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Examining the superstitions of sport fans: Types of superstitions, perceptions of impact, and relationship with team identification
Abstract
The current work examined the superstitious behaviors of sport fans. A sample of 1661 college students completed a questionnaire packet assessing demographics, team identification, sport fandom, superstitions, perceptions of superstition impact and importance, and why they engaged in the superstitions. A total of 675 persons reported at least one superstition. Higher levels of sport fandom and higher levels of team identification correlated with a greater number of superstitions listed. Further, persons with higher levels of team identification reported greater perceptions of the impact and importance of their superstitions. The categorization of the superstitions revealed that apparel superstitions were most prominent. Other prominent superstitions included vocalizations, consumption of food/drink (nonalcoholic), watching or not watching the action, and good luck charms/superstitious rituals.
... First, recent research has found associations between strength of fanship for fictional texts or narratives and several types of magical thinking, most notably sympathetic magic (Taylor & Acic, 2020). Second, a link has been found between strength of sports fan identification and engaging in superstitious behavior (Wann et al., 2013). Key gaps remain in the literature: first, whether sympathetic magic plays a role in sports fanship, and second, whether magical ideation (of which superstition is one expression) in general, rather than holding sports superstitions specifically, is linked to strength of fan identification. ...
... Superstition has been linked to the likelihood of sports fanship (Carlson et al., 2009), strength of fanship among fans (Wann et al., 2013), and the strength of identification with sports teams (Wilson et al., 2013). In each case, a stronger sense of connection with a favored sports team, either in the form of fanship for the team or identification with the team, was associated with a greater likelihood to engage in superstitious behavior. ...
... Past research has hinted at a relationship between magical thinking and fanship. Belief in sympathetic magic has been shown to be associated with fanship for fictional narratives (Taylor & Acic, 2020), and belief in superstition has been associated with fanship for sports (Wann et al., 2013). In a survey of adults, we investigated both the prevalence of sympathetic magical thinking among sports fans and possible links between strength of identification as a sports fan and various types of magical thinking. ...
Magical thinking describes beliefs and reasoning processes that defy generally accepted principles of logic and causality. Researchers have identified a link between strength of identification with a favorite sports team and superstition, an expression of magical thinking. Research on fans of fictional narratives has suggested magical thinking more broadly may play a role in being a fan. The authors posed the question, what is the link between sports fanship and two specific types of magical thinking: magical ideation and sympathetic magic? In a survey of 214 adults, relationships between strength of sports fanship and magical ideation, sympathetic magic in a sports context, and sympathetic magic generally were explored. Belief in sympathetic magic with regard to sports figures was found to be prominent among sports fans. In addition, a positive relationship was observed between strength of sports fanship and strength of belief in both sympathetic magic generally and magical ideation. Implications are discussed in terms of recruitment of and marketing to potential and existing fans.
... Studies have shown that the more fans identify with their team, the more likely it is they will cling to superstitions (Brevers et al., 2011). In other words, psychological identification with the team we support increases the range of behaviors deriving from superstitions (Wann et al., 2001;Wann et al., 2013). Since superstitions are intended to provide some certainty about the future, fans tend to adopt these behaviors to increase their perceived ability to help their team, even though their actual impact on match results is negligible (Wann and Goeke, 2018). ...
... Another study found that floor gymnasts adopt superstitions related to what they eat before competitions, whereas sprinters saw a connection between luck and the shoes and uniforms they wear (Bleak and Frederick, 1998). Wann et al. (2013) conducted the most comprehensive study thus far about fan superstitions. The results of their survey show that most fan superstitions are connected to wearing certain articles of clothing (shirts, underwear, and socks), making sounds and spouting off recitations during matches, sitting in a particular seat, closing their eyes, drinking or eating a particular food, and taking planned walks to the bathroom or to purchase food. ...
... All the interviewees had strong links to their team, as manifested in attending matches at least once every three weeks, purchasing season tickets for home matches, supporting their team for over 15 years, and finally describing themselves as very attached to the team. Our decision to choose fans with a high level of identification stemmed from the fact that fans who are strongly identified with their team are more likely to engage in superstitions (Wann et al., 2013). Of the participants, 22 were young men between the ages of 23 and 34. ...
