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Signature in the Cell: Intelligent Design and the DNA Enigma
... Researchers and experts in Biology, related to the research of protein creation, such as Stephen Meyer and Douglas Axe, [3] estimate that the probability F 1 of having a combination of amino acids that have the possibility of generating a functional protein, is approximately, ...
... It is he that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers; that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in.3 Thus saith God the Lord, he that created the heavens, and stretched them out; he that spread forth the earth, and that which cometh out of it; he that giveth breath unto the people upon it, and spirit to them that walk therein.4 ...
Independent of all human factors, such as race, nation, religion, etc., the most important question in the life of a human being associated with the fact of why our own existence and the meaning of life is whether God exists? This document presents the following evidence of the Direct Interaction of a Higher Being with Humanity, specifically with the authors of the Bible and its necessary Intelligent Influence at the Beginning of the Life, for this we are going to use Historical, Biological and Mathematical arguments that affirm the God Hypothesis as the origin of Life, the universe and its influence on Humanity.
... The second, more well-trodden route is of course Aquinas' Fifth Way to theism (Feser, 2015;Hays, 2016;Kronen & Menssen, 2012). Some argue, based on the current origin of life science, that it's more reasonable to believe life originated supernaturalistically than naturalistically (Meyer, 2009;Thaxton et al., 1992). Hugh Chandler (1993) argues for the same conclusion on philosophical grounds. ...
... 13 Behe (1996Behe ( , 2021 updates the argument to meet Darwinian challenges, suggesting we can infer some biological organisms are designed if they have several well-matched, interacting parts all of which are essential to some one function, citing inter alia the bacterial flagellum as such an "irreducibly complex" organism. Meyer (2009Meyer ( , 2021 focuses on information, understood as a complex arrangement (pattern) that has function or meaning, as the indicator of design, citing genes/gene expression, proteins, and DNA as examples where information is encoded in the natural world. If "encoded" is not taken literally, Pruss (2009) thinks there's a strong analogy here: DNA is very much like an intentionally designed computer program in that it contains bugs (genetic defects), unlike non-intentionally designed programs. ...
I survey recent and overlooked work on three of the most common and perennial arguments for theism: cosmological, ontological, and design arguments.
... "Fine tuning implies that, at the most profound level that physics has reached, the cosmos is well put together," writes Christian astronomer Luke Barnes. The entire system appears to have been well considered and was designed by someone.2 ...
Darwinism comes from the evolutionary notion, which was discovered by Charles Darwin (1731–1820), the author of the book “On the Origin of Species”. Darwinism is an all-encompassing, materialistic, and empirical- rational philosophy; it rejects all non-materialistic attributions and disavows the existence of a creator within the framework of cognition and ethics. It holds that matter is the only material principle and that this principle comprises the entire universe. The late 19th century saw the emergence of social Darwinism along with the global expansion of Western colonial dominance. In this paper we sought to test some proofs that are used to vindicate social Darwinism, and contend some of the biological justifications of morality, testing their limits and focus.
Key words
Socio-biology – Evolution – Bio-ethics - Morality
... 40 Stephen C. Meyer, director of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture and active member of the Intelligent Design movement, relies on Shannon's theory for his critiques on naturalism. 43,44 He recognizes that some sequences of characters serve a deliberate and useful purpose. Meyer says the messages with this property exhibit specified complexity, or specified information. ...
The origin of information in nature cannot be explained if matter and energy is all there is. But the many, and often contradictory, meanings of information confound a clear analysis of why this is so. In this, the first of a four-part series, the key views about information theory by leading thinkers in the creation/evolution controversy are presented. In part 2, attention is drawn to various difficulties in the existing paradigms in use. Part 3 introduces the notion of replacing Information by Coded Information System (CIS) to resolve many difficulties. Part 4 completes the theoretical backbone of CIS theory, showing how various conceptual frameworks can be integrated into this comprehensive model. The intention is to focus the discussion in the future on whether CISs can arise naturalistically.
... In 2009 philosopher of science Stephen Meyer (2010) ...
The science of Bioinformatics is relatively new. It began in the 1960s as a way to handle the massive amount of data that was beginning to be revealed in DNA. One of the critical insights that researchers discovered was that DNA contained a treasure trove of information; the programming of life. It is the thesis of this article that the encoded information in DNA is not similar to a written human language; it is a language. Just as the information conveyed in languages comes from minds, so too must the instructions programmed into DNA.
... The first is that scientific evidence strongly indicates that fitness landscapes are not "fine-tuned" in the way required by Kojonen's model. The work of ID theorists Douglas Axe, Ann Gauger, Stephen Meyer, and others is especially relevant in this regard (Axe 2000(Axe , 2004(Axe , 2016Meyer 2009Meyer , 2013Meyer , 2021Gauger et al. 2010;Gauger and Axe 2011;Reeves et al. 2014). We will analyze this research (and Kojonen's response) in the next section. ...
A longstanding question in science and religion is whether standard evolutionary models are compatible with the claim that the world was designed. In The Compatibility of Evolution and Design, theologian E. V. Rope Kojonen constructs a powerful argument that not only are evolution and design compatible, but that evolutionary processes (and biological data) strongly point to design. Yet Kojonen’s model faces several difficulties, each of which raise hurdles for his understanding of how evolution and design can be harmonized. First, his argument for design (and its compatibility with evolution) relies upon a particular view of nature in which fitness landscapes are “fine-tuned” to allow proteins to evolve from one form to another by mutation and selection. But biological data run contrary to this claim, which poses a problem for Kojonen’s design argument (and, as such, his attempt to harmonize design with evolution). Second, Kojonen appeals to the bacterial flagellum to strengthen his case for design, yet the type of design in the flagellum is incompatible with mainstream evolutionary theory, which (again) damages his reconciliation of design with evolution. Third, Kojonen regards convergent evolution as notable positive evidence in favor of his model (including his version of design), yet convergent evolution actually harms the justification of common ancestry, which Kojonen also accepts. This, too, mars his reconciliation of design and evolution. Finally, Kojonen’s model damages the epistemology that undergirds his own design argument as well as the design intuitions of everyday “theists on the street”, whom he seeks to defend. Thus, despite the remarkable depth, nuance, and erudition of Kojonen’s account, it does not offer a convincing reconciliation of ‘design’ and ‘evolution’.
