research on evacuation behaviour has traditionally focused on two other choices related to the evacuation trip itself, namely the accommodation type and destination choice, with family and friends as the most favored and public shelters as the least favored accommodation types, and the mode choice, where, if possible, evacuation by car is the most preferred option. ...
Emergencies disrupting urban transportation systems cause management problems for authorities. This thesis develops simulation methods that permit analysis thereof and evaluation of candidate management plans, tested in three case studies. It formulates a methodological framework using agent-based choice models and multimodal macroscopic dynamic network loading models, and develops extensions of the Link Transmission Model to deal with more complex and variable fundamental diagrams and initially non-empty roads.
... Similar responses to disaster have been collated by Leach. An "engine fire aboard a Boeing-737 airliner at Manchester airport in 1985 that resulted in 55 deaths found some passengers sitting immobile in their seats until overtaken by smoke and toxic fumes" [47]. Similar passivity substantially increased the death toll in the Piper Alpha oil platform fire in which "A large number of people apparently made no attempt to leave the accommodation" [48]. ...
... Even prepared people can suffer unexpected passivity under stress-11% of parachuting fatalities result from "no-pull" events where after failure of the main chute the reserve chute is not pulled [49]. Leach concluded that victim passivity results from a "difficulty in integrating information from the new survival environment, through multimodal systems, to information stored in long-term memory" so that "victims perish unnecessarily because the threat environment restricts both the storage and processing capacities of working memory coupled with a form of temporary, environmentally induced dysexecutive syndrome" [47]. After subsequent investigations, Leach found that victim immobility or freezing is a "common response to unfolding emergencies" resulting from an "impaired response that delays evacuation, establishing a closed-loop process that leads to fatalities in otherwise survivable situations" [50]. ...
The hard problem in artificial intelligence asks how the shuffling of syntactical symbols in a program can lead to systems which experience semantics and qualia. We address this question in three stages. First, we introduce a new class of human semantic symbols which appears when unexpected and drastic environmental change causes humans to become surprised, confused, uncertain, and in extreme cases, unresponsive, passive and dysfunctional. For this class of symbols, pre-learned programs become inoperative so these syntactical programs cannot be the source of experienced qualia. Second, we model the dysfunctional human response to a radically changed environment as being the natural response of any learning machine facing novel inputs from well outside its previous training set. In this situation, learning machines are unable to extract information from their input and will typically enter a dynamical state characterized by null outputs and a lack of response. This state immediately predicts and explains the characteristics of the semantic experiences of humans in similar circumstances. In the third stage, we consider learning machines trained to implement multiple functions in simple sequential programs using environmental data to specify subroutine names, control flow instructions, memory calls, and so on. Drastic change in any of these environmental inputs can again lead to inoperative programs. By examining changes specific to people or locations we can model human cognitive symbols featuring these dependencies, such as attachment and grief. Our approach links known dynamical machines states with human qualia and thus offers new insight into the hard problem of artificial intelligence.
... His psychological responses during the incident match closely the psychodynamic model of core survivor behaviours observed during five specific phases of a life-threatening event: pre-impact, impact, recoil, rescue and post-trauma. 39,40 ...
... After many hours in the water and various ships passing him by, he became dispirited and repeatedly tried to drown himself by letting himself sink and gulping down seawater. 39 ...
In most countries, immersion represents the second most common cause of accidental death in children and the third in adults. Between 2010 and 2013, 561 deaths worldwide involving recreational divers were recorded by the Divers Alert Network. Consequently, there is no room for complacency when diving. Being lost at sea is a diver's worst nightmare. In 2006, a diver was lost at sea off the coast of New Zealand for 75 hours. It is unprecedented that, after such a long time immersed in temperate (16-17°C) waters, he was found and survived. His case is presented and utilised to illustrate the many physiological and psychological factors involved in prolonged immersion and what might determine survival under such circumstances. We also briefly review options for enhancing diver location at sea and a few issues related to search and rescue operations are discussed.