Superstitions are behaviors human beings use to gain a sense of control over certain events in their lives. Thus, sport and its inherent uncertainty provide fertile ground for superstitious behavior. Research on this subject has focused mainly on athletes while examining the behavioral expressions, motivations, and characteristics of fans’ superstitions that have remained marginal; therefore, the present paper aims to address this lacuna by analyzing these behaviors as part of sports fandom and fans’ daily routines. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 24 Israeli football fans of local teams. Key findings illustrate two themes: time dependent acts of superstition; and place. It is argued that superstitious behavior serves fans in two ways. First, making them feel their actions influence the match outcomes and helping their favorite team beyond simply cheering in the stands. Second, reducing the level of uncertainty and subsequent stress level characteristic of being a sports fan. Furthermore, following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic when fans’ access to stadiums was restricted, the results show that the fans’ absence from the stadiums led to a reduction in the quantity and frequency of their superstitious behaviors, pointing to the significance of sporting venues in fan behavior.
... Within such studies, there has been a similarly sustained emphasis upon the difference between " lowly " and " highly " identified fans, couched as " team identification " (Real & M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT TOWARDS A DISCURSIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCCER FANDOM 4 4 Mechikoff, 1992; Wann et al., 2000; Wann et al., 2015). Team identification is, at its core, the extent that a fan feels emotionally " connected " to a team (Melnick & Wann, 2011; Wilson, Grieve, Ostrowski, Mienaltowski, & Cyr, 2013), with the active following of that team deemed a central component in the identity of the highly identified fans (Wann et al., 2013). Such research is itself grounded in the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (henceforth SSIS Wann & Branscombe, 1993), developed to measure team identification by providing an inventory of seven core Likert-scale indicators, with responses ranging from 1 to 8, where higher scores indicate correspondingly higher levels of identification. ...
... Fans can bask in the reflective glory (BIRGing) of sporting success by highlighting and publicizing their team identification, or they can cut off the reflective failures of a losing team (CORFing) by distancing themselves from that team (Spinda, 2011). BIRGing is generally regarded an enhancement tactic, while CORFing is an image-protection tactic (Ware & Kowalski, 2012 In sum, while fluctuation in variables such as the level of identification (Wann et al., 2013) and the level of involvement or participation (Pope, 2013) is acknowledged, a soccer fan's identity as a fan is ultimately taken to be a bounded and permanent phenomenon within this corpus of research. Indeed, as Ben Porat (2010) explicitly claims, a " true " fan supports their team from the cradle to the grave. ...
Objectives: Fandom underpins a wide range of foundational sporting activities. The corpus of psychological research on the topic remains, however, largely concerned with (a) producing of formal taxonomies of fans, and (b) making the analytic distinction between authentic "fans" and mere "spectators." This work is premised on the classical - but problematic - social-cognitive assumption that identity itself both precedes and (largely) determines the manner in which it is communicated. As such, the core objective of this paper is to take provisional empirical steps towards a formal psychology of "authentic" sporting fandom that does not replicate this troublesome assumption. Design: A Discursive Psychological framework is used to explore how self identified soccer fans make "robust" cases for the authenticity of their own fan-identities. Method: N = 26 unstructured interviews are analysed to highlight the constructive and attributional techniques drawn upon by speakers when making cases, and the culturally-available knowledges and contextual reasoning procedures that these make apparent. Results: Three models for legitimating fan-identity are described: (a) longitudinal endurance, (b) logical choice-making and (c) emotional imperative. It is noted how key issues that inform social-cognitive analysis are actually assembled as members' concerns in the service of persuasively accounting for particular claims in situ, and that this can facilitate a stronger understanding of the interrelation between sporting culture and social identity itself. Conclusions: Until a stronger description of public procedures for self-identification is advanced, analytic abstractions made for the sake of "clarity" can guarantee no relevance to the social psychological lives of everyday fans themselves.