... Есть, однако, целый ряд эмпирических данных, которые теория неодарвинизма не может внятно объяснить (Wells, 2002). Пожалуй, наиболее систематически неодарвинизм атакуют приверженцы теории разумного дизайна (РД) (Axe, 2017;Behe, 2006Behe, , 2019Meyer, 2010). ...
What is the meaning of life? What is the nature of the human mind, love, morality? All of these questions tend to be answered and explained in "natural science" terms. Life arose out of inanimate nature by random physical and chemical factors and one should hardly look for any sense in it; man is the product of natural selection and reason, love and morality, are the result of chemical and electrical processes in the brain. Since these questions are among the most important for human beings, due to the unquestionable authority of the natural sciences, the proposed answers can and already do have a major impact on all areas of human life, from economics and politics to mental health and the subjective well-being of the individual. Does this perception of the world and one's place in it make one happy? Sociological studies clearly say no. Adherents of this worldview, however, argue that no matter how unpleasant it may seem, one should have the courage to accept it, because it is consistent with the scientific evidence. But is this true? Does the modern scientific picture of the world really allow for all these far-reaching conclusions? People who are professionally involved in science know that it almost never provides answers to worldview questions. All empirical facts and scientific theories can be interpreted in different ways and the choice of one interpretation or another is largely determined by one's worldview position, not vice versa. Although the book is called "Worldview Problems of Neuroscience", and most of it is indeed devoted to neuroscientific problems and their philosophical interpretation, it deals with a wider range of questions, which form the basis of the worldview of most modern people. Author tries to understand whether the reductionist materialistic worldview that dominates today, especially in the neurosciences, is really capable of plausibly explaining the current evidence about the nature of the relationship between mental processes and the physical world. The book concludes by outlining modern philosophical positions alternative to orthodox physicalism and tries to summarize them in a unified system.
... 'Geocentrism' and 'flateartherism', for example, are two marginal positions that tend to be used for polemical purposes in public debate that go beyond what is generally associated with creationism. Often aligned, too, is intelligent design (Behe, 2006;Meyer, 2010), which holds that certain biological structures are best explained by a designing intelligence. This position is, however, distinguishable by the fact that it is removed from the central creationist principles of Biblical hermeneutics. ...
... Cells are the structural and functional units that make up all living creatures and contain information about their composition [1][2][3]. Previous studies on cell growth, metabolism, and death have provided many clues to various research fields including disease treatment [4][5][6], early diagnosis [7][8][9][10], and drug development [11][12][13][14]. As an example, cell death assay studies have been used as early indicators of several incurable diseases such as cancer [8][9][10]15,16], and Alzheimer's disease [7,17,18]. ...
Dynamic full-field optical coherence microscopy (DFFOCM) was used to characterize the intracellular dynamic activities and cytoskeleton of HeLa cells in different viability states. HeLa cell samples were continuously monitored for 24 hours and compared with histological examination to confirm the cell viability states. The averaged mean frequency and magnitude observed in healthy cells were 4.79±0.5 Hz and 2.44±1.06, respectively. In dead cells, the averaged mean frequency was shifted to 8.57±0.71 Hz, whereas the magnitude was significantly decreased to 0.53±0.25. This cell dynamic activity analysis using DFFOCM is expected to replace conventional time-consuming and biopsies-required histological or biochemical methods.
... Thus, Neo-Darwinian evolution is a weaker explanation than an intelligent designer. For the sake of simplicity, only Behe's argument will be reviewed here, but the reader can refer to the references to follow up on Dembski's and others' thoughts (Johnson 1993;Johnson 1995;Johnson 1997;Johnson 2000;Wells 2000;Wells 2006;Meyers 2009;Berlinski 2010;Wells 2011, Meyers 2013Denton 2016;Wells 2017). ...
This book attempts to equip the reader with a holistic and accessible account of Islam and evolution. It guides the reader through the different variables that have played a part in the ongoing dialogue between Muslim creationists and evolutionists.
This work views the discussion through the lens of al-Ghazālī (1058-1111), a widely-known and well-respected Islamic intellectual from the medieval period. By understanding al-Ghazālī as an Ash’arite theologian, a particular strand of Sunni theology, his metaphysical and hermeneutic ideas are taken to explore if and how much Neo-Darwinian evolution can be accepted. It is shown that his ideas can be used to reach an alignment between Islam and Neo-Darwinian evolution.
This book offers a detailed examination that seeks to offer clarity if not agreement in the midst of an intense intellectual conflict and polarity amongst Muslims. As such, it will be of great interest to scholars of Science and Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion, Islamic Studies, and Religious Studies more generally.
... Such conceptions also support a description of evolution as a purposeful, divinely guided process. And so the Intelligent Design version of creationism, for example, can position itself as a reasonable point of view that accepts much of evolution, especially if it is presented as an explanation for the origin of life or the sources of biological information (Meyer 2009). Indeed, in Turkey, variants of Intelligent Design often represent a compromise position. ...
Islamic creationism has been very successful in Turkey, finding official as well as grassroots support in an environment shaped by neoliberal Islamism. Opposition to evolution has many local, Turkish and Islamic political rationales. However, as comparison with creationism in the United States demonstrates, creationism also draws political sustenance from a more universal rhetoric of modern conservatism, emphasizing markets, organic communities, and a pragmatic view of science as infrastructure for business and technology.
... According to this view, there is no such thing as a special divine revelation since that would entail that God can actually intervene in the world, an idea that is already taken as "psychologically jarring to the majority of theists [at that time]." 23 It is apparent at this point that pure naturalism and non-supernaturalism, has succeeded to become the rule of the day. While many scientists remained believers in God, they saw God only as a First Cause, the Author of nature's laws but other than that, God has no scientific role to play. ...
In this paper, I call into question a commonly assumed principle in science known as methodological naturalism, which is the idea that science should only accept natural, as opposed to supernatural, explanations. In support of MN, two arguments are commonly thrown against the idea of theistic explanation in science: the science stopper argument and the God-of-the-gaps argument. The science stopper argument states that appealing to theistic explanations hinders science from making steady progress; it simply stops science from its tracks. In other words, abandoning MN spells the death of science. The God-of-the-gaps argument states that appealing to God when explaining phenomenon is a form of an argument from ignorance, what critics call God-of-the-gaps thinking, which is considered to be fallacious reasoning. Any gap in nature that is explained by God, so the argument goes, is simply an appeal to our ignorance that we have no yet found the correct explanation to such natural mystery. In this scenario, an appeal to God is assumed to simply show our lack of knowledge with regard to the workings of nature. After introducing these arguments, I assess their strength by looking at the history of methodological naturalism. I then show how the history of science does not only fail to support these arguments but actually refutes them.
