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Designing thinking-aloud studies in ESL reading
... Think-aloud protocols can be defined as "stream-ofconsciousness disclosure of thought processes while information is attended to" (Rankin, 1988, p. 119). The transcripts of the verbalized thoughts are later analyzed, and patterns are discovered (Rankin, 1988). The protocols related to reading focus on "the apprehension, comprehension, and interpretation of text written by another person" (Rankin, 1988, p. 120). ...
... Other methods of eliciting information have some shortcomings compared to think-aloud protocols. For example, reading comprehension questions test a product, not a process (Alderson, 1984;Rankin, 1988;Baker & Brown, 1984). "Moreover, they tend to structure the readers' comprehension, forcing them to conform to question setter's interpretation" (Rankin, 1988, p. 121). ...
... It is important to know "the nature and extent of guidance that the subjects received in verbal reporting" (Cohen, 1996, p. 13). In this study, participants initially received instruction from the researcher on thinking aloud procedure and how to verbalize their thoughts through doing practice search before the actual task (Rankin, 1988). According to Church & Bereiter (1983), originally from Rankin (1988), a threepart-series of explanation, modelling, and supervised practice is needed before a thinkaloud study so that participants can practice it. ...
In the current study, (1) when non-native speakers read hypertext, how their reading strategies differ from what we know about print reading, and (2) whether the principles of Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) Framework apply to hypertext reading experience of non-native speakers were investigated. The participants were asked to engage in reading on World Wide Web about a subject of their choice and their navigation behavior was not specified by a certain task or type of reading (open-ended). Data were collected from 10 participants whose native languages are different from English between the ages of 20 – 35 through think-aloud protocol, screen recordings, and semi-structured interviews. The results of the study demonstrated that print strategies are still used in hypertext reading, but their application differs from print reading in a number of ways. Hypertext reading strategies were found to be the most used reading strategies followed by global strategies, problem-solving strategies, and support strategies respectively. Previewing strategy was the most commonly used single strategy. It was also found that main CFT principles including presence of changing situational demands, criss-crossing knowledge landscapes, and adapting to authentic language exposure were reflected through the participants’ online reading experience in this research.
... When retrospective questioning is used only to illuminate and expand on think-aloud results, it may add depth of information about the participant's thought processes. Rankin (1988) also recommended a retrospective analysis, particularly for those participants who had difficulty with the think-aloud method, while Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) point out that participants' ability to describe their thought processes may provide helpful information on their metacognitive skills. Qi (1998) suggested that a follow-up interview may also allow the participants to "validate" the researchers' interpretation of their think-aloud utterances; this would be particularly important when some of those utterances may be in the participants' first language. ...
... Other theorists also pointed out the need for researchers to make inferences (Davis & Bistodeau, 1993). Although Rankin (1988) warned that any reconstruction of participant remarks should be "literal" and related closely to context, he admitted that some responses may represent more than one thought process and need to be interpreted as such. Olson et al., (1984) described their "impressions" of common participant responses (p. ...
... Given that inner speech is "elliptical" or telegraphic, forcing students to produce complete sentences or artificially joining fragmented utterances into grammatically complete "communication units" may lead to misrepresentation of thought processes. Also, assigning each "communication unit" to one cognitive strategy oversimplifies the process; in reality, one utterance may reflect a more complex combination of strategies (Rankin, 1988). Finally, a research hypothesis which looks only for evidence of thought processes common to all participants disregards the existence of different thinking styles (see, for example, Merriam & Caffarella, 1999), in addition to different learning styles and intelligences. ...
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... When retrospective questioning is used only to illuminate and expand on think-aloud results, it may add depth of information about the participant's thought processes. Rankin (1988) also recommended a retrospective analysis, particularly for those participants who had difficulty with the think-aloud method, while Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) point out that participants' ability to describe their thought processes may provide helpful information on their metacognitive skills. Qi (1998) suggested that a follow-up interview may also allow the participants to "validate" the researchers' interpretation of their think-aloud utterances; this would be particularly important when some of those utterances may be in the participants' first language. ...
... Other theorists also pointed out the need for researchers to make inferences (Davis & Bistodeau, 1993). Although Rankin (1988) warned that any reconstruction of participant remarks should be "literal" and related closely to context, he admitted that some responses may represent more than one thought process and need to be interpreted as such. Olson et al., (1984) described their "impressions" of common participant responses (p. ...
... Given that inner speech is "elliptical" or telegraphic, forcing students to produce complete sentences or artificially joining fragmented utterances into grammatically complete "communication units" may lead to misrepresentation of thought processes. Also, assigning each "communication unit" to one cognitive strategy oversimplifies the process; in reality, one utterance may reflect a more complex combination of strategies (Rankin, 1988). Finally, a research hypothesis which looks only for evidence of thought processes common to all participants disregards the existence of different thinking styles (see, for example, Merriam & Caffarella, 1999), in addition to different learning styles and intelligences. ...