... Given the culture of sports gambling, it is not surprising that sports bettors represent a unique cohort of gamblers. Individuals that participate in sports or who are fans of sports often believe that particular rituals can impact the outcome of a game (Wann et al., 2013). Moreover, sports bettors often have a loyalty to the game or the players and will often bet on sports to demonstrate their knowledge of the game and because of the connection that it ...
Differences in the psychological characteristics and gambling behaviors of sports bettors and non-sports bettors were examined with a view to identifying predictors of problem gambling severity. A survey was completed by 1,280 participants, 596 of whom had placed bets on a sporting event in the last year. We found that sports bettors are at greater risk of problem gambling due to differences in attitudes towards gambling, personality traits, thinking styles, erroneous cognitions, and gambling motivations. Moreover, our findings suggest that the difference between individuals who bet on sports and those who do not is more quantitative than qualitative. A stratified stochastic search variable selection analysis by type of bettor revealed similar important predictors of problem gambling for both sports bettors and non-sports bettors; however, the association between the predictors and problem gambling was stronger for sports bettors. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that preventative methods and interventions for problem gambling should be targeted as a function of whether individuals bet on sports.
... However, if the team frequently plays well, the chances of winning are in any case high (outcome probability is generally high) and this may bias the fan's perception about the causal link between both events, making her think that sitting in a specific place is actually effective. In fact, many sports fans exhibit similar superstitious behaviors and illusions of causality [18], some of which could be maintained by a high outcome probability. ...
Causal illusions occur when people perceive a causal relation between two events that are actually unrelated. One factor that has been shown to promote these mistaken beliefs is the outcome probability. Thus, people tend to overestimate the strength of a causal relation when the potential consequence (i.e. the outcome) occurs with a high probability (outcome-density bias). Given that children and adults differ in several important features involved in causal judgment, including prior knowledge and basic cognitive skills, developmental studies can be considered an outstanding approach to detect and further explore the psychological processes and mechanisms underlying this bias. However, the outcome density bias has been mainly explored in adulthood, and no previous evidence for this bias has been reported in children. Thus, the purpose of this study was to extend outcome-density bias research to childhood. In two experiments, children between 6 and 8 years old were exposed to two similar setups, both showing a non-contingent relation between the potential cause and the outcome. These two scenarios differed only in the probability of the outcome, which could either be high or low. Children judged the relation between the two events to be stronger in the high probability of the outcome setting, revealing that, like adults, they develop causal illusions when the outcome is frequent.
... Reysen and Branscombe (2010) suggest that team identification is best captured by the concept of fanship-the degree of psychological connection with one's fan interest-and distinguish it from fandom, the degree of psychological connection with other fans. For sport fans, greater team identification is associated with a greater willingness to purchase tickets and attend games (Murrel and Dietz 1992; Wakefield 1995) even when the team is performing poorly (Wann and Branscombe 1990), purchasing licensed team merchandise (Lee and Ferreira 2011), donating to charity (Platow, Durante, Williams, Garrett, Walshe, Cincotta, and Barutchu 1999), and superstitious behaviours (Wann et al. 2013). A fan's degree of identification is also related to psychological benefits, including positive well-being, self-esteem, and life satisfaction (Mock, Plante, Reysen, and Gerbasi 2013;Plante, Roberts, Reysen and Gerbasi 2014a;Wann, Waddill, Polk, and Weaver 2011). ...
This paper examines the functional benefits of being a fan as mediators between identification with the fan interest (i.e., fanship) and display of group membership to others. After a series of principal components analyses and a factor analysis on an initial pool of fandom function items, we arrived at a measure containing three factors representing the benefits of being a fan including (1) the purpose or meaning in life, (2) the escape from everyday life stressors, and (3) establishing and maintaining social connections. The relationship between identification with the fan interest (i.e., fanship) and display of fan identity was mediated by purpose in life and social connections. The results support the notion that fans display fan group membership to engender connections with friends and family.