The ongoing debate between phenomenology and reductionism in scientific discourse provides critical insights into the nature of scientific inquiry and explanation. Phenomenology emphasizes the detailed description and empirical observation of phenomena as they appear, focusing on the richness and context of biological complexity. In contrast, reductionism seeks to understand complex systems by breaking them down into their fundamental components and elucidating the mechanisms that govern their interactions. This paper explores how these contrasting approaches treat the concept of Intelligent Design (ID), which posits that certain features of the universe and living organisms are best explained by an intelligent cause rather than undirected processes. By comparing phenomenology's descriptive richness with reductionism's mechanistic detail, we aim to shed light on the strengths and limitations of each approach in addressing the ID debate. This analysis not only enhances our understanding of the methodologies used in science but also informs the broader philosophical and methodological implications for scientific research and education.
Keywords: phenomenology, reductionism, Intelligent Design, scientific inquiry, biological complexity, empirical observation, mechanistic explanation, scientific discourse, philosophy of science, interdisciplinary research.
Note: Verbatim GPT-4o.
This paper presents a revolutionary framework that aims to scientifically prove the existence of God by integrating multidisciplinary fields such as metaphysics, theology, and physics. Unlike traditional arguments which rely on purely philosophical or empirical grounds, this framework uses a mathematical formulation G = K ∪ L , where G represents God, K represents knowledge or epistemology, and L represents logic. The framework introduces a function Φ(G , E) that maps the existence and nature of God to metaphysical concepts, suggesting that physical reality emerges from the integration of knowledge, logic, and divine intelligence over time. By providing a coherent and unified system that integrates diverse arguments and evidence, this framework paves the way for a novel and scientifically grounded understanding of the divine, potentially transforming discourse on the existence of God.
Esta pesquisa intentou investigar quais limites e possibilidades se apresentariam quanto à compreensão da Natureza da Ciência (NdC), em discussões envolvendo a Teoria do Design Inteligente (TDI) protagonizadas por professores que atuam numa licenciatura em Ciências e Matemática. Para tanto, tomamos por referencial teórico princípios da Teoria da Ação Comunicativa, de Jürgen Habermas. Realizamos uma pesquisa de ordem qualitativa, cuja metodologia se aproxima da investigação-ação. Dentre os principais resultados, os docentes identificaram que a TDI faz proposições que podem servir de mote para discussões sobre o papel do naturalismo metodológico na ciência e assim contribuir para reflexões sobre a Natureza da Ciência. Contudo, foi apontado também que a utilização de tal teoria, devido à polêmica que a envolve, poderia provocar uma indesejável banalização, por parte da consciência pública, acerca da fundamentação do conhecimento científico.
According to intelligent design theory, certain biological and cosmic phenomena were designed by an intelligent being, which could be just as well natural and supernatural. This design is to be scientifically detectable in basically similar fashion as in the case of the effects of the purposeful activity of man. However, critics pose an objection that unscientific character of this theory is discernible in that it is not useful for science because it does not inspire new scientific research and thus it is stopping the progress of science. It is claimed that this theory could easily explain any phenomenon, referring to the category of „intelligent design”, and in this case the word „explanation” has ironic overtone. It is indicated also that proponents of intelligent design theory do not publish the results of their research in renowned scientific journals. This objection could be answered in twofold way: methodological and sociological in character. According to the first answer, science does not depend solely on inspiring new research but also on offering a new view of the known facts, and the design conclusion could be made and justified independently of whether it enables to gain knowledge of its maker or method of its accomplishment. The second answer is that development of novel theories is in large degree hampered by the resistance of the defenders of an orthodox theory, and of established understanding of science, who basically do not display tolerance for revolutionary theories. The mechanisms such as the procedure of reviewing of articles or financing of research projects system, controlled by the defenders of status quo, are of great importance in that case. The chances to receive the grants which could facilitate and accelerate the development of a new, going against the status quo theory, as well as to publish articles inspired by this theory in recognized scientific journals are minuscule, and the change of such situation requires the change of the preference pattern in the world of science.
Este estudo tem o objetivo de investigar, de um lado, os componentes conceptuais nas bases de diferentes concepções de evolução relativas a territórios discursivos diversos e, de outro, eventuais pontos de incompatibilidade entre esses componentes. Ancorado nos conceitos de metáfora (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2002 [1980]) e de conflito cognitivo (REDDY, 2000 [1979]), procede-se à identificação de expressões metafóricas (STEEN et al., 2010), bem como das respectivas metáforas conceptuais (STEEN, 2011), em dois corpora: um corpus informado, composto pelas entradas “lamarquismo” e “darwinismo” na enciclopédia livre Wikipédia (2022); e um corpus espontâneo, que conta com quinhentas ocorrências do termo “evolução” e de formas derivadas na página do Corpus do Português (DAVIES, 2016) na internet. Os principais resultados mostram que as metáforas PROCESSO É TRAJETÓRIA e MODIFICAÇÃO É DESLOCAMENTO, que conceptualizam, respectivamente a evolução em termos de uma viagem e alterações no meio em termos de desvios na jornada ‒, são pontos de consonância tanto entre as duas explicações científicas abordadas no estudo quanto entre essas teorias e os usos espontâneos do termo “evolução”. O mesmo não se verifica no caso do mapeamento PROPÓSITO É DESTINO, segundo o qual os objetivos das alterações ao longo da evolução seriam entendidos como sendo o local de chegada da viagem. Enquanto se mostra coerente com tanto a visão lamarquiana quanto os usos espontâneos de “evolução”, essa metáfora gera conflito com os componentes conceptuais que sustentam o darwinismo, explicação mais rigorosamente aceita entre comunidades científicas e acadêmicas hoje.