... However, there is interest in applications of pedestrian modelling for evacuation and for shopping areas (Haklay et al. (2001)). Although most model developers consider evacuation behaviours similar to commuters aiming to exits (Kuligowski et al. (2010)), there is empirical evidence that not all pedestrians behave similarly (Leach (1994)) requiring modification to the model. Shopping behaviour is different from commuting and most models would need different approaches (Borgers et al. (2009)). ...
... Some people in extreme situations simply do not react and stay paralysed often dying from inaction (Leach (2004)). This thesis is not focusing on evacuations in extreme situations that are still not completely understood and results in non normal behaviours (Leach (1994), Kobes et al. (2010), Galea et al. (2010)). ...
How to model and simulate large pedestrian facilities accurately? This dissertation answers this question by analysing current pedestrian models and expanding one. The developed model (Nomad) describes pedestrians as individuals that minimise walking efforts. The model is expanded including behaviours that correspond to activities performed in pedestrian facilities such as train stations and airports. The model is calibrated and validated using a novel methodology that obtain parameters of general use.
... Disaster studies have shown how such events produce long-term effects that act as catalysts for political, economic, social and psychological actions (Gibbs, 2000;Leach, 1994;Dynes and Tierney, 1994). With these studies in mind, we may now evaluate what the combined outcome of a potentially vulnerable societal situation on the island of Crete was when it was faced with the effects of the eruption. ...
... One of the most promising developments in recent warning research has been the increase in social scientists' collaboration with physical scientists (e.g., Gregg et al., 2006Gregg et al., , 2007Velotti et al., 2013) and engineers (e.g., Trainor et al., 2012) that has sometimes led to integrated research agendas-see the International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters special issue on a tornado warnings (Volume 31, Issue 3). Trying to integrate perspectives from very different disciplines is extremely challenging but is critically needed to avoid the propagation of wildly erroneous assumptions about people's behavior in disasters (e.g., Leach, 1994;Vorst, 2010). In addition, interdisciplinary collaboration can be extremely useful in overcoming disciplinary blinders that focus research on one aspect of warnings and neglect research on other aspects. ...
Warning research has identified people’s major information sources as environmental cues, social cues, and social warnings from authorities, news media, and peers. Social sources are differentiated by expertise, trustworthiness, and responsibility for providing protection. Warning messages are most likely to produce appropriate protective actions if they provide information receivers need to understand the threat, expected time of impact, affected (and safe) areas, appropriate protective actions, and sources to contact for additional information and assistance. Such information produces situational risk perceptions that can be characterized in term of expected casualties, damage, and disruption to the community in general and to one’s family in particular. People’s choices of response actions can be frustrated by situational inhibitors or enhanced by situational facilitators that arise from their physical, social, and household contexts.
... Many individuals simply do not know what to do in highly stressful emergency situations like vehicle submersion, while for those who have heard what to do, memory and execution are often poor (Leach, 1994). Therefore, many lives could be saved if a system could sense that a vehicle is in water and then automatically open the electric side windows. ...
Objective: Every year about 400 people die in submersed vehicles in North America and this number increases to 2,000–5,000 in all industrialized nations. The best way to survive is to quickly exit through the windows. An Automatic Window Opening System (AWOS; patent protected) was designed to sense when a vehicle is in water and to open the electric windows, but only when the vehicle is upright. Methods: The AWOS consists of a Detection Module (DM), in the engine compartment, and a Power Window Control Module (PWCM) inside the driver’s door. The DM contains a Water Sensor, a Level Sensor and a Microcontroller Unit (MCU). The Level Sensor provides the angular orientation of the car using a 3-axis acceleration sensor and prevents automatic window opening if the car is outside the orientation range (±20° in the roll axis, ±30° in the pitch axis, with a 2 s delay). Systems were installed on two cars and one SUV. A crane lowered vehicles in water either straight down (static tests) or by swinging the vehicles to produce forward movement (dynamic tests). Results: In all tests, when the vehicles landed upright, windows opened immediately and effectively. When vehicles landed inverted, or at a very steep angle, the system did not engage until an upright and level position was attained. Conclusions: This system may help decrease drowning deaths in sinking vehicles. If occupants do not know, or forget, what to do, the open window could hopefully prompt them to exit safely through that window. © 2017 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
... As argued, false memories themselves may serve an adaptive function, by generating information that can prime and facilitate later problem-solving. Indeed, false memories may serve a higher order adaptive function by self-activating key information that may be useful for decision-making and problem-solving (e.g., see Leach, 1994;Leach & Griffith, 2007). ...