... Superstition about how fans' actions affect team performance is the second feature prominent among non-BAFTers. Consistent with the definition of Wann et al. (2013), nonBAFTers feared that their bets, and their desire for the bets to pay off, would negatively affect team performance. Respondent comments showed concern over jinxing the team, as evidenced by statements such as, "I think it would be bad luck/karma to bet against them!" (SR #119), "On a superstitious note, it would probably bring bad luck to you and/or the team" (SR #136), and "It feels weird to bet against my favorite team. ...
Using a mixed-method exploratory approach we describe and explain the seemingly non-normative behaviors of highly identified fans who Bet Against their Favorite Teams (BAFT). Axial coding of qualitative data from 190 survey respondents and two focus groups indicates the emergence of common themes allowing a typology to unfold that explains the motives for and against BAFTing. Results reveal that Gamblers BAFT for reasons un-related to fandom. Hedgers, on the other hand, BAFT precisely because they are fans; they offset a perceived impending emotional loss with a financial gain, a behavior we identify as Hedging Against Future Failure (HAFFing). This research expands the theoretical knowledge of indirect tactics of image management and introduces HAFFing as a transactional, proactive, and private coping mechanism utilized by highly identified fans to regulate their psychological health. Beyond the implications for researchers of self-image management, these results are applicable to global sport managers adapting to the rising prominence and societal acceptance of sport gambling.
... They are learned forms of behavior, or dispositions about objects or situations, that direct the holder toward some preferred response [7]. Wann et al. [12] describe superstitious behavior as an action or series of actions believed to lead to or cause a specified, generally desirable, outcome. Brooks [3] explains that people engage in superstitious behaviors when they feel as if they are losing control over their own lives and their brains are searching for order and structure. ...
Purpose: The present study was designed to measure superstitious behavior among Judo, Taekwondo and Boxing players. Material: Thirty (N=30) male inter-college level players with the age group of 19-25 years were selected through purposive sampling technique to act as subjects from affiliated colleges of Panjab University, Chandigarh. They were further divided into three groups: Group-A [Judo (n=10)], Group-B [Taekwondo (n=10)] and Group-C [Boxing (n=10)]. One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to find out the differences among judo, taekwondo and boxing players. Where ‘F’ values found significant, Least Significant Differences (LSD) Post-hoc test was applied to find out the direction and degree of difference. Results: The level of significance was set at 0.05. The result revealed significant differences among judo, taekwondo and boxing players on the sub parameters: clothing and appearance, preparation, team ritual and coach. However, no significant differences have been observed on the sub-parameters fetish, game/competition, prayer and parameter superstitious (Total). Conclusions: The obtained results showed significant differences on the sub-parameter Coach among Judo, Taekwondo and Boxing players. While calculating the mean values of entire groups, it has been observed that Boxing players demonstrate significantly better on the sub-parameter Coach. Therefore, it can be ascertained that Boxing players are more confident that coach bring a lucky charm to our game.
... Many sport psychologists view superstitions as nothing more than reactions that begin with conditioning and boosting a placebo effect (Roenigk, 2010). Wann et al. (2010) describe superstitious behavior as an action or series of actions believed to lead to or cause a specified, generally desirable, outcome. Brooks (2009) explains that people engage in superstitious behaviours when they feel as if they are losing control over their own lives and their brains are searching for order and structure. ...