Think-aloud is a research method in which participants speak aloud any words in their mind as they complete a task. A review of the literature has shown that think-aloud research methods have a sound theoretical basis and provide a valid source of data about participant thinking, especially during language based activities. However, a researcher needs to design a process which takes into account a number of concerns, by selecting a suitable task, a role for the researcher, a source of triangulation, and, most importantly, an appropriate method of interpretation. This paper argues that think-aloud research can be effectively interpreted through a qualitative lens. A qualitative approach also has implications for the choice of participant(s) and the treatment of the data. Participants should be treated as quasi-researchers, and their efforts rewarded with reciprocity.
... Psychologists and second language researchers have been debating the reliability of think-aloud protocol as a research tool for many years (e.g., Ericsson & Crutcher, 1991;Faerch & Kasper, 1987;Howe, 1991;Lyons, 1991;Nunan, 1992;Rankin, 1988;Russo, Johnson, & Stephens, 1989). However, many second language researchers appear to agree that, with careful application, introspective methods are useful indicators of learners' ongoing strategy use (Barnett, 1989;Block, 1986Block, , 1992Cohen, 1987;Ericsson & Simon, 1987;Horiba, 1990;O'Malley & Chamot, 1990;Oxford & Crookall, 1989;Rankin, 1988;Russo et al., 1989;Sarig, 1987). ...
... Psychologists and second language researchers have been debating the reliability of think-aloud protocol as a research tool for many years (e.g., Ericsson & Crutcher, 1991;Faerch & Kasper, 1987;Howe, 1991;Lyons, 1991;Nunan, 1992;Rankin, 1988;Russo, Johnson, & Stephens, 1989). However, many second language researchers appear to agree that, with careful application, introspective methods are useful indicators of learners' ongoing strategy use (Barnett, 1989;Block, 1986Block, , 1992Cohen, 1987;Ericsson & Simon, 1987;Horiba, 1990;O'Malley & Chamot, 1990;Oxford & Crookall, 1989;Rankin, 1988;Russo et al., 1989;Sarig, 1987). ...
... In fact, Horiba (1990) observed differences in the degree of reading comprehension between learners who read while verbalising their thoughts and who read without doing so. Second, the total amount of verbalisation will vary across learners (Block, 1986;Cumming et al., 1989;Davis & Bistodeau, 1993;Horiba, 1990;Rankin, 1988;Uzawa & Cumming, 1989). Block (1986) reported that some subjects seemed to experience difficulty with the think-aloud protocols during the accomplishment of the task. ...
... findings (Ericsson & Simon, 1993;Rankin, 1988). ...
... These include note-taking, audio, video, and screen-capturing. While important things about the course design will be learned from simple observation, researchers can struggle to simultaneously facilitate, take notes, and monitor the TAOs (Boren & Ramey, 2000;Nørgaard & Hornbaek, 2006;Rankin, 1988). Therefore, research advises to record sessions since a retrospective analysis of the TAO can yield deeper understandings and improve the reliability and validity of the ...
Researchers in the field of Learning/Instructional Design and Technology have been engaged in productive scholarly endeavors at the intersection of Learning Design, User Experience, Human-Computer Interaction, and associated disciplines for some time. This edited volume captures the collective voices of authors working in this area. This book focuses on explicating the ontological and epistemological underpinnings of user-centered design and user experience as applied in the field of Learning/Instructional Design and Technology with the goal of foregrounding the importance of learner experience as an emerging design paradigm for the field. This volume is comprised of 15 chapters and organized into three parts: (1) Methods and Paradigms (5 chapters), (2) Conceptual and Design Frameworks (6 chapters), and (3) LX Design-in-practice (4 chapters). This volume serves as a contribution to an emerging, transdisciplinary, and complex phenomenon that requires multiple literacies. LX is not only concerned with the effectiveness of designed learning interventions, but also with the interconnected and interdependent relationship between the learner- (or the teacher-/instructor-) as-user, the designed technology, novel pedagogical techniques or instructional strategies, and the learning context. The diversity and breadth of perspectives presented herein serve as a topographical sketch of the emerging focus area of learner experience and represent an opportunity to build upon this work in the future.
... For example, talking aloud may interfere with participants' reading processes, and reported mental processes may be neither accurate nor complete. Nevertheless, with an appropriate design and sufficient training, think-aloud protocols have generally been found to be reliable and useful for reading research (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995;Rankin, 1988). ...
... As discussed by Rankin (1988), in think-aloud studies with ESL learners, it is not desirable to require participants to switch back and forth between English and their native languages. First, researchers may not understand both languages. ...
This study examines how Chinese ESL learners recognize English words while responding to a multiple-choice reading test as compared to Romance language-speaking ESL learners. Four adult Chinese ESL learners and three adult Romance language-speaking ESL learners participated in a think-aloud study with the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB) reading test. As indicated by the think-aloud verbal reports, the Chinese ESL learners generally had more difficulty with English vocabulary probably due to the vast difference between the writing system of Chinese and that of English. Rather, they were found to compensate for their deficiencies in vocabulary knowledge by extensively relying on test-taking strategies. The findings of this study are well supported by the cross-linguistic transfer theory and the compensatory nature of reading comprehension. The implications for teaching English vocabulary skills to Chinese ESL learners are also discussed.