Darwin se evolusieteorie wat in die 18e eeu gepubliseer is, was 'n elegante, sinvolle en logiese verklaring van waangenome data. Hierdie teorie is deur die destydse wetenskaplike gemeenskap aangegryp, omdat dit vir die eerste keer 'n alternatief gebied het vir die skeppingsverhaal in die Bybel. Voorstanders van die teorie was oortuig daarvan dat die ontstaan en verskeidenheid van lewe op aarde volledig deur evolusie en natuurlike seleksie verklaar kon word. Die evolusieteorie het mettertyd normatiewe status verwerf, wat daartoe gelei het dat die totaliteit van die menslike kennis deur 'n filter van ewekansige toeval geïnterpreteer is. Teenstanders van hierdie materialistiese praktyk is in baie gevalle gebrandmerk as randfigure. Sedertdien het die natuurwetenskap en die tegnologie egter dramaties ontwikkel en nuwe waarnemings op die makro-, sowel as op die mikrovlak, het gelei tot 'n groeiende aantal vrae wat nie deur 'n onbegeleide, willekeurige meganisme verklaar kan word nie. In hierdie artikel (die eerste van vier artikels oor hierdie onderwerp) word enkele voor-beelde van sodanige empiriese gegewens voorgehou. Die sentrale teoretiese uitgangspunt is dat kontemporêre waarnemings in alle dissiplines van die natuurwetenskap, die beste verklaar word deur die bestaan en betrokkenheid van God in die skepping. Akademiese integriteit verg dat daar afgewyk moet word van 'n normatiewe materialisme (wat by voorbaat enige metafisiese interpretasies uitsluit), wat tans nog wyd aangehang word. Die outeurs se vertrekpunt is 'n Reformatoriese4 verstaan van die werklikheid. Die vier artikels het almal dieselfde struktuur, naamlik 'n probleemstelling, 'n natuurwetenskaplike bespreking, 'n verkenning oor watter inligting die Bybel oor die verskillende onderwerpe aanbied, afgesluit deur 'n gevolgtrekking. Die artikelreeks is veronderstel om 'n breë, kritiese beskouing van die onderwerp van normatiewe materialisme in die natuurwetenskap te verskaf en geen nuwe navorsingsresultateper se word aangebied nie. Die insigte waartoe gekom word in die onderskeie gevolgtrekkings is egter wel uniek en die outeurs is van mening dat dit 'n bydrae lewer tot die bestaande kennis oor die verband tussen geloof en wetenskap.
Multiple viewpoints exist among Protestant Evangelical Christians regarding human origins, with each offering different answers to questions regarding the existence of Adam and Eve and their relationship to humanity, common human–ape ancestry, evolution and intelligent design, humanity’s relationship to other members of the genus Homo (e.g., Neanderthals and Denisovans), and the timing of human origins. This article will review eight models for human origins which have recently received attention: (1) the Classical Theistic Evolution/Evolutionary Creationism model, (2) the Homo divinus model, (3) the Genealogical Adam and Eve model, (4) the Homo heidelbergensis model, (5) the Unique Origins Design model, (6) the Classical Old Earth Creationist model, (7) the Classical Young Earth Creationist model, and (8) an Old Earth/Recent Humans Hybrid model. Key features of each model will be described, and critical responses will be discussed in light of agreement or disagreement with traditional Judeo-Christian theological views and the scientific evidence. Most of these models maintain that science does not force one to abandon belief in core tenets of a traditional Adam and Eve, though they resolve the relevant scientific and theological questions in different ways and with varying degrees of success.
Intelligent Design (ID) argues for the existence of a designer, postulating it as a theoretical entity of a scientific theory aiming to explain characteristics in nature that seems to show design. However, the Scientific Realism debate argues that to accept that a scientific theory is successful is not enough for asserting the existence of the entities postulated by it. Typically, theories must show successful novel predictions. Evolutionists attack ID by offering cases of bad design, like the inverted retina of vertebrates. ID defenders assert the inversion of the retina must be a detail of design for a function already unknown. Recently it has been found such a function, and ID defenders celebrate it as a triumph over evolutionists. The retina case is a good candidate for a novel prediction. In this paper, I analyze whether this is the case.
Structural biology of enzymatic catalysis posits that structure defines function. This idea is deeply rooted in the “lock-and-key” perspective of the enzyme action. Although some flexibility is accepted in the form of “induced fit” or “conformational selection,” these models do not expect excessive conformational diversity of a protein molecule. In other words, since facilitation of the formation of the transition state of the chemical reaction to be catalyzed depends on a well-organized environment in the active site of the enzyme, enzymatic catalysis is poorly compatible with structural disorder. However, there is growing evidence of the existence of catalytic disordered proteins. Furthermore, since the chance of the spontaneous emergence of a fully folded protein with fully defined catalytic function is negligible, disordered proteins acted as precursors of the modern-day enzymes. This chapter represents an overview of the molten globular enzymes and represents several illustrative examples of this important phenomenon.
In this paper, I explore scientific, philosophical, and theological concerns that arise from adopting theistic evolution understood as claiming that the origin and development of life can be entirely accounted for in terms of the operation of natural causes, without any need to posit direct divine intervention. I argue that theistic evolutionists’ commitment to methodological naturalism and their unjustified rejection of gap arguments suggests that their case is not nearly so strong as they suggest. I further argue that accepting theistic evolution most naturally leads to accepting a monistic physicalist account of the person that is at odds with theism’s understanding of human nature.
Chapter 2 describes the systems of basic science that would best fit to support the immense complexity of the mental universe. It presents some information on various systems that could qualify for the task and focuses on the model most likely able to offer ruling support to the nonlinear emergent phenomena that constitute and organize the entire biological domain, from the classical level of reality to the subatomic realm of quantum science and to the complex interactions with sociocultural collective systems.KeywordsNeural structural organizationNonlinear dynamicsPhase-spaceAttractorsDimension of creativity
Some Muslim thinkers argue against evolution using intelligent design (ID) arguments. One possible impetus for this line of reasoning is the several indications of design mentioned throughout the Qurʾān. Therefore, criticizing ID could be seen as a direct attack on the Qurʾānic outlook. However, this article will argue that this is a false equation. The Qurʾānic design argument, as articulated in the tradition of Sunnī scholastic theology (kalām), argues for the existence of a supernatural God by acknowledging natural causes that bring about designed phenomena in the universe. By contrast, Muslim thinkers who use ID to argue against evolution are arguing for the existence of a supernatural being through the supposed inability of science to explain designed phenomena through natural causes. Thus, there is a fundamental difference between the design outlook provided in the Qurʾān versus the arguments of ID. Accordingly, this article argues that critiquing ID does not undermine the design discourse of the Qurʾān.