The researcher of this study aim to know about the role of Superstitions Behavior and Will to Win in Basketball Performance. To obtain data, the investigator had selected Fifty (N=50) male inter-college level basketball players of Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab were selected for this study. The purposive sampling technique was used to attain the objectives of the study. All the subjects, after having been informed about the objective and protocol of the study, gave their consent and volunteered to participate in this study. They were further divided into (N=10) each playing position i.e. Point guard (n1=10), Shooting guard (n2=10), Small forward (n3=10), Power forward (n4=10) and Center (n5=10). To measure the level of superstitions behaviors of the subjects, the superstitions beliefs and behaviour scale constructed by Bleak and Frederick (1998) was administered. To measure the level of will to win was measured by applying will to win questionnaire prepared by Kumar and Shukla (1998). One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to find out the intragroup differences. Where F values were found significant LSD (Least Significant Difference) Post-hoc test was applied to find out the direction and degree of difference. For testing the hypotheses, the level of significance was set at 0.05. In a nutshell it can be said that from the findings that significant differences were found in basketball players Point Guard, Shooting Guard, Small Forward, Power Forward and Center on the sub-variables of Superstitions Behavior i.e., Clothing and Appearance, fetish, Team Ritual and Superstitious (Total). However, insignificant differences had been observed in the basketball players Point Guard, Shooting Guard, Small Forward, Power Forward and Center on the sub-variables of Superstitions Behavior i.e., Preparation, Game/Competition, Prayer and Coach. Conculdingly from the above findings that insignificant differences were present in the basketball players on the variable of will to win.
This study aims to shed light on Turkish football forum users on the Internet from a social identity and uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective in order to reveal joint intentions among football fans online. The research model of the current study applies a uses and gratifications approach to examine whether fan motivations while using online football forums determine we-intentions among forum members. Social influence processes are also essential in the context of research on online forums, since they determine changes in attitudes and actions produced by the virtual social influence that may occur at different levels. Findings reveal uses and gratifications of football forum participation as maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, generating entertainment and purposive value along with affective social identity construct determined we-intention among forum users.
The following chapter provides an intimate look at sport fans, the identification they have with a favorite team, and their relationship with teams identified as rivals. In particular, team identification and rival perceptions were used to investigate the Glory Out of Reflected Failure (GORFing, excitement when the rival loses to someone other than the favorite team) phenomenon and fan likelihood of considering anonymous acts of aggression. Results showed that team identification influenced the perceptions fan have of their rival teams, the likelihood of considering anonymous aggression, and the GORFing phenomenon. Further, fan rival perceptions also influenced fan anonymous aggression and the likelihood of GORFing. The chapter also answered the call by Havard, Inoue, Dalakas, and Ryan (2017) by showing that GORFing is the competitive nature of schadenfreude and the phenomena are distinct. Discussion focuses on implications of the findings and areas for future research.
Sport rivalry research has grown from sport fandom research. And, while sport fandom research has a strong knowledge base, sport rivalry research is still in its infancy. This chapter briefly reviews the extant literature on sport rivalry. Topics include research examining geopolitical rivalries within international football (soccer), the psychological effects of sport rivalry, schadenfreude, and the creation of the Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale, a measure of sport rivalry. The marketing implications of sport rivalry research are discussed and areas for future research are provided.
This study aims to shed light on Turkish football forum users on the Internet from a social identity and uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective in order to reveal joint intentions among football fans online. The research model of the current study applies a uses and gratifications approach to examine whether fan motivations while using online football forums determine we-intentions among forum members. Social influence processes are also essential in the context of research on online forums, since they determine changes in attitudes and actions produced by the virtual social influence that may occur at different levels. Findings reveal uses and gratifications of football forum participation as maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, generating entertainment and purposive value along with affective social identity construct determined we-intention among forum users.
The present study examined how a fan's desire to exhibit superstitious behaviors depends on team identification and game outcome. The study was a 2 (team identification: high vs. low) x 2 (game outcome: close game vs. blowout) between subjects factorial design. Participants included 176 students recruited from undergraduate psychology classes at a mid-sized university in Kentucky. They completed the Sport Spectator Identification Scale, read a randomly assigned vignette differing in game outcome, and filled out the Superstition Questionnaire to measure their desire to complete superstitious behaviors based on the vignette. Results indicated that highly identified fans reported wanting to perform more superstitious behaviors than low identified fans. The main effect for game type was almost significant (p = .07); fans were more likely to report performing superstitious behaviors during close games than blowouts. There was not an interaction between identification and game outcome. This finding reiterated the importance of team identification and its effects on the sport fan. There were also indications that the outcome of the event itself plays a minor role in determining sport fan behaviors.