... 117). Rankin (1988), on the other hand, provides more explanation of the process: "When asked to think aloud, subjects are generally asked to say aloud the thoughts running through their heads while composing a text on a given topic or while reading a text provided by the researcher. They are told to say whatever they think of, whether related to the task or not" (p.120). ...
... Researchers are also skeptical about the accuracy of subjects' reports on their reading processes (e.g. Baker and Brown cited in Rankin, 1988). Such reports are thought to be incomplete for a number of reasons. ...
... The advantages of these methods mostly stem from their unique role in revealing the cognitive processes of a reader. Rankin (1988) notes that the think-aloud method differs from introspection or retrospection, in that in the latter methods the reader basically responds to prompts, making him/her to report selectively according to the prompts. However, in think-aloud procedures the reader indiscriminately talks about his thoughts, whether related or unrelated to the reading texts. ...
... Think-aloud and recall methods also take into consideration the interaction that takes place between a reader and a text, or a reader and a writer (Rankin, 1988). A reader is free to question and judge the text information, to predict the forthcoming content on the premise of earlier content or even to criticise both the content and the writer of notion that reading is not an unidirectional passive process. ...
... Therefore, in order to guide students' thought processes and make them follow a certain path, and to give us, as teachers and researchers, the information we need, we present C 2 PCT: an instrument to Characterize the Cognitive Process associated with Computational Thinking skills. The C 2 PCT is a type of Think-Out-Loud (TOL) method that is performed in writing while problem-solving [25] and is based on Computational thinking skills. It is multiacademic-level, multi-assessment-type, multi-STEAM subject and it helps both teachers and students engage in problem-solving in a very structured way using the power of questions to guide them in a structured problem-solving process. ...
... Toutefois, le protocole oral ne comporte pas que des limites (Rankin, 1988). À la différence du questionnaire d'autoperception, par exemple, le protocole oral est un instrument «ouvert»; il en résulte des données pouvant nous renseigner sur une gamme étendue de processus cognitifs (Gaonac'h et Larigauderie, 2000). ...
Dans le cadre d’une étude sur les stratégies de lecture, nous avons fait appel à une technique introspective : le protocole oral. Dans le présent article, nous abordons certains points en rapport avec cette technique dont la familiarisation des participants à la verbalisation, la transcription des protocoles et la vérification de la fidélité des données. Seize universitaires francophones aux études avancées ont lu deux résumés d’articles scientifiques (un en français et un en anglais), et verbalisé leurs stratégies de lecture. Quatre-vingt-dix stratégies ont pu ainsi être colligées. En plus de faire état des stratégies mêmes, nous présentons les limites du protocole et ses retombées pédagogiques.
... In order to help answer the first research ques,on, apart from asking par,cipants ques,ons during the interviews, I also included a 'think aloud' ac,vity to understand their thinking. Think aloud is a research method that researchers would invite par,cipants to 'speak aloud any words in their mind as they complete a task' (Charters, 2003: 68); various research studies had shown its effec,veness when being adopted in research concerning par,cipants' thinking (e.g., Olson, Duffy & Mack, 1984;Rankin, 1988). ...
Digital learning resources are commonly employed to support learning in out-of-class contexts, either as a complement to the learning in formal classrooms or as an alternative that can be used by learners to pursue personal learning goals. However, often existing research studies lack a strong conceptual underpinning in terms of pedagogic theory. This study identified a significant gap in the literature concerning children’s use of digital technology to support science learning outside of the classroom. In order to develop a framework for further research in this area, this research adopted a multiple case study design using semi-structured interviews and observations as data collection methods. In particular, seven Year 9 students (13-14 years old) studying at a secondary school in Cambridge, UK were studied. I built a synthesis from theoretical perspectives regarding metacognition, learning motivation, and the experience of using digital technology in out-of-class science learning contexts. This thesis considered the characteristics of digital learning resources available for facilitating self-directed learning of science in out-of-class contexts. A sociocultural framework was followed, and the key findings are summarised as follows: 1) The present research, whilst being generally consistent with previous studies regarding the identification of motivational factors, found that intrinsic motivation (sometimes being overlooked or minimised in earlier work) played an important part in learners’ science learning; 2) user interface (UI), all-in-one features of digital technology, simulation and alternative learning experience were factors that influenced the learning motivation of secondary school-age learners when learning science with digital technology; 3) learners actively chose a number of apps and web-based platforms when engaging in science learning in out-of-class contexts, and they creatively used these tools for curriculum-related activities and satisfying personal interest; 4) a learner’s choice of learning resources was informed by their metacognitive sophistication; 5) Despite the fact that the home has been considered as the most common site where out-of-class learning takes place, this specific context remains relatively under-researched as relatively more attention had been paid to the study of science learning in the contexts of museums and field-trips; the empirical data from the present study suggested that learning in out-of-class contexts (especially at home) played an important role in science learning. The mission of the present research was to provide alternative insights for parents, teachers and researchers to understand digital technology-mediated science learning in out-of-class contexts from the perspective of learners, and inform the design and development of digital technology based on sociocultural theories.