Artykuł bada ważniejsze argumenty przeciwko naturalizmowi metodologicznemu. Argumenty te mają stanowić podstawę do uzasadnienia następujących tez. Naturalizm metodologiczny: źle wpływa na rozwój wiedzy; utrudnia współzawodnictwo w nauce; jest tylko częścią określonej tradycji, która została zabsolutyzowana; jest wyłącznie prowizoryczną zasadą; jest arbitralną i szkodliwą regułą; jest podejściem irracjonalnym; jest złą filozofią; jest ujęciem przyjmowanym bezkrytycznie. Większość antynaturalistycznych argumentów nie jest przekonująca. Jednak kilka z nich można uznać za zasadne.
Dariusz Sagan utrzymuje, że istnieją trzy możliwe epistemiczne układy odniesienia: naturalizm metodologiczny, nadnaturalizm i artyficjalizm. Pokazuję, że w polskim piśmiennictwie, odnosząc się do współczesnego pojmowania naukowości, wyróżniono więcej epistemicznych układów odniesienia. Ponadto ujęcie Sagana jest zbyt wąskie lub przedwczesne, ponieważ historia nauki nie została jeszcze zbadana pod tym względem. W opinii Sagana Jodkowski i ja posługujemy się nazwą „artyficjalizm” w sposób niejednoznaczny: traktowana jest ona jako epistemiczny układ odniesienia teorii inteligentnego projektu lub jako epistemiczny układ odniesienia nauki jako całości. Teoria inteligentnego projektu jest wzorcowym przykładem dopuszczania wyjaśnień artyficjalistycznych i stąd właśnie bierze się największa ilość odniesień do tej teorii jako przykładu akceptacji tego epistemicznego układu odniesienia. Zdaniem Sagana przypisywanie epistemicznym układom odniesienia tak zwanych „twardych jąder”, jak czynię to ja, jest błędem. Nie jest to błąd, tylko efekt rozpoznanego od dawna w filozofii nauki faktu występowania nierozerwalnego związku między akceptowanymi założeniami metodologicznymi i akceptowaną metafizyką.
W artykule omówiono koncepcję „podpisu w komórce” rozwijaną w ramach teorii inteligentnego projektu przez Stephena C. Meyera. Meyer argumentuje, że jedynym adekwatnym wyjaśnieniem pochodzenia informacji genetycznej jest działanie przyczyny inteligentnej. Tym samym łamie obecnie podstawową zasadę nauk przyrodniczych — zasadę naturalizmu metodologicznego nakazującą szukanie wyjaśnień zjawisk przyrodniczych wyłącznie w naturalnym funkcjonowaniu świata. Meyer za podstawową regułę wyjaśniania w naukach przyrodniczych przyjął natomiast spełnienie kryterium adekwatności przyczynowej. W ten sposób stara się wprowadzić swoją koncepcję w krąg dopuszczalnych w nauce wyjaśnień. Operacja ta wiąże się jednak z głęboką zmianą podstaw filozoficznych nauki.
Artykuł wskazuje na związki między problematyką interteoretycznej niewspółmierności a kontrowersją kumulatywizm-antykumulatywizm. Wyjaśnia też, na czym polega niewspółmierność teorii naukowych i pokazuje, że nazwa „niewspółmierność” nie ma ostrego znaczenia w filozofii nauki. Problematyka interteoretycznej niewspółmierności doczekała się licznych opracowań. Artykuł wykorzystuje tylko jedno podejście. Podejście to z problemem nieostrości pojęcia niewspółmierności radzi sobie tak, że wyróżnia pięć płaszczyzn niewspółmierności teorii naukowych. To narzędzie intelektualne ułatwia również uchwycenie różnic między analizowanymi epistemicznymi układami odniesienia. Problematyka ta jest bardzo rozległa. Jej dokładne omówienie wykracza poza ramy jednego artykułu. Dlatego zdecydowałem, aby przedstawić ją w dwóch artykułach. W niniejszym artykule badam jedynie płaszczyznę metodologiczną niewspółmierności epistemicznych układów odniesienia. Badając tę płaszczyznę, koncentruję się na różnych standardach naukowości i kryteriach ocen wyników badań, o jakich mówią zwolennicy odmiennych epistemicznych układów odniesienia.
Artykuł dotyczy koncepcji epistemiczych układów odniesienia, sformułowanej przez Kazimierza Jodkowskiego i bardziej szczegółowo opracowanej przez Krzysztofa Kiliana. Epistemiczny układ odniesienia to założenie nakładane na całą naukę, bez którego nauki nie da się uprawiać. Określa ono, jakie rodzaje przyczyn mogą lub muszą być przywoływane w wyjaśnieniach naukowych. Wyróżniane są trzy możliwe epistemiczne układy odniesienia: naturalizm metodologiczny, nadnaturalizm i artyficjalizm. W artykule skupiam się na analizie artyficjalizmu, ponieważ Jodkowski i Kilian posługują się tym terminem w sposób niejednoznaczny: traktowany jest jako epistemiczny układ odniesienia teorii inteligentnego projektu lub jako epistemiczny układ odniesienia nauki jako całości. Wyjaśniam, jak należy prawidłowo rozumieć ten termin w odniesieniu do całej nauki, wskazując przy tym, jak naukę postrzegają główni zwolennicy artyficjalizmu, to jest teoretycy projektu. Argumentuję również, że przypisywanie epistemicznym układom odniesienia tak zwanych twardych jąder, jak czyni to Kilian, jest błędem i prowadzi do zamieszania.
Artykuł ten wyjaśnia, na czym polega światopoglądowe i ideologiczne zaangażowanie EUO. Wskazuje też na światopoglądowe i ideologiczne składniki EUO. Pokazane też zostanie, że ideologiczno-światopoglądowy konflikt między odmiennymi EUO prowadzi do, zachodzącej już, zmiany oblicza zachodniej cywilizacji. Na tym tle przedstawiony jest teizm naturalistyczny. Uprzednio omówione EUO tworzą poznawcze ramy dla uprawiania nauki. Zaś naturalistyczny teizm jest takim EUO, który tworzy również inną, specyficzną, światopoglądową ramę uprawiania nauki. Dzięki niej ma być możliwe zażegnanie kryzysu wiary wśród ludzi wykształconych, w szczególności naukowców. Kryzys ten jest następstwem niezgodności tradycyjnego teistycznego oraz współczesnego naukowego opisu świata. Teizm naturalistyczny ma być też udaną próbą obrony cywilizacji chrześcijańskiej przed próbami przekształcenia jej w cywilizację postchrześcijańską. Obrona ta odbywać ma się drogą pogodzenia obrazu świata współczesnego przyrodoznawstwa z teizmem chrześcijańskim. Zarówno zażegnanie kryzysu wiary, jak i godzenie obrazu świata przyrodoznawstwa z teistycznym obrazem świata odbywa się drogą „umiejętnego czytania” ksiąg Pisma Świętego. Zaś takie „czytanie” ma olbrzymie koszty światopoglądowe i epistemiczne.