Objective: To investigate the effect of spectators on the performance of a physiotherapy exercise. Design: Observational study. Setting: Research laboratory, Trinity College Dublin. Participants: Forty adult volunteer subjects (36 females, four males). As there were only four males, these were excluded from the analysis. Interventions: Subjects were observed and timed while performing single leg stance in two conditions 48 hours apart; once with the investigator present (investigator condition) and once with the investigator and three spectators present (spectator condition). Main outcome measure: Duration of single leg stance in seconds. Results: The mean duration of single leg stance, for females, under the investigator condition was 173 seconds [95% confidence interval (CI) 131 to 214], while that of the spectator condition was 168 seconds (95%CI 128 to 208). The mean difference between the two conditions was 5 seconds (95%CI -21 to 31). This was not statistically significant using a paired t-test (P = 0.686). Conclusions: Female performance of a straightforward exercise such as single leg stance was not affected by the presence of three spectators.
Constructed and tested a measure of sports team identification in 2 studies with a total of 546 undergraduates. Several behavioral, affective, and cognitive reactions among sports spectators were used to validate the team identification measure. Ss who strongly identified with a specific sports team, relative to those spectators moderate or low in identification, reported more involvement with the team, displayed a more ego-enhancing pattern of attributions for the team's successes, had more positive expectations concerning future team performances, exhibited greater willingness to invest larger amounts of time and money to watch the team play, and were more likely to believe that fans of the team they are identified with possess special qualities. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article presents a theoretical model designed to account for the positive relationship between identification with a local sport team and social psychological health. This model, labeled the Team Identification-Social Psychological Health Model, predicts that team identification facilitates well-being by increasing social connections for the fan. Two forms of social connections are developed through team identification: enduring and temporary. Although the enduring and temporary social connections are expected to result in improved well-being, it is predicted that this relationship will be moderated by threats to social identity and efforts to cope with the threats. The social connections resulting from team identification are expected to impact both state (via increases in temporary social connections) and trait well-being (via enduring connections). Finally, because research indicates that group and team identification are more closely related to social well-being than personal well-being, temporary and enduring social connections are predicted to have their greatest impact on social psychological health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current research addresses the psychological benefits of superstitious rituals in top sport, examining the circumstances under which top-class sportspersons are especially committed to enacting rituals prior to a game (ritual commitment). Consistent with the hypotheses, findings revealed that ritual commitment is greater when (a) uncertainty is high rather than low; and (b) importance of the game is high rather than low. Complementary analyses revealed that the state of psychological tension mediated both effect of importance and uncertainty on ritual commitment. Moreover, players with an external locus of control exhibited greater levels of ritual commitment than did players with an internal locus of control. The results are discussed in terms of the tension-regulation function of superstitious rituals in top sport.
Information-processing models of anxiety posit that anxiety pathology is associated with processing biases that consume cognitive resources and may detract from one's ability to process environmental stimuli. Previous research has consistently indicated that high anxiety has a negative impact on cognitive and psychomotor performance. Anxiety sensitivity, or the fear of anxiety and anxiety-related arousal sensations, is an anxiety vulnerability factor that has been shown to play a role in the development and maintenance of panic attacks and panic disorder. However, relatively little is known regarding the potential impact of anxiety sensitivity on performance. In the present study, 105 college students who scored either high (≥ 24) or low (≤ 14) on the Anxiety Sensitivity Index were randomly assigned to complete a series of arousal-induction tasks or no activity, followed immediately by three cognitive and psychomotor performance tasks: digit span - backward, math fluency, and grooved pegboard. Results indicated that participants with high anxiety sensitivity performed comparably to individuals with low anxiety sensitivity on each task, regardless of arousal level.
This study examined the relationship between basic psychological skills usage (i.e., goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation) and the intensity and directional dimensions of competitive anxiety. Semistructured interviews were used on a sample of 15 elite athletes (M age = 24.3 years, SD = 4.2) from a variety of team and individual sports. Findings revealed that the participants maintained the intensity of their anxiety response prior to competition and could deploy goal-setting, imagery, or self-talk to enable facilitative interpretations of anxiety-related symptoms to performance. Higher levels of self-confidence and an optimistic outlook toward forthcoming competition were also expressed. The underlying mechanisms perceived to be responsible for these effects included effort and motivation, attentional focus, and perceived control over the anxiety response.