... 'Using the protocols procedure the teacher can observe how students gain insights into their habits as they go through the protocol process'(p.241). Think-aloud technique gives an opportunity to teachers who otherwise may not be aware of reasons why their students arrive at wrong conclusions in reading comprehension as stated by Rankin (1988); ' By knowing what strategies second language readers actually use when reading (as opposed to what they think they do), we will not only improve our understanding of reading as a communicative act but also our understanding of how it might best be taught'(p. 122). ...
p>This experimental research investigates the effects of strategy instruction on the English reading proficiency and strategy use of Thai students. The subjects were 74 first year science students at King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok (KMITNB), Thailand from June to September 1999. A programme of strategy instruction was introduced to an experimental class of 37 students, while the same number of students were taught as a control group through traditional English reading instruction. A mixed research approach using both quantitative and qualitative techniques was adopted to investigate the impact of the introduced programme on students'reading achievement and strategy use. A test of reading achievement and a strategy questionnaire were administered to all subjects before and after the course. Six students from each group were also selected for a think-aloud and diary study. These twelve subjects were asked to verbalise their thoughts while reading English texts, and to keep diaries about their reading activities at home for ten weeks.
The results indicated that while both groups improved their reading test scores and strategy use in the course of the study, the experimental group showed a significantly higher gain in reading ability and reported more frequent strategy use than the control group. The findings also indicated a significant correlation between strategy use and reading proficiency. The results of this study lead to a better understanding of the impact of activating metacognitive awareness, and suggest that explicit instruction in reading strategy use can override the effect of language proficiency limitations on readers' use of effective reading strategies.</p
... This finding added more empirical evidence into Vandergrift's (1997) exploration. In detail, towards French context, Vandergrift (1997) conducted a study investigating the comprehension strategies of high school second language listeners (French), which used the think-aloud procedure adapted from O' Malley et al. (1989) and Rankin (1988). The results indicated that more and less proficient listeners applied different patterns of strategy use, and both highly relied on cognitive strategies. ...
The crucial role of listening skill in language learning has been well acknowledged, yet attention to this skill remains modest. Numerous studies investigating learners’ listening performance have identified listening strategies as a key factor contributing to the success of effective listeners. This study, using a Likert-scale questionnaire, examined the listening strategies employed by 81 Vietnamese English-majored students, who were divided into two groups - effective and less effective listeners based on an IELTS proficiency test. Findings showed that listening strategies were used at a relatively high level with the metacognitive group employed most frequently compared to cognitive and socio-affective strategies. Lowering anxiety, predicting and planning, resourcing, repetition, and cooperation were found most commonly employed individual strategies. Although no significant differences were found between the groups’ use of the three overarching strategy categories, several discrepancies were identified concerning their use of individual strategies, which provides important implications for listening pedagogical adjustments in this particular context.
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... An example of an indirect question might be: 'Do you usually translate as you read?' The student answers 'yes'; the interviewer encourages him/her to 'Do what you usually do'. Additionally, Rankin (1988) argues that if the subject fails to verbalise enough about the strategies s/he is using, the researcher should interrupt and clarify the task as necessary. While conducting the TAPs some students had difficulties guessing the meaning of some words, which forced them to stop reading and thinking aloud. ...
Abosnan, Salem Hamed (2016) The teaching of reading English in a foreign language in Libyan universities: methods and models. PhD thesis.
... Recently, the evaluation of process of reading comprehension witnessed a noticeable shift from product-oriented (e.g., tests) or observational techniques (e.g., surveys and tests) toward process-oriented techniques (e.g., Rankin, 1988). During the reading process, the introspective data generated could be classified into concurrent and retrospective verbal reports. ...
Suggested solutions to some problems of Tunisian novice researchers with academic writing in English: case studies of a Research Article (Gallela et al., 2009) and a Master Thesis (Essefi, 2009) THESIS presented to the University of Sfax in the partial fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the Professional Master's degree in Specialized English
... To achieve this aim, three qualitative methods, namely a retrospective-reflective task as a form of think-aloud method, tests of intake and semi-structured interviews were used. As suggested by Rankin (1988), each participant was treated as a small case study whose mental experiences were thoroughly examined. ...
... At this time, the writer chooses two methods to compare, Think-Aloud and the Visual Imagery method. Rankin (1988) confirmed that the interaction between the reader and the writer happens not face-to-face but inside the reader's mind; and to observe the trail of thoughts directly is impossible. In order to do so Think-Aloud requires teachers to read aloud the texts and to speak out their thoughts about what is happening in the text orally. ...