Naturalizm metodologiczny, chociaż w sposób niejawny za sprawą wykluczenia odwołań do celowości, funkcjonuje całkowicie w zgodzie z założeniami naturalizmu ontologicznego i dlatego operuje jedynie w sferze tego, co empiryczne i naturalistyczne. Bardziej neutralna epistemologia w mniejszym stopniu opiera się na założeniach, pozwalając nauce na rozkwit bez ograniczeń narzucanych przez takie filozoficzne zobowiązanie. Zadanie oddzielenia nauki od naturalizmu metodologicznego wymaga porzucenia idei, że struktura wiedzy, czy też uzasadnione przekonanie, nie potrzebuje żadnego epistemicznego fundamentu i że uzasadnianie inferencyjne ma w nauce zdecydowanie wyższy status poznawczy niż uzasadnianie nieinferencyjne. W moim przekonaniu odwieczny problem nauki, a tym samym kryterium demarkacji, wiąże się z dwoma kwestiami. Po pierwsze, zakłada się, że tylko wiedza zdobywana inferencyjnie jest prawdziwie uzasadniona i, po drugie, że teorie muszą być — co najmniej — teoretycznie falsyfikowalne. W tym artykule zamierzam zaproponować kryterium demarkacji nauki pełniące praktyczną i heurystyczną rolę jako bodziec rozwoju nauki. Moja propozycja nie zakłada odgórnie mocy przyczynowej przypadku i konieczności, lecz zmusza naukowca do uznania ontologicznych cech przyrody i przyjęcia, że kwestia przyczynowości jest całkowicie otwarta. W ten sposób propozycja ta unika problemów, jakie na naukę nieubłaganie sprowadza naturalizm ontologiczny, a także jego wierny sprzymierzeniec — naturalizm metodologiczny.
Ewolucja darwinowska nie jest synonimem zmiany, lecz wyjątkowym procesem biologicznym. Biochemiczny mechanizm ewolucji jest inny niż wynikało to z obserwacji Darwina dotyczących dziedzicznej zmienności i doboru naturalnego. Kluczem do ewolucji biologicznej jest ścisły związek między dziedziczonym genotypem a zależnym od genów fenotypem. Dzięki temu związkowi fenotyp może stanowić przedmiot selekcji. Jest teoretycznie możliwe, by pewne formy życia nie podlegały ewolucji. Pochodzenie życia i pochodzenie ewolucji to dwa odrębne problemy badawcze. Klasyczny problem teleologii w biologii da się rozwiązać dzięki starannemu zbadaniu mechanizmu odpowiadającego za związek między genotypem a fenotypem, czyli mechanizmu syntezy białek lub systemu translacji. Ten mechanizm przekształcania chemii kwasów nukleinowych w chemię białek może stanowić fundamentalne źródło teleonomii i wewnętrznej teleologii w organizmach żywych.
Before being able to understand the claim that design arguments and evolution must be opposed, we must first understand how design arguments work in the first place. This chapter examines the debate between those who hold that philosophical considerations are sufficient to undermine the biological design argument, and those who hold that belief in biological design was the most rational position before the Darwinian revolution. The idea of personal explanation, the nature of teleology, and the relationship between Thomistic and modern design arguments are also considered, and the conclusion is that the philosophical objections to the design argument are not yet sufficient for rejecting the argument.
Some features within the physical universe appear to be so well-ordered that they have been regarded as evidence of the existence of a supernatural being who has designed them. This history of the so-called design argument is millennia-long, and various formulations of the argument have been presented. In this paper, I explore one contemporary version of the design argument proposed by the Intelligent Design movement, and analyze its advantages and disadvantages in comparison to one of the most famous classical versions of the argument.
This essay offers some context to this Supplement edition of Theofilos, which presents peer reviewed papers resulting from the 2018 NLA Gimlekollen Symposium on the theme of ‘Science, Natural Theology, and Christian Apologetics’. I review something of the history of natural theology and of natural philosophy (i.e. science), discuss objections to natural theology from theological and philosophical critics, review some key developments within the field of natural theology (especially as it relates to science), and end with some advice on natural theology and Christian apologetics in an age of science.
There are two ways of approaching an ontological debate: ontological realism recommends that metaphysicians seek to discover deep ontological facts of the matter, while ontological anti-realism denies that there are such facts; both views sometimes run into difficulties. This paper suggests an approach to ontology that begins with conceptual analysis and takes the results of that analysis as a guide for which metaontological view to hold. It is argued that in some cases, the functions for which we employ a part of our conceptual scheme might give us reasons to posit ontological facts regarding certain objects. The proposed approach recommends ontological realism about an object just in case our conceptual scheme gives us reason to. This yields a mixed overall metaontological view that adopts ontological realism to some issues and ontological anti-realism to others, and that avoids the difficulties that typically arise for the two views.
Although many believe that modern evolutionary biology renders teleology superfluous, this article explores the recent resurgence of attempts to locate teleology, functions, and purpose in the nature of organisms. This essay further explores the relevance of teleology within Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox traditions, and the ways in which some theological doctrines have been construed against a teleological conception of both humanity and the wider cosmos. It also defends the reality of intrinsic teleology against an evolutionary‐reductionist accommodation strategy, and responds to the accusation that a theological affirmation of purpose within biological organisms entails the thorny position of intelligent design.
In a document penned under the direction of its then-president Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, the Vatican’s International Theological Commission observed that many neo-Darwinian materialists and their Christian critics share a misunderstanding of the nature of divine causality. This article explores the thought of Joseph Ratzinger in view of proposing the features of a path that seeks to eschew these faulty understandings of how God causes evolutionary change within our world, thus providing an alternative to the Intelligent Design movement’s approach to creation. . Ratzinger has a deep respect for the integrity of nature, rejecting the notion that God is a “craftsman” who “tinkers” with the world. According to Ratzinger, evolutionary change occurs “precisely in the processes of a living being” even as human beings are “not the mere product of development.” Finally, the emeritus pontiff insists that creation is an ever-present act that unfolds “in the manner in which thought is creative,” a dynamic that he describes variously as a story, drama, melody, and symphony. Wedding these and other key insights, this article submits that Ratzinger’s thought on evolution should lead us to conceive of creation less along the lines of an intelligently designed machine and more as a masterpiece story that is continually being told as its plot unfolds naturally over the course of time.
