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... Temperatures higher than 35 • C were reached in SP during this period. It has been reported that high whole-tree temperatures (30 • C) inhibit fruit growth and ripening in the 'Fuyu' cultivar [51]. This direct effect of temperature on fruit ripening has also been reported in grapes and mandarins [52,53]. ...
Fruit development and maturation rely on intrinsic genetic programs involving hormone biosynthesis and signalling and environmental cues, integrating phenological cycles and climatic issues encompassing abiotic stresses and climate change. In persimmon trees, environmental inputs strongly influence fitness and agricultural performance, and fruit yield can be severely compromised by them. We have grown two persimmon accessions (‘Rojo Brillante’ and ‘Fuyu’) under contrasting meteorological conditions of two locations in Spain and Japan. Fruit size, colour change, and firmness parameters were followed during fruit development from 30 days after fruit set until commercial ripening, and the expression of genes related to ethylene production and signalling, gibberellin response, carotenoid biosynthesis, cell wall dynamics, and oxidative stress were reported. Genes depending on intrinsic developmental programs (ethylene and ripening variables, mostly) showed common expression trends in both cultivars and locations, whereas gibberellin and abiotic stress-related genes mimicked reduced fruit growth and abiotic stress associated with higher summer temperatures (>35 °C) and lower rainfall reported in the Spanish location. The expression pattern of these genes is consistent with a growth–defence trade-off that explains fruit differential growth through hormonal and stress tolerance mechanisms.
... , 기후, 품종 및 재배조건이 다른 우리나라에서 수행된 연구 결과 (Choi et al., 2008;Kim et al., 1997;Park, 2002)와는 차이가 있다. 더구나 10월 하순까지 '부유'의 시기별 과실 비대는 보고되었지만 (Choi et al., 1999) (Chujo, 1982;Taira, 1996), 이때는 온도의 영향을 많이 받는 것으로 알려져 있다 (Nishikawa et al., 2002 (Fig. 2D). 당도는 성숙이 되면서 어느 시점까지는 지속적으로 증가한다 (Mowat et al., 1997;Sugiura et al., 1983). ...
Relationships among climate changes, early frost, and fruit growth were studied during the final month to harvest of late-maturing 'Fuyu' persimmon (Diospyros kaki) to assess the changes in fruit characteristics during this critical period. The heavy frost on Nov. 16 defoliated more than 70% of the leaves, but with little damage on the fruits. However, all the leaves were defoliated by the heavy frost on Nov. 20, and all the fruits were cold-damaged by on Nov. 21. Fruit weight increased by 8-25 g per week from Oct. 25 (142 days after full bloom) to Nov. 15, reaching to 250 g, but it decreased by 3-4 g per week after the frost. Hunter a value of fruit skin gradually increased until the last harvest on Nov. 29 with a temporary halt in early Nov. when temperature was high, whereas fruit firmness rapidly decreased after the frost on Nov. 21. Fruit soluble solids were for the final month. When some branches were covered with non-woven fabrics to avoid direct contact with frost, the fruits on the branches were not visually damaged by the low temperature although 40-60% of their leaves were defoliated on Nov. 16. However, low temperature on Nov. 20 and 21 defoliated all the leaves, causing cold damage on the fruits. There was a highly significant correlation between the fruit diameter and its weight ( = 0.73-0.91). So, the regression equations could be used to estimate weight from diameter of the fruits sampled from the branches with the non-woven fabrics. The calculated fruit weight reached to a maximum of 240 g on Nov. 15. Daily increases in fruit weight were 1.1-2.5 g from Oct. 25 to 31, 1.9-3.5 g from Oct. 31 to Nov. 7, and 1.4-1.6 g from Nov. 7 to 12. However, fruit weight decreased by 0.3-1 g per day after the cold damage on Nov. 21. The results indicate that the most appropriate harvest time could be dependent on relationship of fruit growth to climate.
... Quality and productivity characteristics of persimmon are affected by environment. For example, fruit quality, based on fruit weight, peel colour, soluble solids and soluble tannins, was highest when day/night temperature during growth stage II and stage III respectively was 25/25 and 25/20 °C, compared to higher (30/30 °C) and lower temperatures (15/15 °C) (Chujo, 1982). In addition, high rainfall in the latter part of fruit development can affect fruit quality (Mowat and George, 1994). ...