Research has demonstrated that false memories are capable of priming and facilitating insight-based problem-solving tasks by increasing solution rates and decreasing solution times. The present research extended this finding by investigating whether false memories could be used to bias ambiguous insight-based problem-solving tasks in a similar manner. Compound remote associate task (CRAT) problems with two possible correct answers, a dominant and a non-dominant solution, were created and normed (Experiment 1). In Experiment 2, participants were asked to solve these CRAT problems after they were given Deese/Roediger-McDermott lists whose critical lures were also the non-dominant solution to half of the corresponding CRATs. As predicted, when false memories served as primes, solution rates were higher and solution times were faster for non-dominant than dominant CRAT solutions. This biasing effect was only found when participants falsely recalled the critical lure, and was not found when participants did not falsely recall the critical lure, or when they were not primed. Results are discussed with regard to spreading activation models of solution competition in problem-solving tasks and current theories of false memory priming effects.
... 2. In the adaptation state the household responds to the disruption and may adapt its activity and travel plans accordingly by, for example, switching routes or rescheduling activities. The benefits of such an adaptation should then outweigh the possible (mental) effort involved in this reevaluation process ( (Leach, 1994;Vorst, 2010). ...
Many possible emergency conditions, including evacuations, negatively affect the urban transportation system by substantially increasing the travel demand and/or reducing the supplied capacity. We develop a new, general and efficient methodology suitable for simulating multimodal transportation systems subject to a wide range of emergency situations, based on the integration of an activity-based choice model with both pre-trip and en-route choices, and a macroscopic or mesoscopic dynamic network loading model. The model structure first estimates the daily equilibrium and then simulates the emergency without iterations. An evacuation case study for Delft shows the feasibility of the methodology and yields practical insights.
... 3. In the evacuation state the individual either evacuates or seeks shelter. Obviously, this third state is only relevant when imminent danger is present, as well as acknowledged and acted upon (Leach, 1994;Vorst, 2010), which, for example, Dixit, Wilmot and Wolshon (2012) incorporate by modelling risk attitudes. Besides this choice on whether and when to engage in evacuations, which can be captured with e.g. a sequential binary logit model, research on evacuation behavior has traditionally focused on two other choices related to the evacuation trip itself, namely the accommodation type and destination choice, with family and friends as the most favored and public shelters as the least favored accommodation types, and the mode choice, where, if possible, evacuation by car is the most preferred option. ...
Many possible emergency conditions, including evacuations, negatively affect the urban transportation system by substantially increasing the travel demand and/or reducing the supplied capacity. A transportation model can be used to quantify and understand the impact of the underlying disasters and corresponding management strategies. To this end, we develop an efficient methodology suitable for simulating multimodal transportation systems affected by emergencies, based on the novel integration of an activity-based choice model with both pre-trip and en-route choices, and a macroscopic or mesoscopic dynamic network loading model. The model structure first estimates the daily equilibrium and then uses that result as a starting point to simulate the emergency situation without further iterations. Unlike previous efforts, our methodology satisfies all requirements identified from literature regarding transportation modeling for emergencies, and is sufficiently general to investigate a wide range of emergency situations and management strategies. An evacuation case study for Delft shows the feasibility of applying the methodology. Furthermore, it yields practical insights for urban evacuation planning that stem from complex system dynamics, such as important interactions among travel directions and among modes. This supports the need for a comprehensive modeling methodology such as the one we present in this paper.