This is the first collection focusing on knowledge socialism, a particularly apt term used to describe a Chinese socialist mode of production and socialist approach to development and modernity based around the rise of peer production, new forms of collaboration and collective intelligence. Making the case for knowledge socialism, the book is intended for students, teacher, scholars and policy theorists in the field of knowledge economy.
This paper starts by considering twentieth century attacks of the idea of the public good from liberal quarters: from social choice theory; public choice theory; and from political liberalism, with reference to Kenneth Arrow, James Buchanan, Joseph Schumpeter and John Rawls. Despite a prolonged attack against ideas of the good from liberal economists and political thinkers, spanning the period from the 1930s to the end of the twentieth century, I argue that the concept of public good needs rehabilitating as a political concept. The concept of ‘self-interest’ that guided the liberal economists, and the ontology of individualism that underpinned Rawls’s writings, have not proved adequate to understanding politics and the logic of collective action in terms of which politics necessarily operates. My answer will not seek to provide a modification or revision of the liberal views, or of utilitarianism, but will proffer a new normative theory which I will claim is necessary in the current age to guide politics. I argue that new models of science which gained ascendancy from the start of the twentieth century, as well as poststructuralist ideas can assist a reconceptualization of the idea of public good to guide politics, accommodate liberty and diversity, and overcome liberal objections.
This chapter begins with a democratic socialist critique of the mainstream neoclassical reading of Hardin’s famous tale of the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Then, it considers the neoliberal-led commodification of academic knowledge and counter projects of the ‘Public Digital University’ and ‘knowledge socialism’ as a springboard for examining the broader context of the neoliberal-led commodification of the immaterial world and resulting unstable and unsustainable societal outcomes. Discussion concentrates first on political and economic consequences of privatised regulation of the global information commons that I examine in relation to the democratic ideal of a well-formed global virtual civil society. Following on, this chapter turns to examine globally unstable economic effects of capitalism’s uneven development and the limitations of existing socialist critiques. The final section links ‘cosmopolitan democracy’ with a ‘world knowledge bank’ as key features of a democratic socialist alternative to the neoliberal model of development.
Atheistic natural scientists propagate a normative materialistic view of the universe, where God as creator is superfluous. Much effort is being expended to bring into disrepute any notion of extraneous control over the laws of nature. The idea of the universe and everything in it as an ongoing ‘cosmic accident’ is presented as the only truth. This is in stark contrast to recent scientific discoveries in disciplines such as biochemistry and palaeontology. In this article, the most recent developments in the fields of intelligent design and the anthropic principle will be interrogated to demonstrate that the reformed faith in God as Creator is credible and that the notion of creation as God’s general revelation to humankind is increasingly being accepted by the natural scientific community.
The RNA world hypothesis regarding the early evolution of life relies on the premise that some RNA sequences can catalyze
RNA replication. In support of this conjecture, we describe here an RNA molecule that catalyzes the type of polymerization
needed for RNA replication. The ribozyme uses nucleoside triphosphates and the coding information of an RNA template to extend
an RNA primer by the successive addition of up to 14 nucleotides—more than a complete turn of an RNA helix. Its polymerization
activity is general in terms of the sequence and the length of the primer and template RNAs, provided that the 3′ terminus
of the primer pairs with the template. Its polymerization is also quite accurate: when primers extended by 11 nucleotides
were cloned and sequenced, 1088 of 1100 sequenced nucleotides matched the template.
Background:
The origin of the translation system is, arguably, the central and the hardest problem in the study of the origin of life, and one of the hardest in all evolutionary biology. The problem has a clear catch-22 aspect: high translation fidelity hardly can be achieved without a complex, highly evolved set of RNAs and proteins but an elaborate protein machinery could not evolve without an accurate translation system. The origin of the genetic code and whether it evolved on the basis of a stereochemical correspondence between amino acids and their cognate codons (or anticodons), through selectional optimization of the code vocabulary, as a "frozen accident" or via a combination of all these routes is another wide open problem despite extensive theoretical and experimental studies. Here we combine the results of comparative genomics of translation system components, data on interaction of amino acids with their cognate codons and anticodons, and data on catalytic activities of ribozymes to develop conceptual models for the origins of the translation system and the genetic code.
Results:
Our main guide in constructing the models is the Darwinian Continuity Principle whereby a scenario for the evolution of a complex system must consist of plausible elementary steps, each conferring a distinct advantage on the evolving ensemble of genetic elements. Evolution of the translation system is envisaged to occur in a compartmentalized ensemble of replicating, co-selected RNA segments, i.e., in a RNA World containing ribozymes with versatile activities. Since evolution has no foresight, the translation system could not evolve in the RNA World as the result of selection for protein synthesis and must have been a by-product of evolution drive by selection for another function, i.e., the translation system evolved via the exaptation route. It is proposed that the evolutionary process that eventually led to the emergence of translation started with the selection for ribozymes binding abiogenic amino acids that stimulated ribozyme-catalyzed reactions. The proposed scenario for the evolution of translation consists of the following steps: binding of amino acids to a ribozyme resulting in an enhancement of its catalytic activity; evolution of the amino-acid-stimulated ribozyme into a peptide ligase (predecessor of the large ribosomal subunit) yielding, initially, a unique peptide activating the original ribozyme and, possibly, other ribozymes in the ensemble; evolution of self-charging proto-tRNAs that were selected, initially, for accumulation of amino acids, and subsequently, for delivery of amino acids to the peptide ligase; joining of the peptide ligase with a distinct RNA molecule (predecessor of the small ribosomal subunit) carrying a built-in template for more efficient, complementary binding of charged proto-tRNAs; evolution of the ability of the peptide ligase to assemble peptides using exogenous RNAs as template for complementary binding of charged proteo-tRNAs, yielding peptides with the potential to activate different ribozymes; evolution of the translocation function of the protoribosome leading to the production of increasingly longer peptides (the first proteins), i.e., the origin of translation. The specifics of the recognition of amino acids by proto-tRNAs and the origin of the genetic code depend on whether or not there is a physical affinity between amino acids and their cognate codons or anticodons, a problem that remains unresolved.