The purpose of this study is to find out whether Think Aloud and Visual Imagery have significant difference in enhancing students’ reading comprehension. This study used comparative design, test the comprehension of the students through pre-test, treatment, and post-test. This research was done to 32 students of class 8F in Visual Imagery group; they were given passage to read and draw the image created in her mind on the paper; and 29 students of class 8E in Think Aloud group; the teacher and students think aloud the answers to the questions that were found in the text. The study was done in SMPN 1 Parongpong, West Bandung for 5 weeks or 640 minutes. Result of the study showed the average gain for Visual Imagery group is 0.038 and Think Aloud group is 0.125. The p-value = 0.686 > α (0.05), which means H0 is not rejected. Thus, there is no significant difference on students’ reading comprehension between those who are taught using Think-Aloud and those who are taught using Visual Imagery. Keyword: Reading comprehension, Think Aloud, Visual Imagery
... When asked to "think-aloud," it means that the participants are generally asked to express aloud the thoughts running through their heads while completing a task provided by the researcher. In this process, the participants are asked to say whatever they think of, whether related to the task or not, and the transcripts of these spoken records of mental process are called protocols, which are analyzed for patterns and these patterns can form the basis for generalizations and further research (Rankin, 1988). ...
... Think aloud protocols (TAPs) is a psychological technique and it is widely used in ESL classrooms. In PTAs the participants verbalised their own thoughts during doing any task (Panhwar, 2010) and they say whatever goes in their mind (Rankin, 1988) but speakers' behaviour is not analysed as in introspection (Cohen, 1987). ...
This experimental research deemed to understand and explain the learning process with a purport to analyse the teaching of learning strategies in the classroom in order to make the learners conscious of their learning abilities. The teacher presented herself as a model to use the think-aloud-strategy in order to monitor that how the variety of learning strategies are deployed by the learners during learning a new language.
... To achieve this aim, three qualitative methods, namely a retrospective-reflective task as a form of think-aloud method, tests of intake and semi-structured interviews were used. As suggested by Rankin (1988), each participant was treated as a small case study whose mental experiences were thoroughly examined. ...
... As recommended by Cohen (1987), there were two laboratories which were part of this study. One laboratory was designated for three researchers; a researcher who communicated with the participant, a researcher who observed and take note of the process (see Appendix 6), and another researcher who checked the step- The subject was instructed to verbalize in his or her mother tongue or to the language he or she is most comfortable with of using in order to avoid cognitive processes which are not in the focus of the study (Rankin, 1988). ...
Nine (9) expert chess players with an ELO rating ranging from 1800 to 2600 were asked to verbally report their solution, evaluation, and judgment towards chess board puzzles intended to measure one's tactical ability, positional judgment, and endgame knowledge respectively. The goal of this study was to find out the differences of chess-specific verbal knowledge among expert chess players of different skill levels through think-aloud protocol. The verbal reports gathered were subjected to content analysis.
... For TAP-based research to be successful, careful consideration must be given to the choice of reading materials. A text should be sufficiently challenging that readers are not able to process it automatically but rather are forced to employ several discrete strategies, and yet it must still be within readers' overall capabilities (Ericsson & Simon, 1993;Rankin, 1988). ...
This paper reports a study of the reading strategies used by twelve Arabic-speaking
undergraduates at a major Gulf university when reading texts in English. The procedure
employed was a think-aloud protocol followed by a semi-structured interview. Three
research questions were addressed: (a) What are the primary comprehension problems
encountered by students attending an English-speaking university in the Gulf region
when reading academic texts in English? (b) What reading strategies do the students
actually employ in order to solve their reading problems? (c) To what extent can the
demographic variable of English reading proficiency be used to reliably predict the
students’ use of reading strategies in English? Results revealed that while the participants
were already in possession of repertoire strategies, they often failed to use them
effectively. This was especially the case with the lower-proficiency readers. The
implications of these findings are briefly discussed.
... Think-aloud protocols were used as they offer the most direct access possible to study the processes involved in reading (Rankin 1988) as participants verbalise their thought processes whilst performing tasks to provide information on the strategies they have used and why (Cohen 1998). ...
This paper explores the approaches and strategies used by secondary school learners of different languages in England completing Asset Languages reading tasks at levels A1 and A2 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Assessments across languages at the same level of proficiency were designed to a common specification and at comparable levels of functional difficulty following the CEFR. However, as the majority of research in this area has focused on learners of English, little is known about the impact of having a common framework on learners of non-European languages. Does one-size fit all? Findings from think-aloud protocols reveal that different approaches and strategies were used by learners of different languages. In particular, the study shows the impact of learning a new writing system and the variation in ability of community language learners, highlighting limitations in adopting a framework designed for ‘typical’ foreign language learners for learners of all languages.