The paper explores the temporal nature of an evolving leisure experience. A model is proposed that investigates the antecedents and consequences of attribution-dependent emotions in the performance context of a live sporting event. Attribution-dependent emotions are those arising in response to the praiseworthy and blameworthy actions of the performers charged with delivering a performance. Antecedents of attribution-dependent affect include goal relevance and affective expectations. Consequences of attribution-dependent affect include spectators' satisfaction with the quality of the performance and their perceptions of its entertainment value. Performance satisfaction and goal relevance predict optimism about the team's chances in future games.
The study combines disparate streams of research in order to develop a model of devoted fan behavior. The theoretical foundations for this study are based on literature examining social identity theory, involvement, attachment and satisfaction. A model of the factors that influence fan identity salience and attendance is developed and tested. First, the factors that influence fan identity salience and sporting event attendance are discussed and an integrated model is developed. Second, the proposed model is tested using a sample of college students. Third, the implications of the findings are discussed. The findings suggest that identity salience is an important factor in explaining fan-related behavior.
We examined the influence of vicarious achievement and team identification on BIRGing and CORFing behavior. We tested three different models (direct effects, partially mediated, and fully mediated) across two different situations: BIRGing with the winning team and (X)RFing with the losing team. Data were collected from 246 students. The fully mediated model fit best in the BIRGing situation and the partially mediated model fit best in the CXlRFini; situation. We found that vicarious achievement explained 12.7% to 16.9% of the variance in team identification across sit-uations. Vicarious achievement explained approxi-mately 17".b of the variance in t^ORFing behavior, but none in BIRGing. Team identification explained 30% oí the variance in GORFing behavior and 41% in BIRGing. It is critical for sport teams to develop a high level of identification in their spectators. High identifi-cation makes it less likely that people will CORF and more likely that people will BIRG.
Research shows that the frequency of magical thinking and superstitious behavior increases under conditions of stress. A possible explanation for this finding is that stress reduces the individual’s sense of control and that to regain control she or he engages in magical rituals or superstitions. This study tested the validity of this explanation. To this end, the effects of stress on the frequency of superstitious behavior in individuals with high and low desire for control (DC) were examined. The Desirability of Control Scale was administered to 108 participants, half of whom were exposed to low-stress conditions and half to high-stress conditions. They were interviewed and asked questions designed to elicit a “knock on wood” ritual. It was found that the difference in the number of knocks on wood between high-DC and low-DC individuals was greater in the high-stress than in the low-stress condition. Similar findings emerged when the degree of the need to knock on wood, as reported by the participants, was used as a dependent variable.
Two studies examined the allegiance bias - the rendering of biased predictions by individuals who are psychologically invested in a desired outcome. In Study 1, fans of either Notre Dame or University of Miami college football read information about an upcoming game between the two teams and then explained a hypothetical victory either by Notre Dame or Miami. Although explaining a hypothetical victory biased the judgments of controls (i.e., fans of neither team) in the direction of the team explained, the judgments of Notre Dame and Miami fans favored their team in every explanation condition. In addition, fans exhibited biased recall for facts favoring their own teams and this biased recall predicted fans' judgments regarding the upcoming game. Study 2 attempted to specify a debiasing technique that might attenuate the allegiance bias. Indiana University basketball fans described what they thought might happen in an upcoming game between Indiana and the University of Michigan while anticipating having a discussion about the game (i.e., predecisional accountability) with either an Indiana fan, a Michigan fan, or a fan of unknown allegiance. As predicted, anticipating a discussion with a fan of unknown allegiance engendered game predictions that were the least biased in favor of an Indiana victory. Implications for social explanation and prediction research are discussed.