... This is especially true in emergency situations. For instance Leach [12] provides figures for human reaction to disasters where: between 10% and 20% will remain calm, the largest group of around 75% will be "stunned and bewildered" and exhibit impaired thinking, while the remaining 10% to 15% will exhibit "inappropriate" behaviour i.e. panic. ...
In the automotive domain the standard ISO 26262 places significant emphasis on the assignment of Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASILs). In particular much of Part 3 of the standard is dedicated to the process that determines the three factors that contribute to the final assigned ASIL value: exposure, severity and controllability. In this paper we examine some of the issues that the authors have encountered during the development of an in-wheel electric motor and will argue that the perceived emphasis on ASIL ratings, in the context of developing a safe system, is misplaced and potentially counterproductive.
... Beyond the psychological costs to individual soldiers, and left out of battle rates for units, empirical results also indicate that the stressors found in military contexts can reduce operational effectiveness. This impairment includes attentional lapses, narrowing of perceptual focus, short-term memory impairment, and biased information processing, which separately, and in combination, can contribute to errors in judgement and performance [2,4,5,6,7]. Thus, despite technological advances, humans remain the central element in military operations and are required to maintain emotional, cognitive, and behavioral control to ensure their own safety, the safety of their comrades, and to maximize operational effectiveness. ...
With psychological injuries accounting for between 10-50% of operational casualties, there is consistent evidence that adequate psychological preparation for deployments is a vital operational requisite. Beyond the psychological costs to soldiers, empirical results also indicate that the stressors found in military contexts can contribute to errors in judgement and performance, reducing operational effectiveness. Thus, the development of training programs that successfully prepares personnel for the psychological rigors of operations, in addition to the physical and technical demand, are important for operational effectiveness and maintaining the well-being of individual military personnel. Although many militaries provide stress management briefings, the ultimate effectiveness of these briefings can be hampered by at least three factors. First, these presentations are typically a fairly academic discussion of a generic stress model presented in lecture formats that are totally distinct from operational training. This may make the lessons inherent in stress briefings seem unrelated to soldiers' experiences. Second, there is virtually no practical training associated with traditional stress management briefings. A final, yet fundamental issue is, of course, the existence of the pervasive stigma associated with mental health issues. All of these factors may contribute to a general resistance toward, and/or denial of, the relevance of this information. Despite these individual and cultural pejoratives that undermine the acceptance of this training, militaries must address the issue of developing psychological resiliency in their personnel. The challenge, then, is to incorporate the important principles of stress management into training in ways that are engaging and relevant to military audiences, and that do not cause psychological reactance due to stigma-related attitudes. In this paper we explore how the psychological literature on stress and coping might inform military training programs to enhance "mental readiness"(1, p. 743) as a method to develop the baseline psychological resiliency of military personnel. Accordingly, mental readiness training involves an integrated approach, infusing the principles of emotional, cognitive and behavioral control in the context of realistic military training. More specifically, in selected training situations, instructors would note physiological and cognitive responses to stress, how these responses may affect soldiers' reactions, and the decisions made and the course of action taken, as well as how these factors interact. Trainers also would provide instruction in the techniques of maintaining cognitive and emotional control in situ, demonstrating these techniques as required until a specific level of proficiency is achieved. In this way, the valuable lessons and training points of stress management are more intrinsically applicable and salient to soldiers, the techniques more contiguously practiced, and the benefits of these techniques more immediately experienced in operationally relevant contexts. Thus, integrating these principles and tools into relevant training opportunities encourages the reflexive application of mental readiness responses in the same way that technical proficiencies become reflexive in military contexts. We review two studies that have particular application to a mental readiness approach. We conclude with a discussion of specific Thompson, M.M.; McCreary, D.R. (2006) Enhancing Mental Readiness in Military Personnel. In Human Dimensions in Military Operations - Military Leaders' Strategies for Addressing Stress and Psychological Support (pp. 4-1 - 4-12). Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP-HFM-134, Paper 4. Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: RTO. Available from: http://www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp.