... Wypowiedzi osoby badanej są zapisywane lub nagrywane. Dzięki tej metodzie osoba przeprowadzająca badanie ma szansę w bardziej bezpośredni sposób poznać procesy mentalne, które angażowane są podczas czytania (Rankin 1988). Protokoły głośnego myślenia najczęściej wykorzystywane są w badaniach do następujących celów: analizy rodzajów strategii czytania oraz różnic w zakresie ich stosowania pośród osób o wysokich i niskich umiejętnościach czytelniczych, badania wpływu wcześniejszej wiedzy na efekty czytania, jak również analizowania metod stosowanych podczas rozwiązywania testów zrozumienia (Anderson 1991, Block 1986, Pritchard 1990, Anderson i in. ...
... Recently, the evaluation of process of reading comprehension has witnessed a noticeable shift from product-oriented (e.g., tests) or observational techniques (e.g., surveys and tests) toward process-oriented techniques (e.g., Rankin, 1988). During the reading process, the introspective data generated could be classified into concurrent and retrospective verbal reports. ...
This works predicted, by studying the deep rooted reasons behind difficulties of Tunisian novice researchers with efficient reading of the scientific genre, that difficulties are rooted in their educational system. It simulates the line of thinking of the strong version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). The common point between the method of this work and the strong version of the CAH lies in using a predictive approach. By confusing its social and scientific status, this system neglected the importance of English in scientific communication. Furthermore, the weak programs and unskilled teachers in terms of scientific genre deepened these difficulties. Consequently, this study based on Contrastive Linguistics foresaw that Tunisian novice researchers are more than likely to fail doing the first and vital stage of the publication industry: the literature review.
... To encourage the participants' strategy use with the "right" level of difficulty (Rankin, 1988), a complex sentence was chosen from Time 2 (see below). Data analysis mainly focused on the sequence and purposes of the participants' strategy use. ...
This study explores how a change of learning environment from China to the United Kingdom affects Chinese international master's students' use of strategies in academic reading. Think aloud was used at two time points in one academic year among 15 participants. To capture the complexity of the academic reading, reading strategies were categorized into textbase processing, situation-model construction, and comprehension monitoring. Quantitative analysis suggests that there were no significant changes in these students' overall strategy use over time, nor in their deployment of individual strategies. Furthermore, analysis of their parsing strategies indicates a dominant combination of textbase and comprehension monitoring strategies, and this combination was mainly triggered by their decoding difficulties. The findings of the study suggest that the participants' textbase-dominated processing largely contributed to the static development of their strategy use during their master's study. © 2016 The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes.
... These limitations include time restrictions, the constraints imposed by task sessions, awareness of the researcher, and the restriction that only cognitive processes that are easy to report are revealed. People are obviously not conscious of all their cognitive processes, and differences do appear in the extent to which people find protocols to be obtrusive or the extent to which individuals tend to verbalize their thoughts (Hayes and Flower, 1983;Rankin, 1988). ...
... Recently, the evaluation of process of reading comprehension has witnessed a noticeable shift from product-oriented (e.g., tests) or observational techniques (e.g., surveys and tests) toward process-oriented techniques (e.g., Rankin, 1988). During the reading process, the introspective data generated could be classified into concurrent and retrospective verbal reports. ...
... The think-aloud procedure, adapted from O' Malley et al. (1989) and Rankin (1988) and used previously by Vandergrift (1997), had a training phase and a data collection phase. A training session (using mathematics problems or verbal reasoning tasks and actual oral texts in French) was conducted prior to the data collection sessions so that students had a good understanding of how to think aloud and had ample opportunity to practice. ...
This article reports on an investigation of listening strategy applications by grade 7 students learning French (N = 36). I examine the types of strategies used and the differences in strategy use by more skilled and less skilled listeners as revealed while these students listened to authentic texts in French. Think‐aloud data were coded and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Significant differences were found in the use of the category of metacognitive strategies as well as in individual strategies for comprehension monitoring, questioning for elaboration, and translation. These differences were reinforced by a qualitative analysis of representative protocols. The article concludes with a discussion of both an emerging model of the skilled listener and a pedagogic program for developing listening skills.
With the fast increasing number of second language (L2) learners in universities, the ability to read L2 academic texts has become one of the most important skills that L2 college students need to acquire. However, L2 learners still face various problems and difficulties in their L2 reading and past literature suggests that reading strategies have proven to be effective in enhancing L2 reading. Therefore, it is of great significance to examine the factors influencing L2 reading strategies use. Among factors influencing L2 reading strategy use, L1 reading strategies have been identified as a significant influence. However, few studies in this regard have looked into college students in mainland China which has a large number of L2 learners. This study aimed to seek the connection between first language (L1) and L2 metacognitive reading strategies by comparing and contrasting mainland China college students’ metacognitive strategy patterns in their L1 and L2 academic reading. The study also explored factors influencing Chinese college students’ L2 reading strategy use. The study conducted a survey on reading strategies (SORS), think aloud protocol (TAP) and stimulated recall interviews (SRI) to explore the research issues. The study found that Chinese college students employed strategies on a more frequent basis in their L2 academic reading as compared to their L1 academic reading. Two factors, namely, limited L2 proficiency (LLP) and test-oriented reading approach (TORA) were identified as the major factors influencing the L2 metacognitive strategy patterns of Chinese college students. The present study adds to the existing knowledge on the relationship between L1 and L2 reading strategy patterns for Chinese college students and examines factors shaping their L2 reading strategy use. This study assists English language teachers to identify factors influencing Chinese college students’ reading strategies patterns while taking into consideration of the factors influencing their L2 strategy use.