Fruit quality and productivity datasets, obtained over two seasons from 24 New Zealand persimmon orchards, were associated with a self organising map trained on the spatial coordinates and geographic region of each orchard. Using this approach, a summary representation of the geographic distribution of the orchards was obtained from the projection plane of the self organising map. By overlaying fruit quality and tree productivity attributes as component planes, spatial patterns between orchards could be observed. In addition, climatic data from regional meteorological stations was associated with the map.
Proanthocyanidin (PA) accumulation is a unique feature of persimmon fruit physiology. Unlike many species bearing fleshy fruit, persimmon progressively accumulates PAs during very long period of fruit development, resulting in a strong astringent taste at physiological maturation. Pollination constant and non-astringent (PCNA)-type cultivars stop accumulating PAs in the early stages of fruit development, and the mature fruit is edible and can be commercialized without an artificial deastringency treatment. Two distinct loci, ASTRINGENCY (AST) for Japanese PCNA and CPCNA for Chinese PCNA, are independently responsible for the PCNA trait, and AST, in which the recessive allele confers the Japanese PCNA trait, is currently the major locus used in PCNA fruit production and modern breeding. Here, we review findings on the PAs in persimmon with a focus on the Japanese PCNA trait. We propose that the unique characteristic of PA accumulation in persimmon fruit may be used to analyze biological processes that cannot be clarified in model plants. The available genetic information collectively shows a hypothesis regarding the process of establishing the recessive trait under polyploid conditions that would be difficult to achieve in nature. Future directions for PA research and its application to fruit production, in combination with available reference genomes, are discussed.KeywordsProanthocyanidinPolyploidyTranscription factorDomesticationTannin cells
Oriental persimmon (Diospyros kaki) originated in Eastern Asia and many local landrace cultivars have been developed in China, Japan, and Korea. In these countries, persimmon cultivars had been developed initially from chance seedlings and subsequently by bud mutants and crossbreeding. At present, crossbreeding, particularly pollination-constant non-astringent (PCNA) breeding, is being conducted mainly in Japan, Korea, China, Italy, Uzbekistan, and Spain. In Japan, the crossbreeding program started at the national institute in 1938 with the aim of releasing PCNA cultivars with early ripening, high quality, and less-cracking characteristics. So far, 12 PCNA and two PVA cultivars for table use have been released by the institute. Because the PCNA genotype is recessive to the other three non-PCNA genotypes and recessive PCNA alleles are not accumulated in most cultivars, crosses between PCNA and local non-PCNA local cultivars produce only non-PCNA F1 offspring. Therefore, PCNA-type F1 offspring are obtained exclusively by crosses among PCNA genotypes, Thus, crosses among PCNA are the most efficient method for obtaining PCNA offspring. However, the number of superior PCNA cross-parents is limited. Consequently, inbreeding depression became obvious in the program in the late 1980s, especially in fruit size, tree vigor, and productivity. To overcome inbreeding, a backcross program [(PCNA × non-PCNA) × PCNA] was started in the 1990s. This process, however, was time-consuming and inefficient because only 15% of PCNA offspring were segregated from the crosses. Therefore, molecular markers linked to PCNA/non-PCNA locus were developed for discriminating PCNA and have been applied to practical breeding in Japan. Chinese PCNA, which has a different origin and mechanism of removal of astringency from the Japanese PCNA, is dominant to the non-PCNA trait. The molecular marker linked to the Chinese PCNA has also been developed. The marker for discriminating Chinese PCNA has also been applied to practical breeding in Japan and China. Persimmon breeding has been conducted at several institutes around the world, including the Huazhong Agricultural University in China, Sweet Persimmon Research Institute, Gyeongsangnam-do Agricultural Research and Extension Service, and Pear Research Station, National Institute of Horticultural & Herbal Science in Korea, University of Florence in Italy, Instituto Valenciano de Investigacions Agrarias in Spain, Nikita Botanical Garden, Nova Kachocka Experimental Research Station, and Grishko Botanical Garden in Ukraine, and Instituto Agronomico, Campinas, State of Sao Paulo in Brazil, with goals for releasing highly adaptable cultivars in each country.