Conclusion:
We describe a stepwise model for the origin of the translation system in the ancient RNA world such that each step confers a distinct advantage onto an ensemble of co-evolving genetic elements. Under this scenario, the primary cause for the emergence of translation was the ability of amino acids and peptides to stimulate reactions catalyzed by ribozymes. Thus, the translation system might have evolved as the result of selection for ribozymes capable of, initially, efficient amino acid binding, and subsequently, synthesis of increasingly versatile peptides. Several aspects of this scenario are amenable to experimental testing.
More than 30 years of experimentation on the origin of life in the fields of chemical and molecular evolution have led to a better perception of the immensity of the problem of the origin of life on Earth rather than to its solution. At present all discussions on principal theories and experiments in the field either end in stalemate or in a confession of ignorance. New lines of thinking and experimentation must be tried. The continued exploration of our solar system, especially a better knowledge of Mars and Venus, of comets and carbonaceous meteorites may also lead to a better understanding of the prebiotic environment on Earth and will thus help us to design more appropriate prebiotic simulation experiments.
How do we go about weighing evidence, testing hypotheses, and making inferences? According to the model of Inference to the Best Explanation, we work out what to infer from the evidence by thinking about what would actually explain that evidence, and we take the ability of a hypothesis to explain the evidence as a sign that the hypothesis is correct. In Inference to the Best Explanation, Peter Lipton gives this important and influential idea the development and assessment it deserves. The second edition has been substantially enlarged and reworked, with a new chapter on the relationship between explanation and Bayesianism, and an extension and defence of the account of contrastive explanation. It also includes an expanded defence of the claims that our inferences really are guided by diverse explanatory considerations, and that this pattern of inference can take us towards the truth. This edition of Inference to the Best Explanation has also been updated throughout and includes a new bibliography.
More than 30 years of experimentation on the origin of life in the fields of chemical and molecular evolution have led to a better perception of the immensity of the problem of the origin of life on Earth rather than to its solution. At present all discussions on principal theories and experiments in the field either end in stalemate or in a confession of ignorance. New lines of thinking and experimentation must be tried. The continued exploration of our solar system, especially a better knowledge of Mars and Venus, of comets and carbonaceous meteorites may also lead to a better understanding of the prebiotic environment on Earth and will thus help us to design more appropriate prebiotic simulation experiments.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Cambridge, 1990. Includes bibliographical references and abstract. A nineteenth century view of historical science -- A twentieth century view of historical explanation -- A twentieth century view of historical reasoning -- Hints of historical science in nineteenth century origin-of-life research -- The methodological character of the Oparin programme -- The critique of Oparin's programme as an expression of historical science.
Thèse (Ph. D.)--University of London, 1980. Réf. bibliogr. en fin de chapitres. Photocopie.
In 1830-33, Charles Lyell laid the foundations of evolutionary biology with Principles of Geology, a pioneering three-volume book that Charles Darwin took with him on the Beagle. Lyell championed the ideas of geologist James Hutton, who formulated one of the fundamental principles of modern geology - uniformitarianism. This proposed that natural processes always operate according to the same laws, allowing us to understand how features of the Earth's surface were produced by physical, chemical, and biological processes over long periods of time. Volume 1 consists of 26 chapters, a comprehensive index and woodcut illustrations of various mechanisms of geological change. Lyell begins with a definition of geology and then reviews ancient theories of the successive destruction and renovation of the world. He mentions James Hutton's ideas in chapter four, and goes on to discuss the effects of climate change, running water, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes on the Earth's crust.
A number of theories propose that RNA, or an RNA-like substance, played a role in the origin of life. Usually, such hypotheses presume that the Watson-Crick bases were readily available on prebiotic Earth, for spontaneous incorporation into a replicator. Cytosine, however, has not been reported in analyses of meteorites nor is it among the products of electric spark discharge experiments. The reported prebiotic syntheses of cytosine involve the reaction of cyanoacetylene (or its hydrolysis product, cyanoacetaldehyde), with cyanate, cyanogen, or urea. These substances undergo side reactions with common nucleophiles that appear to proceed more rapidly than cytosine formation. To favor cytosine formation, reactant concentrations are required that are implausible in a natural setting. Furthermore, cytosine is consumed by deamination (the half-life for deamination at 25 degrees C is approximately 340 yr) and other reactions. No reactions have been described thus far that would produce cytosine, even in a specialized local setting, at a rate sufficient to compensate for its decomposition. On the basis of this evidence, it appears quite unlikely that cytosine played a role in the origin of life. Theories that involve replicators that function without the Watson-Crick pairs, or no replicator at all, remain as viable alternatives.
The discovery of the structure of DNA transformed biology profoundly, catalysing the sequencing of the human genome and engendering a new view of biology as an information science. Two features of DNA structure account for much of its remarkable impact on science: its digital nature and its complementarity, whereby one strand of the helix binds perfectly with its partner. DNA has two types of digital information--the genes that encode proteins, which are the molecular machines of life, and the gene regulatory networks that specify the behaviour of the genes.
Satisfactory explanation of the past is possible even when prediction of the future is impossible.
Darwin's greatest contribution to science is that he completed the Copernican Revolution by drawing out for biology the notion of nature as a system of matter in motion governed by natural laws. With Darwin's discovery of natural selection, the origin and adaptations of organisms were brought into the realm of science. The adaptive features of organisms could now be explained, like the phenomena of the inanimate world, as the result of natural processes, without recourse to an Intelligent Designer. The Copernican and the Darwinian Revolutions may be seen as the two stages of the one Scientific Revolution. They jointly ushered in the beginning of science in the modern sense of the word: explanation through natural laws. Darwin's theory of natural selection accounts for the "design" of organisms, and for their wondrous diversity, as the result of natural processes, the gradual accumulation of spontaneously arisen variations (mutations) sorted out by natural selection. Which characteristics will be selected depends on which variations happen to be present at a given time in a given place. This in turn depends on the random process of mutation as well as on the previous history of the organisms. Mutation and selection have jointly driven the marvelous process that, starting from microscopic organisms, has yielded orchids, birds, and humans. The theory of evolution conveys chance and necessity, randomness and determinism, jointly enmeshed in the stuff of life. This was Darwin's fundamental discovery, that there is a process that is creative, although not conscious.
Thermodynamics of Evolution
- Prigogine
The Vera Causa Principle: A Historico-Philosophical Study of a Meta-theoretical Concept from Newton through Darwin
- V Kavalovski