... Most interesting for evacuation models are variables or parameters used in theories and findings of disaster psychology. In our opinion the theory described in John Leach's book [9] is the best theory in Disaster Psychology. This theory will be very useful for implementing the Human Factor in evacuation models. ...
In evacuation models of buildings, neighborhoods, areas, cities and countries important psychological parameters are not frequently used. In this paper the relevance of some important variables from disaster psychology will be discussed. Modeling psychological variables will enhance prediction of human behavior during evacuations.John Leach’s Dynamic Disaster Model describes three phases and five stages: A Pre-impact phase (Threat Stage and Warning Stage), an Impact phase, and a Post-impact phase (Recoil Stage, Rescue Stage and Post-traumatic Stage). In each phase and stage specific human behavior has been supposed to be a psychological response to a disaster. These responses are remarkably consistent and transferable across kinds of disasters.Evacuation happens during Pre-impact phase, Impact phase and Post-impact phase (Recoil Stage and, or Rescue Stage). People’s cognitive and emotional states and overt behavior will be very different across the phases. During the Pre-impact phase risk estimation is very low, so evacuation is not seen as an inevitable action. Heavy stress and denial of life-threatening events during the Impact phase will hinder effective evacuation. Inactivity, apathy and childlike dependency on other people during the Recoil Stage will restrain survivors from active evacuation.Evacuation models will be more effective if phases and accompanying human behavior are taken into account.
The second quarter of 2020 is ending, and the covid-19 pandemic is ongoing. The intricacies of this crisis are unprecedented; yet, it would be challenging to find a time in history when the human race has not been confronted with crisis and catastrophic consequences. Most individuals and organizations, surviving a crisis, are infused with collateral effects of trauma, but survive. The question is why are organizations ceasing to exist, or unable to transition to survivability? It is plausible that a different approach to crisis management is needed to face the current challenges. The general objective of this study is to analyze the implications of engaging in corporate social responsibility to inform crisis management and maintain stakeholder satisfaction. A conceptual model is discussed to describe how effective socially responsible crisis management enables firms to transition from survival mode to survivability.
Understanding people's behavior when they are under threat is important to both researchers and practitioners. This study investigates the impact of the severity of collective threats on people's donation intention. Through a series of studies, our findings show that the severity of collective threats positively affects people's donation intention. Specifically, when a collective threat becomes more severe, people under threat tend to pay more attention to and feel empathy for others experiencing the same threat, thus increasing their donation intention. Furthermore, the positive effect of collective threat severity on people's donation intention becomes weaker when the degree of threat relief is high (vs. low). It is also found that when donation recipients are experiencing a different threat from that of donors, the positive effect of collective threat severity disappears. This study enriches our understanding of people's behavior under threat and extends the literature on social identity theory. Additionally, our results provide important managerial implications for charity organizations regarding how to increase people's donation intention by selecting appropriate locations and timings for donation activities.
This chapter provides the reader with background and discussion regarding the transformational leadership model developed by James MacGregor Burns in 1978. The theory was further refined by Bernard Bass through the 1980s and 1990s and has become a hallmark for leaders who wish to embrace change and improve their organization's performance. Collaboration, empathy, trust, and a genuine concern for all employees or followers in the organization are vital to the success of the transformational leader. A comparison of the theory of instructional leadership to transformational leadership provides the reader with an understanding of the differences between these leadership models. Discussion shifts to focus on how trauma negatively affects employees and organizations and how the elements and practices of transformational leadership can work to bring healing and wholeness to school communities and weather the potentially negative effects that change has on a learning community.