The purpose of this study was to gain insight into 30, first year calculus students’ understanding of the relationship between the concept of vertex of a quadratic function and the concept of the derivative. APOS (action-process-object-schema) theory was applied as a guiding framework of analysis on student written work, think-aloud and follow up group interviews. Students’ personal meanings of the vertex, including misconceptions, were explored, along with students’ understanding to solve problems pertaining to the derivative of a quadratic function. Results give evidence of students’ weak schema of the vertex, lack of connection between different problem types and the importance of linguistics in relation to levels of APOS theory. A preliminary genetic decomposition was developed based on the results. Future research is suggested as a continuation to improve student understanding of the relationship between the vertex of quadratic functions and the derivative.
This article presents the case for the use of the ‘think-aloud protocol’ by teachers who engage in action-research as a source of constructive information about their students’ cognitive learning processes. This method calls upon learners to talk their thoughts out aloud, during engagement in some learning activity regarding which the researching teachers seek insight to inform them to plan enhancement of the learning and teaching process. The case for ‘think-aloud’ reporting of particular learning activities is supported by a review of relevant literature. Accounts of diverse experiences in various discipline areas using modified versions of think-aloud protocols in action-researching are presented, with reports of their transformative outcomes. Reasoned reservations regarding the reliability of uncorroborated sources of retrospective data about students’ learning are advanced. Refined methodologies are outlined together with general guidelines, for those minded to explore their value in their own contexts.
In this paper, Usability Engineering (UE) is used to explore geospatial data at the School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, China. In geo-spatial data presentation, exploration and analysis, knowledge is disseminated, accumulated or accentuated. For learning purpose, this knowledge needs to be evaluated. The increasing use of the computer and multi-media to disseminate geographical information place their own specific demands for the final user. By visual presentation, exploration and analysis users are able to identify features in their minds, since visualization qualifies results and not quantification of results. In the Engineering Education (EE) setup, students create Geoinformation related applications which are archived for later use. The spatial knowledge accumulated is sometimes difficult to apprehend when retrieved. Thus a procedure, such as VPA Archival Management System (VAMS), is needed to recall the ideas embedded in the archived datasets. The test method used is the Verbal Protocol Analysis (VPA). In addition, use of explicit structured questionnaire, video recording, onscreen capturing, and formative evaluation and case study frameworks were used to efficiently, effectively and satisfactorily determine the spatial cognition taking place in user's minds.
Assessing mathematical literacy of students who have limited proficiency in the language of the test is a critical challenge in mathematics education. Previous research indicates that knowledge and competencies of such students are underestimated. This presents a major validity and fairness problem for assessment. Most efforts addressing fairness and validity issues in assessment of linguistic minority students focus on the test language only. To overcome limitations of single approaches, we examine in this study the interaction between the test language and the student language background by means of multiple methods. Thus, we investigate possible linguistic bias of items flagged as functioning differentially (the result of DIF analyses) by means of (a) two levels of expert analyses and (b) student think-aloud protocols to investigate language effects in published mathematics items from the 2000 to 2003 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) administration for students attending French schools in Canada and speaking either French or other languages at home. DIF analyses were conducted to identify items on which students from different home language backgrounds attending French schools achieve differently. The expert panels tended to identify surface characteristics of language that may be responsible for group differences but not for the differential effects detected by differential item functioning (DIF). Student think-aloud protocols in part confirm and in part contradict DIF results, providing insights for the source of the differences. Suggestions are provided for further study.
With the recent rise of sociocultural theory in second-language acquisition, attempts have been made to understand L2 learners' uses of different resources in writing, based on their cultural, historical, and institutional contexts. In line with L2 writing research within the sociocultural paradigm, this study investigates the writing strategies deployed by L2 learners of Korean, focusing on the mediated actions involved in their writing processes. Two American learners of Korean in a college Korean programme participated in this study. Data were collected from three sources: interviews, think-aloud protocol, and stimulated recall. Based on the analysis of data, emerging themes and trends in learner strategy use were identified for each participant. The findings are discussed case by case in relation to each individual's sociocultural context. The data reveal that a learner's socially situated context is closely related to the kinds of writing strategies and mediating tools he or she uses or prefers.