The terms pollination constant (PC) and pollination variant (PV), respectively, define persimmon cultivars as those exhibiting no change in flesh color due to seed formation in the fruit and as those exhibiting a change due to brown specks by seed formation in flesh color. ‘Fuyu’ is the most produced persimmon cultivar in the world, and it has been regarded as a PC and non-astringent cultivar (PCNA). A total of 557 and 101 ‘Fuyu’ persimmon fruits were collected in 1981 and 1982, respectively, from trees grown at Akitsu at the National Institute of Japan and were evaluated for the number of seeds contained in each fruit (SN) and scored according to the quantity of brown specks (BS) in the flesh. The regression of the BS scores on seed numbers was positive and highly significant (P<0.001) in both years. These results showed that fruit flesh color was slightly changed by seed formation in the ‘Fuyu’ fruits. This change was lower than that observed in most PV cultivars. ‘Fuyu’ seeds exude ethanol and acetaldehyde, which are responsible for the coagulation and oxidation of tannin substances in the flesh in PV cultivars. The slight change of flesh color in ‘Fuyu’ is possibly caused by these volatile compounds. The results lead to classifying ‘Fuyu’ into PV in a strict sense of Hume’s classification. To eliminate the confusion, we propose that the term “PCNA” should be redefined with a synonym for Kajiura’s term of “perfect non-astringent”, i.e., non-astringent at maturity with no influence of seeds, apart from Hume’s classification. © 2018 International Society for Horticultural Science. All Rights Reserved.
Three-year-old potted cv.Tonewase trees were grown in a growth chamber kept at 15-25°C from 3 February to 9 May. Sprouting and flowering were hastened with increase in temperature. The cumulative temperature above 10°C required for flowering was about 444°C. The cumulative temperature above 10°C from sprouting to flowering became less with increase in temperature. Shoot growth was more vigorous at higher temperatures and growth of female flowers was greater with decrease in temperature.
The sudden hollow depression of Japanese apricots (Prunus mume) differed from sunscald in that it initiated suddenly in the flesh toward the fruit apex well before any disorder symptoms occurred in fruit skin. Only at the advanced stage did this disorder show the similar symptoms found in the fruits with sunscald. Later, fruit skin was depressed toward the hollow, reaching frequently to the stone. This disorder developed rapidly from late May. The disorder developed when fruit temperature exceeded 29°C in 'Gojiro' and 30°C in 'Nankou'. As the temperature increased above this threshold, so did the percentages of the fruits that developed the disorder. Soil moisture affected the percent occurrence of the disorder. The percentages of fruits with the disorder increased as soil moisture decreased. When soil moisture was maintained at -10, -30 and -50 kilopascals, the percentages of the fruits with the disorder were 10.3, 15.0 and 23.2%, respectively. Fruits with the disorder were characterized by low calcium concentrations in flesh and seed. Nitrogen concentration within fruit tended to be high in disordered fruits, thereby significantly increasing the nitrogen-calcium ratio. The results suggested that any strategies aimed to regulate soil moisture to an appropriate level and to increase calcium concentration of the fruits should help to reduce the occurrence of sudden hollow depression of Japanese apricot fruits.
Temperature is one of the most important factors affecting fruit coloration. Because of recent effects of global warming, inferior coloration has become a serious problem in many fruits, especially those for which coloration is important for the commercial appearance and value, such as grapes, apples, citrus fruits, and persimmons. Coloration in these fruit results from the synthesis and accumulation of pigments. The presence of anthocyanins or carotenoids is responsible for the color of fruit peels. The biosynthetic pathways of anthocyanins and carotenoids in these fruit have been characterized, and these studies have provided valuable information for understanding the occurrence of poor coloration in response to high temperature. In general, peel color development is enhanced by low temperatures and inhibited by high temperatures. Several techniques have been described to improve the peel color of fruit, and recent studies have identified the mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of these techniques.