This work develops a novel methodology for investigating dynamic evacuation route switching behavior and its influence on evacuation traffic assignment considering evacuees’ intuitionistic fuzzy perception and cognition of multitype multiattribute real‐time variable message sign (VMS) information. The methodology has three distinctive features. First, a link‐based VMS information utility model is developed. Second, two link‐specific dynamic escape speed models (DESMs), characterized by VMS information, evacuee attributes, and hazard‐related information, are proposed. Third, VMS information characteristics and the intuitionistic fuzzy method are integrated into route choice behavior models. The link‐specific DESMs are used to adjust the reactive DYNASTOCH algorithm to simulate emergency traffic evacuation. Results demonstrate that the proposed models are effective in characterizing not only dynamic evacuation route switching behavior (microscopic) but also network‐wide evacuation traffic performances (macro) under behavioral and information uncertainties.
The Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS) had its genesis in the 1990s in response to a need to produce occupational divers who were trained to international standards with the necessary skills to safely undertake complex work in high-risk environments. Well-trained dive teams who are 'fit-for-purpose' can be regarded as the highest level of risk control in preventing accidents and workplace morbidity. Without such training, work site risks are not detected, with potentially disastrous consequences. In September 2017, the only civilian ADAS level 3 and 4 training facility in Australia, The Underwater Centre Tasmania (TUCT), closed its doors. The reasons for TUCT closure were multifactorial. However, the loss of higher level training capability in this country and its benefits to industry will have a future adverse impact. As industry pushes for more complex diving to improve productivity, Australian occupational diver training processes are becoming 'streamlined' and are losing parity with international benchmarks. This is a potentially fatal combination.
Deep learning, a relatively new branch of machine learning, has been investigated for use in a variety of biomedical applications. Deep learning algorithms have been used to analyze different physiological signals and gain a better understanding of human physiology for automated diagnosis of abnormal conditions. In this manuscript, we provide an overview of deep learning approaches with a focus on deep belief networks in electroencephalography applications. We investigate the state of- the-art algorithms for deep belief networks and then cover the application of these algorithms and their performances in electroencephalographic applications. We covered various applications of electroencephalography in medicine, including emotion recognition, sleep stage classification, and seizure detection, in order to understand how deep learning algorithms could be modified to better suit the tasks desired. This review is intended to provide researchers with a broad overview of the currently existing deep belief network methodology for electroencephalography signals, as well as to highlight potential challenges for future research.
During the past 2 decades, the psychosocial landscapes of the military and elite sport have drastically changed, with the presence of stress an increasing health and safety concern. For example, in modern warfare, fighters must have the psychological capabilities to counter terrorism and undertake extended deployments in extreme environments against enemies with increasing skills for rapid development and dissemination of information and weaponry via global communication networks. In sport, performers have also reported being affected by globalization, reporting a hazardous array of stressors (e.g., roles, relationships, development issues, and organizational structure and climate) associated with preparation for and performance at major international competitions. The result of such developments is the need for leaders in both the military and sport to better understand optimal performance, and in particular the preparation of their charges, the war fighter and athlete, for the demands of their respective competition arenas. Therefore, in this narrative review we identify strengthbased concepts of common interest and potential knowledge transfer in the study of psychology of excellence in the face of adversity between sport and military domains. Specifically, we highlight a value of 6 strength-based concepts for elite performance environments in sport (i.e., Olympic performance) and the military (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Extraction: SERE); mental toughness, positive emotion, learned optimism, resilience, posttraumatic growth, and self- and emotion regulation. In line with this discussion we highlight commonalities and knowledge transfer considerations regarding interventions in these spheres of psychological practice, the potential value of humanism and existentialism, the importance of post career and rehabilitation intervention, and readiness to change and engagement in training.
Between 1993 and 1999, 241 people died while participating in civilian recreational skydives in the United States. A taxonomy of skydiving fatalities was developed and used to categorize the fatalities.
Functional imaging studies reveal that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is more active when we select one from a number of possible responses. The same region is activated whether the choice is between limb movements or words. The magnitude of the activity does not increase with increasing rate of response selection, although the activity decreases when performance starts to break down at high rates. In a sentence completion task, the more constrained the response is by the sentence, the less activity is seen in DLPFC. These observations suggest that DLPFC biases possible responses top-down, thereby creating an arbitrary and temporary category of responses appropriate to the task in hand. This biasing depends on interactions between DLPFC and more posterior brain regions where responses are represented; the location of these regions depends on response modality, and their activity varies with response rate.