This study examined the effects of personality and situational differences on superstition behaviours in sports at three non-professional competition levels. The participants were 219 athletes (169 males, 50 females). We measured superstition by the number and kind of superstitious rituals (SRs), degree of superstitious feeling, and ritual commitment (RC). We used a within-group design that involved manipulating competition importance and uncertainty using scenarios to examine changes in pre-game psychological tension and RC. We found that sport superstition is positively correlated with athletic identity and pre-game psychological tension. Level of competition affects RC. RC is greater when the uncertainty and importance of the game are greater. Moreover, within-variable mediation analysis revealed that state of psychological tension mediated the effect of both uncertainty and importance on RC. Collectively, the results of the present investigation offer empirical support for Neil’s (1980) hypothesis that sport superstition acts as a “psychological placebo”.
Hypothesized that there would be a significant positive relationship between level of identification for a sports team and perceptions of the ability to influence athletic competitions within that sport. In Study 1, with 104 undergraduates, high levels of identification were related to greater perceptions of influence. In Study 2, with 156 undergraduates, high-identification fans reported an increase in pre- to postgame positive emotions following a win and an increase in negative emotions following a loss. Study 3, with 267 spectators, was used to examine possible changes in team identification as a result of competition outcome for historically successful and marginally successful teams. The results indicate that although past team success was an important predictor of identification level, levels were not affected by game outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Fan identification refers to the psychological connection that individuals have with sport teams. This study sought to determine whether fans possessing different levels of identification respond differently to the antecedents to aggressive spectator behaviors that are addressed by the theory of planned behavior. Fans of four professional sport teams (N = 231) were placed in one of three groups based on their scores for fan identification strength. Consistent with hypotheses, highly identified fans felt less control over their behavior at games than moderately identified fans and lowly identified fans. Contrary to hypotheses, however, neither attitudes towards aggression nor subjective norms on aggression differed between identification levels. Discussion centers on the relevance of the findings for the control of different types of aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the superstitious beliefs and behavior of 272 male and 257 female basketball players aged 12–22 yrs. Likert-type questions on superstitious beliefs and behavior were divided into 7 categories; clothing and appearance, fetish, pregame, game, team ritual, prayer, and coach. Results reveal little difference as to number of superstitions endorsed and degree of superstitiousness between male and female Ss. Findings contradict some previous research results. Gender differences were, however, discovered in terms of the type of superstitions to which they ascribed, differences that can, at least in part, be accounted for by differential socialization practices of males and females. (French abstract) (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book provides an overview and analysis of sport fans, examining the role played by and the impact of sport in the lives of sport fans and spectators, and the importance of sport for society at large. It also provides an understanding of the theories of fan behavior, as well as analysis of the empirical research on the emotions, thoughts, and behaviors of sport fans. Using a multidisciplinary approach, a variety of topics such as team identification, hero worship, and fan self-esteem are identified and examined. Phenomena such as the importance of attendance for communities and the impact of fans on society are also discussed. The book provides an understanding of the importance of sport for fans themselves and for society as a whole. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the athletic identity construct, defined as the degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete role, within the framework of a multidimensional self-concept. Positive and negative factors that are potentially associated with a strong athletic identity are considered. A measure of athletic identity, the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), is introduced. Data from an initial evaluation study with 243 undergraduates and 2 follow-up studies with 449 undergraduates and 90 college football players suggest that the AIMS is a reliable and valid measure of athletic identity. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The psychological construct of desirability of control was related to several theoretical statements (e.g., Kelley, 1971; White, 1959) and areas of current research (e.g., Glass & Singer, 1972; Deci, 1975) in psychology. A scale designed to measure individual differences in the general level of motivation to control the events in one''s life was presented. The Desirability of Control Scale was found to have substantial internal consistency (.80) and test-retest reliability (.75), as well as discriminant validity from measures of locus of control (Rotter, 1966) and social desirability (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). The results of an illusion of control study (cf. Langer, 1975) provided construct validation: only subjects high in the desire for control displayed a belief in personal control over chance outcomes. Construct validation was also provided from studies on learned helplessness and hypnosis. The practical, as well as theoretical, value of the instrument was discussed.
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