Persimmons are temperate, climacteric fruit, externally attractive with very little acidity and primarily sweet flavour. Maturation involves colour changing from green to yellow-orange or red, accompanied by increased soluble solids content (SSC), reduced fruit firmness and astringency. Commercial maturity is generally determined by colour. Persimmon's unique characteristic is a high soluble tannin content, responsible for astringency, which may or may not decline with maturation. Thus, cultivars are differentiated by the presence of low astringency (in 'sweet' persimmons), or extreme astringency, lost naturally with fruit softening. Treatments to remove astringency are generally applied postharvest, mostly using high CO2. Optimum storage is generally at 0°C, but higher temperatures may result in chilling injury. 1-MCP and modified/controlled atmosphere storage (MA/CA) can extend storage duration to three months. Most external disorders are expressed as skin blackening, and pathological disorders are generally low unless storage exceeds two months.
Non-astringent persimmon is rapidly expanding as a new fruit crop in warm subtropical regions of the world. Most research and development of this fruit crop has occurred in Japan, where there is a considerable amount of published literature on its performance. Much of this information is not readily accessible to other countries and needs to be interpreted and modified for other climatic regions. This paper reviews reproductive events from floral initiation to the completion of fruit growth. The timing and significance of these events is described in relation to the phenological cycle. Method of improving flowering, reducing fruit drop and altering the fruit maturity period are discussed.
Seasonal changes in fruit growth, soluble tannins, soluble solids concentration, colour, fruit firmness, and chilling sensitivity were recorded during fruit maturation of the persimmon cultivar, Fuyu. Comparisons were made between fruit growing in Auckland and Gisborne in two seasons. There were major variations between seasons in soluble solids concentrations, soluble tannins, and colour as fruit matured. Chilling sensitivity was also greater in one year than another. Tannin content and chilling sensitivity of fruit varied between sites within a season. These results confirm observations that maturation of persimmon fruit in New Zealand does not follow the same pattern as it does in Japan.
Sweet persimmon fruit (Diospyros kaki cv. Fuyu L.) were heat-treated with dry air at 34–50°C for durations of 0.5–10 h, cooled immediately, and stored for 6.5 weeks at 0°C in air. After storage, fruit were held for 3 days at 20°C, and evaluated for quality. Extreme chilling injury (flesh gelling) was observed in non-heated fruit. Associated with development of chilling injury was increased ethylene production 1 day after removal from storage, and decreased fruit firmness, juiciness, titratable acidity, and colour (L value, hue and chroma) 3 days after removal from storage. Increasing the temperature of the hot air heat treatment (HT) progressively reduced flesh gelling and alleviated chilling injury. However, external and internal browning increased with greater HT temperatures and duration. Least chilling injury and external browning were observed at 47°C for 0.5–3 h. However, the levels of browning observed in these treatments are likely to be commercially unacceptable. Thus, although hot air HTs confer significant protection against low temperature damage to persimmon fruit, heat damage needs to be reduced before such benefits can be realised commercially.
Export focused on non-astringent persimmon industries have been established in climatic zones ranging from temperate through to tropical regions. Market value of persimmon fruit can be sensitive to the influence of environment on quality, yield and seasonality of supply. This study investigates macro-climatic effects on fruit development and maturation. The study was based on ‘Fuyu’ orchards located in a warm-temperate region (North Island, New Zealand) and in a warm-subtropical region (S.E. Queensland, Australia). Fruits were sampled at regular intervals during fruit growth over two growing seasons. Fruit quality and compositional parameters assessed included fresh weight, skin colour, dry matter, soluble solids and soluble tannins. Mature fruit grown in the warm-subtropical region had significantly higher soluble solids concentration and content, and lower soluble tannins concentration and content than fruit grown in the warm-temperate region. A comparison of fruit development patterns showed significant differences in soluble soluble solids concentration and content occurring after 15 weeks from full bloom (WFB) and differences in soluble tannin concentration and content occurring before 7 WFB and after 7 WFB respectively. Internal fruit quality attributes appear to be more sensitive to macro-climatic differences between warm-temperate and warm-subtropical regions than the external quality attributes of fruit weight and skin colour.
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