Victims often respond to survival incidents with maladaptive behaviours that suggest impairment in executive function. To examine this hypothesis the authors tested sub-components of executive function during an intensive military survival exercise. Compared to a control group the survival course participants showed significant impairment in the incongruent condition of the Stroop task; the mean repetition gap and adjacent letter pair components of the random letter generation task; and the planning and action components of the Tower of London task. No impairment was found in dual-task performance nor in verbal fluency. The pattern of the data suggests that the maladaptive behaviour frequently observed in survival incidents may be explained by dysfunction in the supervisory system-contention scheduler interface. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Working memory capacity of novice and experienced parachutists was compared under three conditions: prior to exiting the aircraft, on landing and during a control, non-jumping day. Analysis of the operation span task revealed significant impairments in both storage and processing capacities of working memory prior to jumping. Storage capacity continued to be impaired in novice parachutists on landing whilst experienced parachutists showed full recovery. Neither group showed impairment in processing capacity on landing. Significant increases in heart rate were found for both groups in the jump and landing conditions compared to baseline but no differences existed between novices and experienced parachutists. Initial analyses support processing efficiency theory and suggest that cognitive processing may be slowing down during a jump. However, post hoc analysis of incorrect responses suggest that executive function may actually become disrupted. The results are reviewed in the context of ‘no pull’ parachuting fatalities. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The suggestion that maladaptive behaviour often observed in survival incidents may be due to a restriction in attentional processing was tested using sub-components of the Test of Everyday Attention in participants undergoing a field survival exercise. Compared to a baseline condition and control group those undergoing environmental duress showed significant impairment in selective and sustained attention which taken together suggests dysfunction in controlled attention. No impairment was found in either attentional switching or auditory-verbal working memory. It is argued that this type of cognitive impairment makes flexible interaction with the survival environment difficult and the victim's behaviour becomes dominated by environmental cues at the expense of wilful, goal-directed survival behaviour. This would begin to answer at least one anomaly that exists in survivorship: why so many people perish when there is no need. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Heart rates and psychological states were measured in 14 novice and 21 expert parachute jumpers while making a static line jump from an airplane. The measures were compared with data from a jump made from a model on the ground and with baseline data collected weeks later at a different location. Personality traits were measured at baseline day by Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire, Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale V and Spielberger's STAI trait. Several tests of psychological state were given. Expert parachutists scored significantly higher than novices on Psychoticism and Experience seeking. Thrill and Adventure seeking correlated negatively and Trait anxiety positively with several measures of state anxiety. The only trait variable that correlated with heart rate was Psychoticism which had a negative correlation with two measures of increase in heart rate before making the jump. Number of jumps was the only good predictor of heart rate in expert jumpers at exit from the plane. Eysenck's arousal theory was not corroborated. Extraversion was unrelated to psychological state and heart rate. An exception was that among expert jumpers heart rate at exit from plane correlated negatively with extraversion.
Two experiments examined the effect of differing levels of emotional arousal on learning and memory for words in matching and mismatching contexts. In Experiment 1, experienced skydivers learned words either in the air or on the ground and recalled them in the same context or in the other context. Experiment 2 replicated the stimuli and design of the first experiment except that participants were shown a skydiving video in lieu of skydiving. Recall was poor in air-learning conditions with actual skydiving, but when lists were learned on land, recall was higher in the matching context than in the mismatching context. In the skydiving video experiment, recall was higher in matching learn-recall contexts regardless of the situation in which learning occurred. We propose that under extremely emotionally arousing circumstances, environmental and/or mood cues are unlikely to become encoded or linked to newly acquired information and thus cannot serve as cues to retrieval. Results can be applied to understanding variations in context-dependent memory in occupations (e.g., police, military special operations, and Special Weapons and Tactics teams) in which the worker experiences considerable emotional stress while learning or recalling new information.