Even if national and international assessments are designed to be comparable, subsequent psychometric analyses often reveal differential item functioning (DIF). Central to achieving comparability is to examine the presence of DIF, and if DIF is found, to investigate its sources to ensure differentially functioning items that do not lead to bias. In this study, sources of DIF were examined using think-aloud protocols. The think-aloud protocols of expert reviewers were conducted for comparing the English and French versions of 40 items previously identified as DIF (N = 20) and non-DIF (N = 20). Three highly trained and experienced experts in verifying and accepting/rejecting multi-lingual versions of curriculum and testing materials for government purposes participated in this study. Although there is a considerable amount of agreement in the identification of differentially functioning items, experts do not consistently identify and distinguish DIF and non-DIF items. Our analyses of the think-aloud protocols identified particular linguistic, general pedagogical, content-related, and cognitive factors related to sources of DIF. Implications are provided for the process of arriving at the identification of DIF, prior to the actual administration of tests at national and international levels.
This paper explores one of the claims reported in Gaskell et al. (1993), that respondents do not attend to, or make use of, the intensifier very in survey questions. It argues that Think Aloud protocols can, in this kind of situation, provide the sort of detailed linguistic data needed, in a way that complements more quantitative elicitation techniques. The paper reports the results of a small Think Aloud study using nine people and demonstrates that for three questions with very, there is clear evidence of both attention to the word and its function as a central determinant of the overall reaction to the questions. Two possible explanations are suggested for the discrepancy with Gaskell et al.’s data: question length and mode of transmission.
Theories and models of seond language acquisition have tended to focus on the role of oral language. While some acknowledgement is given to the role of reading (andwriting) in SLA (e.g., by Krashen 1984; 1985), the relative inattention given to reading in SLA had resulted in a dearth to reading research which is explicitly tied to the most popular theories and models of SLA or which is expressly designed to deal with issues commonly addressed in SLA. Although there is no simple explanation as to why SLAresearch has focused almost exclusively on oral language, to the neglect of written language, it is interesting to speculate about why the “canonical” theories of SLA do not to any significant extent deal with reading and writing, especially when there seems to be broad consensus that language has to be considered from a textual point of view, and when written as well as oral language may be a substantial source of language input. One possibility is that SLA, while in some sense part of the backlash against the structuralism of the audiolingual approach, has nonetheless simply maintained the focus on oral-aural language of audiolingualism (which itself originated as a reaction against earlier grammartranslation models relying heavily on reading and writing).
ABSTRACT This paper reports on a study of the relationship between the types of listening comprehension strategies reported, the frequency of their use, and the differences in reported use across four variables: level of language proficiency, gender, listening ability, and learning style. High school students of French reported on their thought processes during a think-aloud procedure. All students reported using metacognitive and cognitive strategies, with an overall increase in total number of strategies reported by proficiency level. Results indicate clear differences in reported strategy use by listening ability and proficiency level. The use of metacognitive strategies, such as comprehension monitoring, problem identification, and selective attention appeared to be the significant factor distinguishing the successful from the less successful listener. Differences for gender were minimal, and differences for learning style were inconclusive. A qualitative analysis of representative protocols also pointed to the integral role of metacognitive strategies as well as differences in the use of prior knowledge, inferencing, prediction skills, and monitoring. Results are discussed in the light of information-processing theory. Implications for pedagogy conclude the paper.
The present article reports on an investigation into the reading processes of EFL/ESP students with respect to research articles in their specialty area: Biology. Specifically, the study was aimed at exploring how metacognitive strategy training influenced a group of readers’ declarative and procedural knowledge, and their choice and use of strategies while reading research articles. Two groups of undergraduate Biology students (62 in all) from two science institutions took pre- and post-course reading tests, and 12 participated in retrospection. The tests and protocols provided quantitative and qualitative evidence of the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training in improving the subjects’ familiarity with and proficiency in reading research articles, and also of the effectiveness of retrospection as a method for evaluating the subjects’ reading behaviour.
The wording of questionnaires has suddenly become a fashionable research topic again, with the claim by Gaskell, Wright, and O'Muircheartaigh (1993) that respondents do not notice-and thus do not respond to—high—degree, or ‘extreme’, intensifiers in the majority of survey questions This phenomenon is labelled The Lexical Invisibility Hypothesis One of the major roles of intensifiers and their ’inverse‘, attenuating devices, or hedges, is to allow the questionnaire designer to control for social and psychological connotations If Gaskell et al are correct, hedges, as backgrounding devices, should be even less visible than intensifiers The present paper takes the data from a small think-aloud study conducted at the University of York in 1993 and explores how nine randomly selected first-year undergraduates react to six ’extreme‘ intensifiers (’very, extremely, far, full, never, and consistently) and two hedges (seem and tend, ) The data suggest that (a) think-aloud data can within limits provide valid and linguistically rich evidence of attention to specific words, and (b) there is a need to distinguish between attending to a word and using it to formulate a response There is evidence that most of the intensifiers are attended to by half or more of the subjects, but the hedges (apart from one example of seem/ along with never and consistently , do seem to be more ‘invisible’
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